Water buffalo

{{Short description|Species of large bovine}} {{good article}} {{About|the domesticated water buffalo|its endangered wild ancestor|Wild water buffalo|the wild African species|African buffalo|other uses|Water buffalo (disambiguation)}} {{Use dmy dates|date=April 2020}} {{Speciesbox | name = Water buffalo | taxon = Bubalus bubalis | authority = (Linnaeus, 1758) | image = Water buffalo at Rinca.jpg | image_caption = Water buffalo at Rinca Island, Indonesia | status = DOM | range_map = 2004buffalo.PNG | range_map_caption = Global distribution of the water buffalo in 2004 | synonyms = ''Bos bubalis'' {{small|Linnaeus, 1758}} }}

The '''water buffalo''' ('''''Bubalus bubalis'''''), also called '''domestic water buffalo''', '''Asian water buffalo''', and '''Asiatic water buffalo''', is a large domesticated bovine originating in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia descended from the wild water buffalo. Today, it is also kept in regions including Italy, the Balkans, Australia, the Americas, and parts of Africa.<ref name=Cockrill1977>{{cite book |last=Cockrill |first=W. Ross |year=1977 |url=http://www4.zetatalk.com/docs/Animal_Power/The_Water_Buffalo_1977.pdf |title=The water buffalo |series=Animal Production and Health |volume=4 |location=Rome, Italy |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130616141330/http://www4.zetatalk.com/docs/Animal_Power/The_Water_Buffalo_1977.pdf |archive-date=June 16, 2013}}</ref> Two extant types of water buffalo are recognized, based on morphological and behavioural criteria: the '''river buffalo''' of the Indian subcontinent and further west to the Balkans, Egypt, and Italy; and the '''swamp buffalo''' from Assam in the west through Southeast Asia to the Yangtze Valley of China in the east.<ref name=Cockrill1977/><ref name=Cockrill1974>{{cite book |editor=Cockrill, W. R. |year=1974 |title=The husbandry and health of the domestic buffalo |location=Rome |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization}}</ref>

The wild water buffalo (''Bubalus arnee'') is most probably the ancestor of the domestic water buffalo.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lau |first1=C. H. |last2=Drinkwater |first2=R. D. |last3=Yusoff |first3=K. |last4=Tan |first4=S. G. |last5=Hetzel |first5=D. J. S. |last6=Barker |first6=J. S. F. |title=Genetic diversity of Asian water buffalo ( Bubalus bubalis ): mitochondrial DNA D‐loop and cytochrome b sequence variation |journal=Animal Genetics |volume=29 |issue=4 |date=1998 |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2052.1998.00309.x |pages=253–264 |url=http://psasir.upm.edu.my/id/eprint/40058/1/Genetic%20diversity%20of%20Asian%20water%20buffalo%20%28Bubalus%20bubalis%29.pdf}}</ref> Results of a phylogenetic study indicate that the river-type water buffalo probably originated in western India and was domesticated about 6,300 years ago, whereas the swamp-type originated independently from Mainland Southeast Asia and was domesticated about 3,000 to 7,000 years ago.<ref name=Zhang2020/> Subsequently, the river buffalo dispersed west as far as Egypt, the Balkans, and Italy; while swamp buffalo dispersed to the rest of Southeast Asia and up to the Yangtze Valley.<ref name=Liu2004/><ref name=yang/><ref name=Zhang2020>{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Y. |last2=Colli |first2=L. |last3=Barker |first3=J. S. F. |year=2020 |title=Asian water buffalo: domestication, history and genetics |journal=Animal Genetics |volume=51 |issue=2 |pages=177–191 |doi=10.1111/age.12911 |pmid=31967365 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Water buffaloes were traded from the Indus Valley Civilisation to Mesopotamia, in modern Iraq, in 2500 BC by the Meluhhas.<ref>{{cite book |author=McIntosh, J. |year=2008 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1AJO2A-CbccC |title=The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives |publisher=ABC-Clio |location=Santa Barabara |isbn=978-1-57607-907-2}}</ref> The seal of a scribe employed by an Akkadian king shows the sacrifice of water buffaloes.<ref>{{cite web |author1=Khan, G. |author2=Church, S. K. |author3=Harding, R. |author4=Lunde, P. |author5=McIntosh, J. |author6=Stone, C. |year=2011 |title=The First Civilizations in Contact: Mesopotamia and the Indus |url=http://www.cic.ames.cam.ac.uk/pages/mcintosh.html |work=Civilizations in Contact, Faculty of Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, University of Cambridge |place=Cambridge |access-date=11 December 2014 |archive-date=3 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403235109/http://www.cic.ames.cam.ac.uk/pages/mcintosh.html }}</ref>

Water buffaloes are especially suitable for tilling rice fields, and their milk is richer in fat and protein than that of dairy cattle. A large feral population became established in northern Australia in the late 19th century, and there are smaller feral herds in several other countries.

== Taxonomy ==

thumb|Skull and horns. Scale is 15 cm. Carl Linnaeus first described the genus ''Bos'' and the water buffalo under the binomial ''Bos bubalis'' in 1758; the species was known to occur in Asia and was held as a domestic form in Italy.<ref>{{cite book |last=Linnaeus |first=Carl |author-link=Carl Linnaeus |year=1758 |chapter=''Bos Bubalis'' |title=Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis |volume=1 |location=Holmiae |publisher=Laurentii Salvii |chapter-url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/726975 |edition=10 |page=72}}</ref> Ellerman and Morrison-Scott treated the wild and domestic forms of the water buffalo as conspecifics,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ellerman |first1=J. R. |last2=Morrison-Scott |first2=T. C. S. |year=1966 |chapter=Genus ''Bubalus'' H. Smith, 1827 |title=Checklist of Palaearctic and Indian mammals 1758 to 1946 |location=London |publisher=British Museum of Natural History |chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/checklistofindia00elle#page/382/mode/2up |edition=Second |pages=383–384}}</ref> whereas others treated them as different species.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Corbet |first1=G. B. |last2=Hill |first2=J. E. |year=1987 |title=A World List of Mammalian Species |edition=Second |publisher=Natural History Museum |location=London |isbn=0-565-00988-5 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/worldlistofmamma0000corb}}</ref> The nomenclatorial treatment of the wild and domestic forms has been inconsistent and varies between authors and even within the works of single authors.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Groves, C. P. |year=1971 |url= https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/12224482 |title=Request for a declaration modifying Article 1 so as to exclude names proposed for domestic animals from Zoological Nomenclature |journal=Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature |volume=27 |pages=269–272 |doi=10.5962/bhl.part.29464 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

In March 2003, the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature achieved consistency in the naming of the wild and domestic water buffaloes by ruling that the scientific name ''Bubalus arnee'' is valid for the wild form.<ref>{{cite journal |author=International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature |year=2003 |title=Opinion 2027 (Case 3010). Usage of 17 specific names based on wild species which are predated by or contemporary with those based on domestic animals (Lepidoptera, Osteichthyes, Mammalia): conserved |journal=Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature |volume=60 |pages=81–84 |url=https://archive.org/stream/bulletinofzoolog602003int#page/80/mode/2up}}</ref> ''B. bubalis'' continues to be valid for the domestic form and applies also to feral populations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gentry |first1=Anthea |last2=Clutton-Brock |first2=Juliet |last3=Groves |first3=Colin P. |year=2004 |title=The naming of wild animal species and their domestic derivatives |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |volume=31 |issue=5 |pages=645–651 |url=http://arts.anu.edu.au/grovco/J%20Arch%20Sci.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120510102809/http://arts.anu.edu.au/grovco/J%20Arch%20Sci.pdf |archive-date=10 May 2012 |doi=10.1016/j.jas.2003.10.006 |bibcode=2004JArSc..31..645G}}</ref>

