Themeda triandra

{{Short description|Species of plant}} {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2021}} {{Speciesbox |image = Themeda triandra - kangaroo grass.jpg |genus = Themeda |species = triandra |authority = Forssk.<ref name=APC>{{cite web|title=''Themeda triandra''|url= https://biodiversity.org.au/nsl/services/apc-format/display/55809|publisher=Australian Plant Census|access-date=2 July 2019}}</ref> |synonyms_ref =<ref name="APC" /> |synonyms = {{collapsible list|bullets = true |''Callista'' Lour. |''Anthistiria australis'' R.Br. |''Anthistiria australis'' R.Br. var. ''australis'' |''Anthistiria australis'' var. ''colorata'' Andersson |''Anthistiria australis'' var. ''concolor'' Andersson |''Anthistiria australis'' var. ''pubescens'' Andersson |''Anthistiria caespitosa'' Andersson |''Anthistiria ciliata'' var. ''imberbis'' (Retz.) Nees |''Anthistiria cuspidata'' Andersson |''Anthistiria forskalii'' Kunth |''Anthistiria imberbis'' Retz. |''Anthistiria vulgaris'' Hack. |''Anthistiria vulgaris'' var. ''imberbis'' (Retz.) Hack. Nomen illegitimum}nom. illeg. |''Themeda arguens'' subvar. ''imberbis'' (Retz.) Roberty |''Themeda australis'' (R.Br.) Stapf |''Themeda forskallii'' (Kunth) Hack. ex Duthie |''Themeda forskallii'' subvar. ''caespitosa'' (Andersson) Hack. |''Themeda forskallii'' (Kunth) Hack. ex Duthie subvar. forskallii |''Themeda forskallii'' subvar. ''grandiflora'' Hack. |''Themeda forskallii'' subvar. ''lagopus'' Hack. |''Themeda forskallii'' (Kunth) Hack. ex Duthie var. forskallii |''Themeda forskallii'' var. ''imberbis'' (Retz.) Hack. |''Themeda imberbis'' (Retz.) T.Cooke |''Themeda triandra'' subvar. ''cuspidata'' (Andersson) Domin nom. alt. |''Themeda triandra'' subvar. ''grandiflora'' (Hack.) Domin nom. alt. |''Themeda triandra'' subvar. ''lagopus'' (Hack.) Domin nom. alt. |''Themeda triandra'' subvar. ''oligotricha'' Domin nom. alt. |''Themeda triandra'' var. ''caesia'' Domin |''Themeda triandra'' var. ''fascicularis'' Domin |''Themeda triandra'' var. ''praealta'' Domin |''Themeda triandra'' var. ''rigidiuscula'' Domin |''Themeda triandra'' Forssk. var. triandra |''Themeda triandra'' var. ''trichospatha'' Domin |''Themeda triandra'' var. ''vulgaris'' (Hack.) Domin |''Themeda triandra'' var. ''xiphium'' Domin |''Anthistiria ciliata'' auct. non L.f.: Bentham, G. }} }}

'''''Themeda triandra''''' is a species of {{C4}} perennial tussock-forming grass widespread in Africa, Australia, Asia and the Pacific.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Abraham |first1=Joel |last2=Morgan |first2=John |title=Effects of time-since-fire on the invertebrate communities of Kangaroo Grass Themeda triandra-dominated grasslands in Melbourne,Victoria |journal=The Victorian Naturalist |date=2018 |volume=135 |issue=2 |pages=36-46 |url=https://studyabroad.sit.edu/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/SSA-ASE-TVN-Abraham.pdf |access-date=11 December 2024}}</ref> In Australia it is commonly known as '''kangaroo grass'''<ref>{{Cite web|title=''Themeda triandra'' - Plant Profiles - Queensland Native Seeds|url=https://qldnativeseeds.com.au/plant-profiles/themeda-triandra|access-date=2021-03-03|website=qldnativeseeds.com.au|language=en-us}}</ref> and in East Africa and South Africa it is known as '''red grass''' and '''red oat grass''' or as '''''rooigras''''' in Afrikaans. Kangaroo grass was formerly thought to be one of two species, and was named ''Themeda australis''.