In the early 1970s, different names were proposed for the river and swamp types of water buffaloes; the river type was referred to as ''Bubalus bubalis bubalis'' {{small|(Linnaeus, 1758)}}, while the swamp type was referred to as ''Bubalus bubalis carabanensis'' {{small|(Castillo, 1971)}}. However, ''Bubalus carabanensis'' is considered a junior synonym of ''Bubalus kerabau'' {{small|(Fitzinger, 1860)}}.<ref name=Curaudeau2021>{{cite journal |last1=Curaudeau |first1=M. |last2=Rozzi |first2=R. |last3=Hassanin |first3=A. |title=The genome of the lowland anoa (''Bubalus depressicornis'') illuminates the origin of river and swamp buffalo |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |date=2021 |volume=161 |article-number=107170 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2021.107170 |pmid=33798669 |bibcode=2021MolPE.16107170C |s2cid=232772124}}</ref>

== Characteristics ==

thumb|Albino swamp buffalo in Chiang Mai province, Thailand

The skin of the river buffalo is black, but some specimens may have dark, slate-coloured skin. Swamp buffaloes have grey skin at birth, which becomes slate blue later. Albinoids are present in some populations. River buffaloes have longer faces, smaller girths, and bigger limbs than swamp buffaloes. Their dorsal ridges extend further back and taper off more gradually. Their horns grow downward and backward, then curve upward in a spiral. Swamp buffaloes are heavy-bodied and stockily built, with a short body and large belly. The forehead is flat, the eyes are prominent, the face is short, and the muzzle is wide. The neck is comparatively long, and the withers and croup are prominent. A dorsal ridge extends backward and ends abruptly just before the end of the chest. Their horns grow outward and curve in a semicircle, but always remain more or less on the plane of the forehead. The tail is short, reaching only to the hocks. The size of the body and shape of the horns may vary greatly among breeds. Height at the withers is {{convert|129|-|133|cm|in|abbr=on}} for bulls and {{convert|120|-|127|cm|in|abbr=on}} for cows, but large individuals may attain {{convert|160|cm|in|abbr=on}}. Head-lump length at maturity typically ranges from {{convert|240|-|300|cm|in|abbr=on}} with a {{convert|60|-|100|cm|in|abbr=on}} long tail.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=de Melo |first1=Breno Araújo |last2=Nascimento |first2=Isabele de Melo |last3=Santos |first3=Lays Thayse Alves dos |last4=de Lima |first4=Luciano Gomes |last5=de Araújo |first5=Filipe Chagas Teodózio |last6=Rios |first6=Raisa Rodrigues Santos |last7=Couto |first7=Alberto de Gusmão |last8=Fraga |first8=Angelina Bossi |display-authors=5 |year=2018 |title=Body morphometric measurements in Murrah crossbred buffaloes (''Bubalus bubalis'') |journal=Journal of Applied Animal Research |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=1307–1312 |doi=10.1080/09712119.2018.1502669 |s2cid=91784677 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326565364 |doi-access=free }}</ref> They range in weight from {{convert|300|-|550|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, but weights of over {{convert|1000|kg|lb|abbr=on}} have also been observed.<ref name="Cockrill1977" />

''Tedong bonga'' is a piebald water buffalo with a unique black and white coloration favoured by the Toraja of Sulawesi.<ref>Priyanto, D., Suradissastra, K. (2010). [http://peternakan.litbang.deptan.go.id/fullteks/lokakarya/lkerbau10-29.pdf ''Ko-evolusi dan Panarchy: Integrasi Ternak Kerbau dalam Sistem Sosial Etnis Toraja''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513063445/http://peternakan.litbang.deptan.go.id/fullteks/lokakarya/lkerbau10-29.pdf |date=13 May 2013 }}. Seminar dan Lokakarya Nasional Kerbau 2010</ref>

The swamp buffalo has 48 chromosomes, while the river buffalo has 50 chromosomes. The two types do not readily interbreed, but fertile offspring can occur. Water buffalo-cattle hybrids have not been observed to occur, but the embryos of such hybrids reach maturity in laboratory experiments, albeit at lower rates than non-hybrids.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kochhar |first1=H.P.S. |last2=Appa Rao |first2=K.B.C. |last3=Luciano |first3=A.M. |last4=Totey |first4=S.M. |last5=Gandolfi |first5=F. |last6=Basrur |first6=P.K. |last7=King |first7=W.A. |display-authors=5 |year=2002 |title=In vitro production of cattle-water buffalo (''Bos taurus'' - ''Bubalus bubalis'') hybrid embryos |journal=Zygote |volume=102 |issue=2 |pages=155–162 |doi=10.1017/S0967199402002216 |pmid=12056456 |s2cid=9950985 }}</ref>

The rumen of the water buffalo differs from the rumen of other ruminants.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wanapat |first1=M. |last2=Ngarmsang |first2=A. |last3=Korkhuntot |first3=S. |last4=Nontaso |first4=N. |last5=Wachirapakorn |first5=C. |last6=Beakes |first6=G. |last7=Rowlinson |first7=P. |date=2000-07-01 |title=A Comparative Study on the Rumen Microbial Population of Cattle and Swamp Buffalo Raised under Traditional Village Conditions in the Northeast of Thailand |url=https://www.animbiosci.org/upload/pdf/13-127.pdf |journal=Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences |volume=13 |issue=7 |pages=918–921 |doi=10.5713/ajas.2000.918 |issn=2765-0189 |doi-access=free}}</ref> It contains a larger population of bacteria, particularly the cellulolytic bacteria, lower protozoa, and higher fungi zoospores. In addition, higher levels of the rumen ammonia nitrogen (NH<sub>4</sub>-N) and pH have been found compared to those in cattle.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mekarn.org/procbuf/wanapat.htm |title=Swamp buffalo rumen ecology and its manipulation |last=Wanapat |first=M. |year=2001 |work=Proceedings Buffalo Workshop |access-date=19 May 2009 |archive-date=13 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713135038/http://www.mekarn.org/procbuf/wanapat.htm }}</ref>

==Ecology and behavior== River buffaloes prefer deep water. Swamp buffaloes prefer to wallow in mudholes, which they make with their horns. During wallowing, they acquire a thick coating of mud.<ref name= Cockrill1977/> Both are well-adapted to a hot and humid climate with temperatures ranging from {{convert|0|C|F|abbr=on}} in the winter to {{convert|30|C|F|abbr=on}} and greater in the summer. Water availability is important in hot climates, since they need wallows, rivers, or splashing water to assist in thermoregulation. Some water buffalo breeds are adapted to saline seaside shores and saline sandy terrain.<ref name="Borghese2005">{{cite book |last=Borghese |first=Antonio |last2=Mazzi |first2=Marco |year=2005 |chapter=Buffalo Population and Strategies in the World |pages=1–39 |editor-last=Borghese |editor-first=Antonio |url=http://www.cienciaanimal.ufpa.br/CA_selecao/M/2010/biblio/Prod/complem/Borghese_2005.pdf |title=Buffalo Production and Research |series=REU Technical Series 67. Inter-regional Cooperative Research Network on Buffalo |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization |location=Rome |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020232147/http://www.cienciaanimal.ufpa.br/CA_selecao/M/2010/biblio/Prod/complem/Borghese_2005.pdf |archive-date=20 October 2013}}</ref>

<gallery class="center" mode="nolines" widths=180 heights=180> File:Three buffaloes heads above water in Si Phan Don.jpg|Almost submerged, Laos File:Man-bathing-water-buffalo.jpg|Man bathing water buffalo File:Buffalo in dirt in Yala National Park.jpg|Wallowing in mud, Sri Lanka </gallery>

===Diet=== Green fodders are widely used for intensive milk production and for fattening. Many fodder crops are conserved as hay, chaffed, or pulped. Fodders include alfalfa, banana plants, cassava, maize, oats, and sorghum. During floods, the animals can graze under water, feeding on aquatic plants such as reeds, sedges, and species of marsh grasses. They can help to keep waterways open by eating water hyacinth.<ref name= Cockrill1977/>

===Reproduction=== thumb|upright=0.8|Calf, Laos Swamp buffaloes generally become reproductive at an older age than river breeds. Young males in Egypt, India, and Pakistan are first mated around 3.0–3.5 years of age, but in Italy, they may be used as early as 2 years of age. Successful mating behaviour may continue until the animal is 12 years or even older. A good river buffalo male can impregnate 100 females in a year. A strong seasonal influence on mating occurs. Heat stress reduces libido.<ref name= Cockrill1977/>

Although water buffaloes are polyoestrous, their reproductive efficiency shows wide variation throughout the year. The cows exhibit a distinct seasonal change in displaying oestrus, conception rate, and calving rate.<ref name=Barile2005>Barile, Vittoria Lucia (2005). "Reproductive Efficiency in Female Buffaloes". pp. 77–108 in Borghese, Antonio (ed.) [http://www.cienciaanimal.ufpa.br/CA_selecao/M/2010/biblio/Prod/complem/Borghese_2005.pdf ''Buffalo Production and Research''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020232147/http://www.cienciaanimal.ufpa.br/CA_selecao/M/2010/biblio/Prod/complem/Borghese_2005.pdf |date=20 October 2013 }}. REU Technical Series 67. Inter-regional Cooperative Research Network on Buffalo, FAO Regional Office for Europe, Rome.</ref> The age at the first oestrus of heifers varies between breeds from 13 to 33 months, but mating at the first oestrus is often infertile and usually deferred until they are 3 years old. Gestation lasts from 281 to 334 days, but most reports give a range between 300 and 320 days. Swamp buffaloes carry their calves for one or two weeks longer than river buffaloes. Finding water buffaloes that continue to work well at the age of 30 is not uncommon, and instances of a working life of 40 years have been recorded.<ref name= Cockrill1977/>

==Domestication and breeding== [[File:Murrah buffalo.JPG|thumb|left|Murrah buffalo herd at the Philippine Carabao Center]] The most probable ancestor of domesticated water buffalo is the wild water buffalo (''Bubalus arnee''), which is native to the Indian subcontinent and tropical Southeast Asia.<ref name=Groves2006>{{cite book |last=Groves |first=C. P. |chapter=Domesticated and Commensal Mammals of Austronesia and Their Histories |doi=10.22459/A.09.2006.08 |doi-access=free |pages=161–176 |year=2006 |title=The Austronesians |location=Canberra |publisher=Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University |isbn=978-0-7315-2132-6 |editor1=Bellwood, P. |editor2=Fox, J. J. |editor3=Tryon, D.}}</ref> Two types of domesticated water buffalo are recognized, based on morphological and behavioural criteria – the '''river buffalo''' (of the western Indian subcontinent and west to the Levant, the Balkans, and the Mediterranean) and the '''swamp buffalo''' (found from Assam and East India in the west, east to the Yangtze Valley of China, and south through Indochina and Southeast Asia).<ref name=Cockrill1974/>

River- and swamp-type water buffalo are believed to have been domesticated independently. Results of a phylogenetic study indicate that the river-type water buffalo probably originated in western India and was probably domesticated about 6,300 years ago (c. 4300 BCE); the swamp-type originated independently from Mainland Southeast Asia, being domesticated between 3–7,000 years ago.<ref name=Zhang2020/> The river buffalo dispersed west as far as Egypt, southern Europe, the Levant, and the Mediterranean regions; swamp buffalo dispersed in the opposite direction, to the rest of Southeast Asia, and as far as the Yangtze Valley in China.<ref name=Zhang2020/><ref name="Liu2004"/><ref name="yang"/>

Swamp-type water buffalo entered Island Southeast Asia from at least 2,500 years ago through the northern Philippines, where butchered remains of domesticated water buffalo have been recovered from the Neolithic Nagsabaran site (part of the Lal-lo and Gattaran Shell Middens, {{Circa|2200 BCE}} to 400 CE). These became the ancestors of the distinctly swamp-type carabao buffalo breed of the Philippines which, in turn, spread to Guam, Indonesia, and Malaysia, among other smaller islands.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Amano |first1=N. |last2=Piper |first2=P. J. |last3=Hung |first3=H. |last4=Bellwood |first4=P. |title=Introduced domestic animals in the Neolithic and Metal Age of the Philippines: Evidence from Nagsabaran, northern Luzon |journal=The Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology |date=2013 |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=317–335 |doi=10.1080/15564894.2013.781084 |s2cid=131368496 |hdl=1885/22954 |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mijares |first1=A. S. B. |title=The early Austronesian migration to Luzon: perspectives from the Peñablanca Cave Sites |journal=Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association Bulletin |date=2006 |volume=26 |pages=72–78 |citeseerx=10.1.1.403.7868}}</ref>

The present-day river buffalo is the result of complex domestication processes involving more than one maternal lineage and a significant maternal gene flow from wild populations after the initial domestication events.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kumar |first1=S. |last2=Nagarajan |first2=M. |last3=Sandhu |first3=J. S. |last4=Kumar |first4=N. |last5=Behl |first5=V. |year=2007 |title=Phylogeography and domestication of Indian river buffalo |journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology |volume=7 |issue=1 |page=186 |doi=10.1186/1471-2148-7-186 |pmid=17915036 |pmc=2140268 |bibcode=2007BMCEE...7..186K |doi-access=free}}</ref> Twenty-two breeds of the river buffalo are known, including the Murrah, Nili-Ravi, Surti, Carabao, Anatolian, Mediterranean, and Egyptian buffaloes.<ref name=Moioli2005>{{cite book |last1=Moioli |first1=B. |last2=Borghese |first2=A. |year=2005 |chapter=Buffalo breeds and management systems |pages=51–76 |editor=Borghese, A. |title=Buffalo Production and Research. REU Technical Series 67 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome |url=http://www.cienciaanimal.ufpa.br/CA_selecao/M/2010/biblio/Prod/complem/Borghese_2005.pdf}}{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020232147/http://www.cienciaanimal.ufpa.br/CA_selecao/M/2010/biblio/Prod/complem/Borghese_2005.pdf |date=20 October 2013}}</ref> China has a huge variety of water buffalo genetic resources, with 16 local swamp buffalo breeds in various regions.<ref name=Borghese2005/>