The plant has traditional uses as food and medicine in Africa and Australia. Indigenous Australians harvested it to make bread and string for fishing nets around 30,000 years ago. It was used as livestock feed in early colonial Australia, but this use was largely replaced by introduced plants. {{as of|2021}} there is a large government-funded project underway to investigate the possibility of growing kangaroo grass commercially in Australia for use as a regular food source for humans. Flowering spikelet, South Africa|thumb Dry spikelets, South Africa|thumb Single seed|thumb [[File:Gardenology.org-IMG 3018 rbgs11jan.jpg|Cultivated in a botanical garden|thumb]]

==Description== ''Themeda triandra'' is a perennial grass which grows in dense tufts up to {{convert|1.5|m|ft|frac=2}} tall and {{convert|0.5|m|ft|abbr=on|frac=2}} wide. It flowers in summer, producing large red-brown spikelets on branched stems.<ref name=anbg>{{cite web|author=Liles, Jennifer|title=''Themeda triandra''|url=http://www.anbg.gov.au/gnp/interns-2004/themeda-triandra.html|publisher=Australian National Botanic Garden|access-date=2 May 2018}}</ref> The leaves are {{convert|10|–|30|cm|frac=2}} in length and {{convert|1|-|8|mm|frac=16}} wide<ref name=kew>{{cite web|url=https://www.kew.org/data/grasses-db/www/imp10323.htm|author=W.D. Clayton|author2=M. Vorontsova|author2-link=Maria Vorontsova (botanist)|author3=K.T. Harman|author4=H. Williamson|title=Themeda triandra|publisher=GrassBase|work=The Board of Trustees, Royal Botanic Gardens|location=Kew|access-date=2 May 2018}}</ref> but can exceed {{convert|10|-|50|cm|abbr=on|frac=2}} long and {{convert|2|-|5|mm|abbr=on|frac=16}} wide.<ref name=anbg/> The leaves are grey-green in winter, turning red-brown in summer.<ref name="fieldhouse" />

Its inflorescence is compounded, fasciculated, is {{convert|10|–|30|cm|abbr=on|frac=2}} long and composed of a single raceme. It pedicels are oblong and are 0.5 mm long while its lemma is {{convert|25|-|70|mm|abbr=on|frac=4}} long and is both apical and geniculate.<ref name="kew" /> The column of lemma's awn is hispidulous and twisted.<ref name="kew" /> The blooms exude a strong perfume.<ref name="fieldhouse" /> The seed head is large, often red-brown and made up of clustered spikelets.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017 |title=Themeda triandra (Kangaroo grass) |url=https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/pastures-and-rangelands/rangelands/publications-and-information/grassedup/species/kangaroo-grass#:~:text=Themeda%20triandra%20is%20probably%20one,to%2012.4%25%20crude%20protein). |access-date=2023-05-16 |website=www.dpi.nsw.gov.au |language=en}}</ref>

==Taxonomy== ''Themeda triandra'' was first formally described in 1775 by Peter Forsskål who published the description in ''Flora Aegyptiaco-Arabica''.<ref name=APNI>{{cite web|title=''Themeda triandra''| url=https://id.biodiversity.org.au/instance/apni/458089| publisher=APNI|access-date=4 November 2017}}</ref> There are many synonyms of this species.<ref name="APC" /> The specific epithet (''triandra'') is the feminine of the Botanical Latin adjective ''triandrus'', meaning "with three stamens",<ref name=Stea04>{{Cite book |first=W.T. |last=Stearn |year=2004 |title=Botanical Latin |edition=4th (p/b) |location=Portland, Oregon |isbn=978-0-7153-1643-6 |publisher=Timber Press }} p. 516.</ref> based on the Greek-derived combining forms ''tri-'', three, and ''-andrus'', male.{{sfnp|Stearn|2004|p=368}}

Kangaroo grass was formerly thought to be one of two species, and was named ''Themeda australis''.<ref name="fieldhouse">{{cite web | last=Fieldhouse | first=Rachel | title=Feature Plant Friday - Kangaroo Wheat Grass | website=PlantingSeeds | date=28 September 2018 | url=https://www.ps.org.au/content/articles/2018/9/28/feature-plant-friday-kangaroo-wheat-grass | access-date=1 March 2021}}</ref>

==Distribution and habitat== ''Themeda triandra'' is found across Asia, Africa, Australia, and the Pacific. In Australia, it is found in all of the states and territories.<ref name=anbg/> It grows predominantly in grassland and open woodland communities. It is a significant species in temperate grasslands in Australia, a habitat considered to be endangered or threatened in various parts of the country.<ref name=anbg/> It does not do well under heavy grazing pressure, but benefits from occasional fire.<ref name="dpi">{{cite web |title=''Themeda triandra'' (Kangaroo grass) |url=https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/pastures-and-rangelands/rangelands/publications-and-information/grassedup/species/kangaroo-grass |publisher=New South Wales Government Department of Primary Industries |access-date=19 January 2020}}</ref>