===Genetic studies===

Mitochondrial DNA analyses indicate that the two types were domesticated independently.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kumar |first1=S. |last2=Nagarajan |first2=M. |last3=Sandhu |first3=J. S. |last4=Kumar |first4=N. |last5=Behl |first5=V. |last6=Nishanth |first6=G. |year=2007 |url=http://www.aseanbiotechnology.info/Abstract/21025230.pdf |title=Mitochondrial DNA analyses of Indian water buffalo support a distinct genetic origin of river and swamp buffalo |journal=Animal Genetics |volume=38 |issue=3 |pages=227–232 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2052.2007.01602.x |pmid=17459014 |access-date=19 February 2013 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304204755/http://www.aseanbiotechnology.info/Abstract/21025230.pdf |url-status=usurped}}</ref> Sequencing of cytochrome b (''CytB'') genes of ''Bubalus'' species implies that the water buffalo originated from at least two populations, and that the river-type and the swamp-type have differentiated at the full species level. The genetic distance between the two types is so large that a divergence time of about 1.7 million years has been suggested. The swamp-type was noticed to have the closest relationship with the tamaraw of the northern Philippines.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tanaka |first1=K. |last2=Solis |first2=C. D. |last3=Masangkay |first3=J. S. |last4=Maeda |first4=K.-I. |last5=Kawamoto |first5=Y. |last6=Namikawa |first6=T. |title=Phylogenetic relationship among all living species of the genus ''Bubalus'' based on DNA sequences of the cytochrome ''b'' gene |year=1996 |doi=10.1007/BF00570125 |pmid=9126673 |journal=Biochemical Genetics |volume=34 |issue=11–12 |pages=443–452 |s2cid=22075565}}</ref>

A 2008 DNA analysis of Neolithic water buffalo remains in northern China (previously used as evidence of a Chinese domestication origin) found that the remains were of the extinct ''Bubalus mephistopheles'' and are not genetically related to modern domesticated water buffaloes. Another study in 2004 also concluded that the remains were from wild specimens. Both indicate that water buffaloes were first domesticated outside of China.<ref name="Liu2004">{{cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=L. |last2=Chen |first2=X. |last3=Jiang L. |title=A study of Neolithic water buffalo remains from Zhejiang, China |journal=Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association Bulletin |date=2004 |volume=24 |issue=Taipei Papers 2 |pages=113–120}}</ref><ref name="yang">{{cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=D. Y. |last2=Liu |first2=L. |last3=Chen |first3=X. |last4=Speller |first4=C. F. |title=Wild or domesticated: DNA analysis of ancient water buffalo remains from north China |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |date=2008 |volume=35 |issue=10 |pages=2778–2785 |doi=10.1016/j.jas.2008.05.010 |bibcode=2008JArSc..35.2778Y}}</ref> Analyses of mitochondrial DNA and single-nucleotide polymorphism indicate that swamp and river buffaloes were crossbred in China.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pérez-Pardal |first1=L. |last2=Chen |first2=S. |last3=Costa |first3=V. |last4=Liu |first4=X. |last5=Carvalheira |first5=J. |last6=Beja-Pereira |first6=A. |year=2018 |title=Genomic differentiation between swamp and river buffalo using a cattle high-density single nucleotide polymorphisms panel |journal=Animal |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=464–471 |doi=10.1017/S1751731117001719 |pmid=28735584 |s2cid=206340224 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2018Anim...12..464P}}</ref>

A 2020 analysis of the genomes of 91 swamp and 30 river buffaloes showed that they separated already before domestication about {{Ma|0.23}}.<ref name=Sun2020>{{cite journal |last1=Sun |first1=Ting |last2=Shen |first2=Jiafei |last3=Achilli |first3=Alessandro |last4=Chen |first4=Ningbo |last5=Chen |first5=Qiuming |last6=Dang |first6=Ruihua |last7=Zheng |first7=Zhuqing |last8=Zhang |first8=Hucai |last9=Zhang |first9=Xiaoming |last10=Wang |first10=Shaoqiang |last11=Zhang |first11=Tao |last12=Lu |first12=Hongzhao |last13=Ma |first13=Yun |last14=Jia |first14=Yutang |last15=Capodiferro |first15=Marco Rosario |last16=Huang |first16=Yongzhen |last17=Lan |first17=Xianyong |last18=Chen |first18=Hong |last19=Jiang |first19=Yu |last20=Lei |first20=Chuzhao |display-authors=5 |year=2020 |title=Genomic analyses reveal distinct genetic architectures and selective pressures in buffaloes |journal=GigaScience |volume=9 |issue=2 |article-number=giz166 |doi=10.1093/gigascience/giz166|pmid=32083286 |pmc=7033652 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A 2021 analysis of water buffalo and lowland anoa genomes unexpectedly found the anoa branching somewhere between swamp and river buffaloes.<ref name=Curaudeau2021/> A 2023 Filipino study using the ''CytB'' gene instead found the tamaraw branching between the two.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cailipan |first1=T. P. |last2=Paraguas |first2=A. |last3=Cuanang |first3=A. J. |last4=Soliven |first4=N. F. J. |last5=Roño |first5=J. G. |last6=Fontanilla |first6=F. |last7=Servo |first7=E. |last8=Cao |first8=E. |last9=Fontanilla |first9=I. K. |last10=Villamor |first10=L. |display-authors=5 |title=Molecular data and karyotype revealed two distinct species of domesticated Water Buffaloes in the Philippines |journal=Philippine Journal of Science |date=2023 |volume=152 |issue=5 |doi=10.56899/152.05.27 |s2cid=263317713}}</ref>

=== Populations ===

By 2011, the global water buffalo population was about 172 million.<ref name=Borghese2011>{{cite journal |last=Borghese |first=Antonio |year=2011 |title=Situation and perspectives of Buffalo in the World, Europe and Macedonia |journal=Macedonian Journal of Animal Science |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=281–296 |url=http://www.mjas.ukim.edu.mk/files/MJAS-01-02-_2011_-048-Borghese.pdf}}{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304034709/http://www.mjas.ukim.edu.mk/files/MJAS-01-02-_2011_-048-Borghese.pdf |date=4 March 2016}}</ref> The estimated global population of water buffalo is 208,098,759 head distributed in 77 countries in five continents.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Minervino |first1=Antonio Humberto Hamad |last2=Zava |first2=Marco |last3=Vecchio |first3=Domenico |last4=Borghese |first4=Antonio |date=2020 |title=''Bubalus bubalis'': A Short Story |journal=Frontiers in Veterinary Science |volume=7 |article-number=570413 |doi=10.3389/fvets.2020.570413 |pmid=33335917 |pmc=7736047 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

== Husbandry == The husbandry system of water buffaloes depends on the purpose for which they are bred and maintained. Most are kept by people who work on small farms in family units. Their water buffaloes live in close association with them, and are often their greatest capital asset. In India, the women and girls generally look after the milking buffaloes, while the men and boys are concerned with the working animals. Throughout Asia, they are commonly tended by children who are often seen leading or riding their charges to wallows. Water buffaloes are the ideal animals for work in the deep mud of paddy fields because of their large hooves and flexible foot joints.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Y. |last2=Colli |first2=L. |last3=Barker |first3=J. S. F. |title=Asian water buffalo: domestication, history and genetics |journal=Animal Genetics |date=2020 |volume=51 |issue=2 |pages=177–191 |doi=10.1111/age.12911 |pmid=31967365 }}</ref> They are sometimes called "the living tractor of the East".<ref name=Cockrill1977/>{{rp|115}} They are an efficient and economical means of cultivation of small fields. In many rice-producing countries, they are used for threshing and for transporting the sheaves during the rice harvest. They provide power for oilseed mills, sugarcane presses, and devices for raising water. They are widely used as pack animals and, in India and Pakistan, also for heavy haulage. In their invasions of Europe, the Ottoman Turks used water buffaloes for hauling heavy battering rams. Their dung is used as a fertilizer, and as a fuel when dried.<ref name=Cockrill1977/>

<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=180 heights=180> File:Child and ox ploughing, Laos (1).jpg|A child plowing with a water buffalo in Si Pan Don, Laos File:Kerbau Jawa.jpg|Plowing narrow rice terraces in Java, Indonesia File:Milking the Buffalo (35403227412).jpg|Woman milking a buffalo,<br/>Bangalore, India File:Yuanyang cow pat.jpg|Buffalo dung drying on a house in Yunnan, China </gallery>

== Products ==

[[File:Bihu dancer with a horn.jpg|thumb|upright|A ''bihu'' dancer in Assam blowing a buffalo hornpipe ]]

Around 26 million water buffaloes are slaughtered each year for meat worldwide.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QL |title=Crops and livestock products |work=Food and Agriculture Organisation |access-date=25 October 2019}}</ref> They contribute 72 million tonnes of milk and three million tonnes of meat annually to world food, much of it in areas that are prone to nutritional imbalances. In India, river buffaloes are kept mainly for milk production and for transport, whereas swamp buffaloes are kept mainly for work and a small amount of milk.<ref name= Singh2010>{{cite book |last1=Singh |first1=C. V. |last2=Barwal |first2=R. S. |year=2010 |chapter=Buffalo breeding research and improvement strategies in India |pages=1024–1031 |title=The Buffalo in the World. Proceedings of the 9th World Buffalo Congress |place=Buenos Aires |url=http://vet.unne.edu.ar/revista/21-suple-1/12%20bufalos.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120417140011/http://vet.unne.edu.ar/revista/21-suple-1/12%20bufalos.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2012-04-17 }}</ref>

===Meat, skin, bone, and horn ===

Water buffalo meat or carabeef<ref>{{cite news |last1=Doctor |first1=V. |title=Ban on cow slaughter in Maharashtra: Why Indian consumers should insist on buffalo milk & carabeef |work=The Economic Times |date=2015 |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/ban-on-cow-slaughter-in-maharashtra-why-indian-consumers-should-insist-on-buffalo-milk-carabeef/articleshow/46487532.cms?from=mdr |access-date=11 February 2024}}</ref> is a major source of export revenue for India.<ref>{{cite web |last=Raghavan |first=S. |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/india-on-top-in-exporting-beef/article7519487.ece |title=India on top in exporting beef |work=The Hindu| date=2015}}</ref> The hides provide tough and useful leather.<ref>{{cite web |title=Water buffalo |url=https://biodb.com/species/water-buffalo/ |website=BioDB |access-date=18 March 2025}}</ref>

The bones and horns are often made into jewellery, especially earrings. Horns are used for the embouchure of musical instruments, such as the ''ney'' and the ''kaval''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Why Wear Horn Earrings? |url=http://bandaruorganics.com/buffalo-horn-earrings.pdf |publisher=Bandaru Organics |access-date=14 August 2014 |archive-date=10 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160310215225/http://bandaruorganics.com/buffalo-horn-earrings.pdf |url-status=usurped}}</ref>

=== Dairy ===

thumb|Dairy products of water buffalo milk

Water buffalo milk presents physicochemical features different from those of other ruminant species, such as a higher content of fatty acids and proteins.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=D'Ambrosio |first1=Chiara |last2=Arena |first2=Simona |last3=Salzano |first3=Anna Maria |last4=Renzone |first4=Giovanni |last5=Ledda |first5=Luigi |last6=Scaloni |first6=Andrea |title=A proteomic characterization of water buffalo milk fractions describing PTM of major species and the identification of minor components involved in nutrient delivery and defense against pathogens |journal=Proteomics |volume=8 |issue=17 |date=2008 |doi=10.1002/pmic.200701148 |pages=3657–3666}}</ref> The physical and chemical parameters of swamp-type and river-type water buffalo milk differ.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Khan |first1=M. A. S. |last2=Islam |first2=M. N. |last3=Siddiki |first3=M.S.R. |year=2007 |title=Physical and chemical composition of swamp and water buffalo milk: a comparative study |journal=Italian Journal of Animal Science |volume=6 |issue=Suppl. 2 |pages=1067–1070 |doi=10.4081/ijas.2007.s2.1067 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Water buffalo milk contains higher levels of total solids, crude protein, fat, calcium, and phosphorus, and slightly higher content of lactose compared with those of cow milk. The high level of total solids makes water buffalo milk ideal for processing into value-added dairy products such as cheese. The conjugated linoleic acid content in water buffalo milk ranged from 4.4 mg/g fat in September to 7.6 mg/g fat in June. Seasons and genetics may play a role in variation of CLA level and changes in gross composition of water buffalo milk.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Han |first1=Xue |last2=Lee |first2=Frank L. |last3=Zhang |first3=Lanwei |last4=Guo |first4=M. R. |title=Chemical composition of water buffalo milk and its low-fat symbiotic yogurt development |journal=Functional Foods in Health and Disease |volume=2 |issue=4 |date=20 April 2012 |doi=10.31989/ffhd.v2i4.96 |page=86 |url=https://ffhdj.com/index.php/ffhd/article/view/96}}</ref>

Water buffalo milk is processed into a large variety of dairy products, including:<ref name="Borghese 2005 Dairy">{{cite book |last1=Borghese |first1=Antonio |year=2005 |chapter=Buffalo Cheese and Milk Industry |pages=185–195 |title=Buffalo Production and Research. REU Technical Series 67 |editor1-last=Borghese |editor1-first=Antonio |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization |location=Rome}}</ref>