It tolerates a wide range of soils but is most common in moist microclimates such as roadsides and railway lines.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017 |title=Themeda triandra (Kangaroo grass) |url=https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/pastures-and-rangelands/rangelands/publications-and-information/grassedup/species/kangaroo-grass#:~:text=Themeda%20triandra%20is%20probably%20one,to%2012.4%25%20crude%20protein). |access-date=2023-05-16 |website=www.dpi.nsw.gov.au |language=en}}</ref>

''T. triandra'' occurs on a wide variety of soils from sandy soils to heavy clays. There seems to be little association between abundance of ''T. triandra'' and a specific soil type. It is often common in areas where moisture collects and grazing is light, such as along roadsides or railway lines.

==Uses== The young growth is palatable to livestock.<ref>Burbidge, N. T. ''Australian Grasses''. Angus and Robertson Publishers. 1966.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/AG/agA/AGAP/FRG/afris/Data/165.HTM|title=Animal Feed Resources Information System |publisher=FAO.org}}</ref> It serves as a food source for several avian species, including the long-tailed widowbird, and is occasionally used as an ornamental plant.<ref name=anbg/>

Traditionally, in Uganda, the hollow stems of the grass are used as a thatch in hut construction, and for creating pulp for paper.<ref name=fieldhouse/> ''T. triandra'' seed has also been used as a famine food in Africa.<ref name="nap">{{cite web |title=Wild Grains |url=https://www.nap.edu/read/2305/chapter/17 |publisher=The National Academies of Sciences Engineering Medicine |access-date=12 June 2021}}</ref> In West Africa, the root are used in the creation of a medicine used to treat dysmenorrhoea (painful periods).<ref name="ps">{{cite web |title=Feature Plant Friday - Kangaroo Wheat Grass |url=https://www.ps.org.au/content/articles/2018/9/28/feature-plant-friday-kangaroo-wheat-grass |publisher=Planting Seeds |access-date=12 June 2021}}</ref>

In Australia, it is sometimes used as an ornamental plant in rockeries, as a substitute for a lawn, and in cooking. It has also been found to be useful in treating horses for obesity, insulin resistance, and foot inflammation, because it is lower in carbohydrates such as sugar, starch, and fructans than introduced grasses.<ref name=fieldhouse/>

Before the colonisation of Australia, kangaroo grass used to be harvested by Aboriginal Australians, who used the leaves and stems for making string, the basis for fishing nets, as well as for food. The grains were harvested and ground into flour and porridge; the flour was used to make a traditional bread (later referred to as damper, although that term is mostly used for the bread made by non-Indigenous Australians), said to have a nutty flavour. Evidence has been found of this food production occurring around 30,000 years ago, with the grain considered to be a staple food and especially valuable in arid areas.<ref name=fieldhouse/>