* Cream churns much faster at higher fat levels and gives higher overrun than cow cream.<ref name="Borghese 2005 Dairy"/> * Butter from water buffalo cream displays more stability than that from cow cream.<ref name="Borghese 2005 Dairy"/> * Ghee from water buffalo milk has a different texture with a bigger grain size than ghee from cow milk.<ref name="Borghese 2005 Dairy"/> * Heat-concentrated milk products in the Indian subcontinent include paneer, khoa, rabri, kheer and basundi.<ref name="Borghese 2005 Dairy"/> * Fermented milk products include dadiah in Indonesia.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Surono |first=I. S. |date=2015 |title=Traditional Indonesian dairy foods |journal=Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=24 |issue=Suppl 1 |pages=S26–S30 |doi=10.6133/apjcn.2015.24.s1.05 |pmid=26715081}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Amelia |first1=Rinita |last2=Said |first2=Faridah Mohd |last3=Yasmin |first3=Farzana |last4=Harun |first4=Harnavi |title=The Potential of West Sumatran Dadiah as The Novel to Alleviate Hyperglycemia, Hypercholesterolemia, and Reducing NF-kB Expression in Nephropathy Diabetes Rat Model |journal=Trends in Sciences |volume=20 |issue=11 |date=31 August 2023 |issn=2774-0226 |doi=10.48048/tis.2023.6812 |page=6812 |url=https://tis.wu.ac.th/index.php/tis/article/view/6812}}</ref> * Whey is used for making ricotta and mascarpone in Italy, and alkarish in Syria and Egypt.<ref name="Borghese 2005 Dairy"/> * Hard cheeses include braila in Romania, and rahss in Egypt.<ref name="Borghese 2005 Dairy"/> * Soft cheeses include mozzarella in Italy, karish, mish and madhfor in Iraq, alghab in Syria, kesong puti in the Philippines, and vladeasa in Romania.<ref name="Borghese 2005 Dairy"/> {{clear right}}

{| class="wikitable" align="right" width="auto" ! colspan=5 | Top 10 water buffalo milk producers—2020<ref>{{cite web |title=[no title cited] |date=17 May 2022 |department=Food and Agricultural Organization / Economic and Social Department / Statistical Division |publisher=United Nations |url=http://faostat.fao.org/site/569/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567#ancorzz |access-date=2022-05-17 |archive-date=26 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726050603/http://faostat.fao.org/site/569/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567#ancorzz}}</ref> |- ! width="auto" | Country ! width="auto" | Production (tonnes) ! width="auto" | Note |- | India ||align=right| 90,026,273 ||align=center| {{efn-lr|name=USM|unofficial, semi-official, mirror data}} |- | Pakistan ||align=right| 37,256,000 ||align=center| {{efn-lr|name=O|official figure}} |- | China ||align=right| 2,919,966 ||align=center| {{efn-lr|name=FAO-est|FAO estimate}} |- | Egypt ||align=right| 1,747,641 ||align=center| {{efn-lr|name=FAO-est}} |- | Nepal ||align=right| 1,380,600 ||align=center| {{efn-lr|name=FAO-est}} |- | Italy ||align=right| 253,830 ||align=center| {{efn-lr|name=FAO-est}} |- | Myanmar ||align=right| 205,102 ||align=center| {{efn-lr|name=FAO-est}} |- | Iran ||align=right| 128,000 ||align=center| {{efn-lr|name=FAO-est}} |- | Mongolia ||align=right| 104,645 ||align=center| {{efn-lr|name=FAO-est}} |- | Indonesia ||align=right| 89,983 ||align=center| {{efn-lr|name=FAO-est}} |- | Bangladesh ||align=right| 35,790 ||align=center| {{efn-lr|name=FAO-est}} |- | bgcolor=#cccccc|{{noflag}}'''World''' | bgcolor=#cccccc align=right | '''134,425,197''' | bgcolor=#cccccc align=right | |- | colspan=3 | {{notelist-lr}} |}

==Environmental effects==

Wildlife conservation scientists have started to recommend and use introduced populations of feral water buffaloes to manage uncontrolled vegetation growth in and around natural wetlands. Introduced water buffaloes at home in such environs provide cheap service by regularly grazing the uncontrolled vegetation and opening up clogged water bodies for waterfowl, wetland birds, and other wildlife.<ref>BBC News February 2004 [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/mid_/3483395.stm ''Buffalo improve wildlife habitat''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120327103100/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/mid_/3483395.stm |date=27 March 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ramsar.org/forum/forum_buffaloes.htm |title="Buffaloes and wetlands" -- grazing in wetland management: A discussion from the Ramsar Forum over late March 1998 |access-date=18 September 2007 |archive-date=2 February 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090202121510/http://www.ramsar.org/forum/forum_buffaloes.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

A large feral population became established in northern Australia in the late 19th century, and there are smaller feral herds in several other countries.<ref name=Cockrill1977/><ref>{{cite book |last=Long |first=J. L. |year=2003 |title=Introduced Mammals of the World: Their History, Distribution and Influence |publisher=CSIRO Publishing |location=Collingwood, Australia |isbn=978-0-643-09916-6}}</ref>

Grazing water buffaloes are sometimes used in Great Britain for conservation grazing, such as in the Chippenham Fen National Nature Reserve. The water buffaloes can better adapt to wet conditions and poor-quality vegetation than cattle.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Natural England |year=2008 | title=Buffalo improve wildlife habitat in Cambridgeshire | url=http://www.gov-news.org/gov/uk/news/buffalo_improve_wildlife_habitat_in_cambridgeshire/42972.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140726214547/http://www.gov-news.org/gov/uk/news/buffalo_improve_wildlife_habitat_in_cambridgeshire/42972.html | url-status=usurped | archive-date=26 July 2014 | publisher=Natural England East of England press office |author-link=Natural England}}</ref> In uncontrolled circumstances, though, water buffaloes can cause environmental damage, such as trampling vegetation, disturbing bird and reptile nesting sites, and spreading exotic weeds.<ref>{{cite news |title=Bubalis Bubalis |last1=Roth |first1=J. |last2=Myers |first2=P. |work=University of Michigan Museum of Zoology Animal Diversity Web |url=http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Bubalus_bubalis.html#1ad6bbdabf14d37f5fd3dd0a26e19210 |year=2004}}</ref>

==Reproductive research==

=== In vitro fertilization ===

In 2004, Philippine Carabao Center in Nueva Ecija produced the first swamp-type water buffalo born from an ''in vitro''-produced, vitrified embryo. It was named "Glory" after President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo. Joseph Estrada's most successful project as an opposition senator, the PCC was created through Republic Act 3707, the Carabao Act of 1992.<ref>{{cite web |last=Uy |first=J. |url=http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/inquirerheadlines/nation/view/20071231-109740/Super_carabao_making_the_scene_in_year_of_the_rats |title='Super carabao' making the scene in year of the rats |year=2007 |website=inquirer.net}}</ref>

There have been many attempts at creating hybrids between domestic cattle and domestic water buffaloes. To date, none have been successful; the embryos usually only get to the 8-cell stage before failing.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Patil |first1=S. |last2=Totey |first2=S. |date=2003 |title=Developmental failure of hybrid embryos generated by in vitro fertilization of water buffalo (''Bubalus bubalis'') oocyte with bovine spermatozoa |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/mrd.10269 |journal=Molecular Reproduction and Development |volume=64 |issue=3 |pages=360–368 |doi=10.1002/mrd.10269 |pmid=12548668 |s2cid=34587206 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== Cloning ===