In recent years kangaroo grass has been looked upon as a weed which is sometimes eaten by livestock. {{as of|2021}}, a four-year research project<ref name=lawrence2021/> supported by the Australian Government<ref name=foodmag>{{cite web | title=Kangaroo Grass – is it the super crop for animal feed? | website=Food & Beverage Industry News|first=Mike| last=Wheeler | date=19 December 2019 | url=https://foodmag.com.au/kangaroo-grass-is-it-the-super-crop-for-animal-feed/ | access-date=1 March 2021}}</ref> is being undertaken by researcher Dylan Male, at La Trobe University in collaboration with the Dja Dja Wurrung Aboriginal Clans Corporation of central Victoria, investigating the possibility of developing it as a food crop. It is hoped that kangaroo grass would be able to be grown on a commercial scale and become a regular food source. They have found tussocks of the grass estimated to be over 50 years old, an possibly unique among Australian grasses. The plant has several advantages over currently farmed grains:<ref name=lawrence2021>{{cite web | last=Lawrence | first=Sarah | title=Could native crop, kangaroo grass, become a regular ingredient in bread and help farmers regenerate land? | website=ABC News|publisher= Australian Broadcasting Corporation | date=8 February 2021 | url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-02-08/kangaroo-grass-quest-as-the-next-super-crop/13132462 | access-date=1 March 2021}}</ref> *It can survive on land depleted by farming. *It is very drought-resistant. *It tolerates extreme changes in temperature. *It is a perennial grass. *It can help to restore already degraded grasslands. *It contains 40 per cent more protein than traditional grains used for making bread. *Because of the way it grows, forming a very dense tussock with its leaves bending outwards, it protects the soil and creates its own little ecosystem – it conserves moisture, creating habitat for small animals such as native insects and invertebrates.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mata |first1=Luis |last2=Andersen |first2=Alan N. |last3=Morán‐Ordóñez |first3=Alejandra |last4=Hahs |first4=Amy K. |last5=Backstrom |first5=Anna |last6=Ives |first6=Christopher D. |last7=Bickel |first7=Daniel |last8=Duncan |first8=David |last9=Palma |first9=Estibaliz |last10=Thomas |first10=Freya |last11=Cranney |first11=Kate |last12=Walker |first12=Ken |last13=Shears |first13=Ian |last14=Semeraro |first14=Linda |last15=Malipatil |first15=Mallik |last16=Moir |first16=Melinda L. |last17=Plein |first17=Michaela |last18=Porch |first18=Nick |last19=Vesk |first19=Peter A. |last20=Smith |first20=Tessa R. |last21=Lynch |first21=Yvonne |title=Indigenous plants promote insect biodiversity in urban greenspaces |journal=Ecological Applications |date=June 2021 |volume=31 |issue=4 |page=9 |doi=10.1002/eap.2309|hdl=10536/DRO/DU:30148591 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> However, at present the commercial viability of kangaroo grass is limited by low seed yields and poor knowledge of broadacre crop management.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Male |first=Dylan |last2=Hunt |first2=James |last3=Celestina |first3=Corinne |last4=Morgan |first4=John |last5=Gupta |first5=Dorin |date=2022-12-31 |title=Themeda triandra as a perennial seed crop in south-eastern Australia: What are the agronomic possibilities and constraints, and future research needs? |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/23311932.2022.2153964 |journal=Cogent Food & Agriculture |language=en |volume=8 |issue=1 |article-number=2153964 |doi=10.1080/23311932.2022.2153964 |issn=2331-1932|doi-access=free }}</ref>

The project will draw heavily on the knowledge of the traditional owners of the land, and there will be ongoing communication with farmers and Landcare Australia groups.<ref name=foodmag/>

The project follows a smaller, crowdfunded project undertaken in 2017 by writer Bruce Pascoe on his own property in Gipsy Point, eastern Victoria, managed by volunteers, to develop several Indigenous Australian food crops, including murnong (yam daisy), kangaroo grass and native raspberries.<ref>{{cite web | last=Fitzgerald | first=Bridget | title=Project to harvest and mill kangaroo grass aims to encourage farmers to adopt native Australian crops | website=ABC News|publisher= Australian Broadcasting Corporation | date=9 January 2017 | url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/rural/2017-01-09/potential-for-farmers-to-grow-native-plants/8161212 | access-date=1 March 2021}}</ref>

In 2020 Pascoe established the not-for-profit Aboriginal social enterprise Black Duck Foods in Mallacoota, Victoria. Black Duck Foods conducts research into native foods and is currently working on a roadmap for the native grains industry. They have small quantities of kangaroo and spear grass flour for sale on their website.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home {{!}} Black Duck Foods |url=https://www.blackduckfoods.com.au/ |access-date=2023-05-16 |website=www.blackduckfoods.com.au |language=en}}</ref>

The University of Sydney has undertaken research into the nutritional value of kangaroo grass, finding that it is high in protein and minerals.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Institute of Agriculture, the University of Sydney |date=September 2020 |title=Native grains from paddock to plate: study of the economic, environmental and social sustainability of an ancient system in a modern context |url=https://www.sydney.edu.au/content/dam/corporate/documents/faculty-of-science/research/life-and-environmental-sciences/sia-native-grains-paddock-to-plate.pdf |access-date=15 May 2023 |website=The University of Sydney}}</ref>

==References== {{Reflist|30em}}

==External links== {{Commons category|Themeda triandra}} *[http://www.plantzafrica.com/planttuv/themedatri.htm PlantZAfrica.com - ''Themeda triandra'']

Category:Andropogoneae Category:Grasses of Africa Category:Grasses of Asia Category:Grasses of South Africa Category:Poales of Australia Category:Flora of New South Wales Category:Flora of the Northern Territory Category:Flora of Queensland Category:Flora of South Australia Category:Flora of Tasmania Category:Flora of Victoria (state) Category:Angiosperms of Western Australia Category:Forages Category:Taxa named by Peter Forsskål