The first cloned swamp-type water buffaloes were born in 2007 using micromanipulation-based somatic cell nuclear transfer; three calves were born, and two died.<ref name="pmid29620444">{{cite journal |last1=Selokar |first1=N. L. |last2=Saini |first2=M. |last3=Palta |first3=P. |last4=Chauhan |first4=M. S. |last5=Manik |first5=R. S. |last6=Singla |first6=S. K. |title=Cloning of Buffalo, a highly valued livestock species of South and Southeast Asia: Any achievements? |journal=Cellular Reprogramming |date=2018 |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=89–98 |doi=10.1089/cell.2017.0051 |pmid=29620444}}</ref> In 2009, National Dairy Research Institute cloned a river-type water buffalo using a simplified somatic cell nuclear transfer procedure called "handmade cloning".<ref name="pmid29620444"/> The Central Institute for Research on Buffaloes cloned a water buffalo in 2016.<ref>{{cite report |title=ICAR-CIRB Annual Report 2015-16 |url=https://krishi.icar.gov.in/jspui/bitstream/123456789/1550/1/annualreport15-16.pdf |location=Hisar, Haryana, India |publisher=ICAR-Central Institute for Research on Buffaloes |date=2016 |access-date=11 August 2022}}</ref>

== In culture == The Minangkabau people of West Sumatra adorn their houses and clothing with motifs based on the buffalo's horns as a tribute to the legend that pitted a buffalo ({{lang|min|kabau}}) chosen by their kingdom against one by (traditionally) the Majapahit empire, to which their kingdom won.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Asal Usul Nama Minangkabau dan Sejarah Suku Minang |url=https://tirto.id/asal-usul-nama-minangkabau-dan-sejarah-suku-minang-f5aG |access-date=24 May 2021 |work=Tirto |last=Krisnawati |first=E. |date=2020 |language=id}}</ref> In Chinese tradition, the water buffalo is associated with a contemplative life.<ref name="Tressider">{{cite book |last=Tressider |first=J. |url=https://archive.org/details/hutchinsondictio0000tres/page/30/mode/2up |title=The Hutchinson Dictionary of Symbols |date=1997 |publisher=Helicon Publisher |isbn=1-85986-059-1 |location=London |page=31}}</ref> In the Thai and Sinhalese animal and planetary zodiac, the water buffalo is the third animal zodiac of the Thai and the fourth animal zodiac of the Sinhalese people of Sri Lanka.<ref>{{cite book |last=Upham |first=E. |year=1829 |title=The History and Doctrine of Budhism: Popularly Illustrated: with Notices of the Kappooism, Or Demon Worship, and of the Bali, Or Planetary Incantations, of Ceylon |place=London |publisher=R. Ackermann |url=https://archive.org/details/historydoctrineo00upha}}</ref> A water buffalo head was a symbol of death in Tibet.<ref name=Tressider/> The carabao is considered a national symbol of the Philippines, although this has no basis in Philippine law.<ref>{{cite web |last=Pangilinan |first=L. Jr. |title=In Focus: 9 Facts You May Not Know About Philippine National Symbols |url=http://ncca.gov.ph/about-culture-and-arts/in-focus/9-facts-you-may-not-know-about-philippine-national-symbols/ |date=2014 |access-date=8 January 2019 |work=National Commission for Culture and the Arts |archive-date=26 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161126154959/http://ncca.gov.ph/about-culture-and-arts/in-focus/9-facts-you-may-not-know-about-philippine-national-symbols/}}</ref> In Indian mythology, the Hindu god of death, Yama, rides on a water buffalo.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wiley |first=A. S. |editor-last=Cohen |editor-first=M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=neqMDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA50 |title=Making Milk: The Past, Present and Future of Our Primary Food |editor-last2=Otomo |editor-given2=Y. |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-350-02997-2 |page=50}}</ref> A male water buffalo is sacrificed in India during Shaktism festivals.<ref name="Fuller Christopher John 2004 83">{{cite book |last=Fuller, C. J. |title=The camphor flame: popular Hinduism and society in India |chapter-url=http://press.princeton.edu/titles/7823.html |edition=Revised and Expanded |year=2004 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-12048-5 |page=83 |chapter=4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Fuller |first=C. J. |title=The Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism and Society in India |edition=Revised |date=2004 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-12048-5 |page=83 |id={{ASIN |069112048X |country=uk}} }}</ref><ref name="Buffalo sacrifice">{{cite journal |last=Hiltebeitel |first=A. |author-link=Alf Hiltebeitel |title=Rāma and Gilgamesh: the sacrifices of the water buffalo and the bull of heaven |journal=History of Religions |date=1980 |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=187–195 |doi=10.1086/462845 |jstor=1062467 |s2cid=162925746}}</ref>

In the early 19th century in Australia, water buffalo escaped British colonies on the Cobourg Peninsula and became feral. Later Aboriginal Australians of Arnhem Land discovered these herds and perceived these never-before-known animals – ''nganaparru'' – as a new manifestation of their dreaming or ''djang''; Indigenous Australian art depicting these water buffalo were resurfaced in a cave within a site named Djarrng near Gunbalanya in 1979.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=May |first1=S. K. |last2=Taçon |first2=P. S. C. |last3=Jalandoni |first3=A. |last4=Goldhahn |first4=J. |last5=Wesley |first5=D. |last6=Tsang |first6=R. |last7=Mangiru |first7=K. |title=The re-emergence of ''nganaparru'' (water buffalo) into the culture, landscape and rock art of western Arnhem Land |journal=Antiquity |date=2021 |volume=95 |issue=383 |pages=1298–1314 |doi=10.15184/aqy.2021.107}}</ref>

<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=180 heights=200> File:Impression of a cylinder seal of The Divine Sharkalisharri Prince of Akkad Ibni-Sharrum the Scribe his servant.jpg |Impression of an Akkadian seal. The long-horned water buffalo testifies to exchanges with the Indus Valley Civilisation. {{circa |2217–2193}} BC.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cylinder Seal of Ibni-Sharrum |url=https://www.louvre.fr/en/oeuvre-notices/cylinder-seal-ibni-sharrum |website=Louvre Museum |access-date=22 March 2019 |archive-date=9 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230209060130/https://www.louvre.fr/en/oeuvre-notices/cylinder-seal-ibni-sharrum }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Site officiel du musée du Louvre |url=http://cartelfr.louvre.fr/cartelfr/visite?srv=car_not_frame&idNotice=12067 |website=cartelfr.louvre.fr}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Brown |first1=B. A. |last2=Feldman |first2=M. H. |title=Critical Approaches to Ancient Near Eastern Art |date=2013 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-1-61451-035-2 |page=187 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F4DoBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA187}}</ref> File:WaterBuffaloLopburiThailand2300BCE.jpg |Ceramic from 2300 BC found in Lopburi, Thailand File:Yamantaka, Fear-Striking Vajra, Lord of Death on a water buffalo, Vajrayana Buddhism.jpg |The Hindu and Buddhist deity Yama on a water buffalo File:Water Buffalo by Hokusai.jpg |''Water Buffalo'' by Katsushika Hokusai, {{circa |1875}}, Japan File:Mục đồng thả diều.JPG |Đông Hồ folk woodcut painting, 19th century, Vietnam File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM 'Tijdens het slepen van een grafsteen wordt even uitgerust op de steen zijn horens van de geofferde karbouwen gebonden West-Sumba' TMnr 10003262.jpg |Horns of water buffaloes sacrificed in West Sumba Regency, {{circa |1936}} </gallery>

=== Fighting festivals === The Moh juj Water Buffalo Fighting Festival is held every year in Bhogali Bihu in Assam.<ref>{{Cite news |first=P. |last=Dutta |title=Bonfire, feast & lots more |work=The Telegraph |date=2008 |url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1080112/jsp/northeast/story_8771062.jsp |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130204005414/http://www.telegraphindia.com/1080112/jsp/northeast/story_8771062.jsp |archive-date=4 February 2013 |access-date=19 January 2008}}</ref> The Do Son Water Buffalo Fighting Festival of Vietnam is held each year on the ninth day of the eighth month of the lunar calendar at Do Son Township, Haiphong City, Vietnam. It is one of the most popular Vietnam festivals and events in Haiphong City. The preparations for this buffalo fighting festival begin from the two to three months earlier. The competing water buffalo are selected and trained months in advance. The festival is linked with worship of the Water God and the ''Hien Sinh'' custom to show the martial spirit of the people of Do Son, Haiphong.<ref>{{cite web |date=2005 |title=Do Son: buffalo fighting festival (Vietnam) |work=VietNamNet Bridge|url=http://english.vietnamnet.vn/lifestyle/2005/09/489209/}} {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070705124746/http://english.vietnamnet.vn/lifestyle/2005/09/489209/ |date=5 July 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=2017 |title=Vietnam Resumes Controversial Water Buffalo Fighting |work=Voice of America |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/vietnam-water-buffalo-fighting/4048104.html}}</ref>

The Ko Samui Water Buffalo Fighting Festival of Thailand is a popular event held on special occasions such as New Year's Day in January, and Songkran in mid-April. This festival features head-wrestling bouts in which two male water buffaloes are pitted against one another. Unlike in Spanish-style bullfighting, wherein bulls get killed while fighting sword-wielding men, the festival held at Ko Samui is a fairly harmless contest. The fighting season varies according to ancient customs and ceremonies. The first water buffalo to turn and run away is considered the loser; the winning water buffalo becomes worth several million baht.<ref>{{cite web |title=Buffalo Fighting |date=2017 |work=Koh Samui Point |url=http://www.kohsamuipoint.com/activities/buffalo-fighting/}} {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170302194028/http://www.kohsamuipoint.com/activities/buffalo-fighting/ |date=2 March 2017}}</ref>

=== Racing festivals === The Kambala races of Karnataka, India, take place between October and March.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Kambala |url=https://www.karnatakatourism.org/destinations/kambala/ |archive-date=2 July 2022 |access-date=25 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220702231114/https://karnatakatourism.org/destinations/kambala/}}</ref> Buffalo racing in Kerala is similar to the Kambala races.<ref>{{cite news |date=2004 |work=The Hindu |title=Bull race held at Kaakkoor peacefully |url=http://www.hindu.com/2004/02/27/stories/2004022702250500.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050128132016/http://www.hindu.com/2004/02/27/stories/2004022702250500.htm |archive-date=28 January 2005}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=2004 |title='Maramadi' winners |work=The Hindu |url=http://www.hindu.com/2004/02/27/stories/2004022702240500.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040801014156/http://www.hindu.com/2004/02/27/stories/2004022702240500.htm |archive-date=1 August 2004}}</ref>

=== Religious festival === * In the Philippines, the Pulilan Carabao Festival is held annually every 14 and 15 May in the town of Pulilan in honor of Isidore the Laborer, the patron saint of farmers. As thanksgiving for a bountiful harvest every year, farmers parade their carabaos in the main town street, adorning them with garlands and other decorations. One of the highlights of the festival is the kneeling of the carabaos in front of the parish church.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pulilan Carabao Festival (Pulilan, Bulacan) |url=http://www.bulacan.gov.ph/tourism/touristspot.php?id=81 |work=Provincial Government of Bulacan |access-date=26 December 2016 |archive-date=20 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220053546/http://www.bulacan.gov.ph/tourism/touristspot.php?id=81}}</ref>

<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=180 heights=180 caption="Fights, races, and festivals"> File:Filipino_and_American_spectators_at_a_Carabao_fight_in_Jolo_LOC_3909061743.jpg|Filipinos and American soldiers observing a fight in 1906 File:Bisbuffalorace.jpg |Racing at Babulang 2006 File:Kambala, he-buffalo race at Vandar village, Udupi Dist., Kar. India.jpg |Race at Vandar village, Udupi district, India </gallery>

== See also ==

* African buffalo (''Syncerus caffer'') * ''Bubalus murrensis'' * Cattle in religion * Italian Mediterranean buffalo * List of water buffalo breeds * Zebu – the common breed of domestic cattle from India

== References ==

== Further reading ==

* Clutton-Brock, J. 1999. ''A Natural History of Domesticated Mammals''. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-63495-4}}. * Fahimuddin, M. 1989. ''Domestic Water Buffalo''. Janpath, New Delhi: Oxford & IBH Publishing {{ISBN|81-204-0402-5}}. * ''Guinness Book of Records'', 2005. * ''The Water Buffalo: New Prospects for an Underutilized Animal''. Washington, D.C. 1981. National Academy Press. {{ISBN|978-0-309-04159-1}}. * Nowak, R. M. and Paradiso, J. L. 1983. ''Walker's Mammals of the World''. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. {{ISBN|0-8018-2525-3}}. * Roth, J. and P. Myers. "Bubalis Bubalis", University of Michigan Museum of Zoology Animal Diversity Web. Retrieved 15 January 2009 * Ruangprim, T. et al. 2007. "Rumen microbes and ecology of male dairy, beef cattle and buffaloes". In: ''Proceedings Animal Science Annual Meeting'', Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen 40002, Thailand. * Thu, Nguyen Van and T. R. Preston. 1999. "Rumen environment and feed degradability in swamp buffaloes fed different supplements". ''Livestock Research for Rural Development'' 11 (3) * Voelker, W. 1986. ''The Natural History of Living Mammals''. Medford, New Jersey: Plexus Publishing. {{ISBN|0-937548-08-1}}. * Wilson, D. E. and Reeder, D. M. 1993. ''Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference'', Second Edition. Smithsonian Institution.

==External links== * [http://www.animalinfo.org/species/artiperi/bubaarne.htm Animal Info: ''Wild Asian (Water) Buffalo''] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110304194627/http://environment.gov.au/biodiversity/invasive/publications/pubs/buffalo.pdf Feral buffalo in Australia] * [http://www.ansi.okstate.edu/breeds/other/ Breeds of Livestock: ''Murrah'']

{{Means of Exchange}} {{Artiodactyla|R.4}} {{Working animals}} {{Animal domestication}} {{Taxonbar|from=Q42710}} {{Authority control}}

Category:Water buffalo Category:Beef Category:Domesticated animals Category:Feral animals Category:Livestock Category:Mammals described in 1758 Category:Introduced mammals of Australia Category:Mammals of India Category:Mammals of Indonesia Category:Mammals of Malaysia Category:Mammals of Nepal Category:Mammals of Pakistan Category:Mammals of South Asia Category:Mammals of Southeast Asia Category:Mammals of Thailand Category:Mammals of the Philippines Category:Mammals of Vietnam Category:Pack animals Category:Animal taxa named by Carl Linnaeus