Junkanoo

{{Short description|Festive season which occurs on Boxing Day and New Year's Day}} {{For|the Baha Men album|Junkanoo!}} {{Infobox recurring event | name = | native_name = | native_name_lang = | logo = | logo_alt = | logo_caption = | logo_size = | image = John Canoe Dancers Jamaica 1975 Dec ver06.jpg | alt = | caption = Junkanoo (or "John Canoe") celebrants (Kingston, Jamaica, Christmas 1975) | status = Active | genre = Folk festival, street festival, parade | date =  | begins =  | ends =  | frequency =  | venue = | location = | coordinates =  | country = Caribbean | years_active =  | first =  | founder_name =  | last =  | prev = | next = | participants = | attendance = | capacity = | area = | budget = | activity = | leader_name = | patron = | organised =  | filing = | people = | member = | sponsor =  | website =  | footnotes = }} {{Infobox intangible heritage | Image = | Caption = | ICH = Junkanoo | Country = The Bahamas | ID = 01988 | Region = LAC | Year = 2023 | Session = 18th | List = Representative }} {{Music of the Anglophone Caribbean}} thumb|Jonkunnu in Jamaica '''Junkanoo''' (also '''Jonkonnu''', '''John Canoe''')<ref name=":1"/> is a festival that originated during the period of African chattel slavery in British American colonies. It is practiced most notably today in the Bahamas, Jamaica and Belize, and historically in North Carolina and Miami, where there have been significant settlements of West Indian people during the post-emancipation era. In the present day, there are considerable variations in performance and spelling of the festival, but the shared elements of masquerade (or masking), drumming, dance, and parading continue.

In many territories, Junkanoo is observed around the week of Christmas. These Christmas-time parades are predominantly showcased in Jamaica.<ref name=":12">{{cite web |title=2nd Day of Christmas – Jonkonnu |url=https://jis.gov.jm/information/25daysofchristmas/jonkonnu-day-2/ |website=Jamaica Information Service}}</ref> In The Bahamas, it was initially called Junkanoo and is said to date back to the 1700s. There it is celebrated year round.{{cn|date=March 2025}} In Belize, where the music is mainstreamed, competition results are hotly contested.<ref>{{cite news |last=Smith |first=Sloan |date=January 28, 2020 |title=Shell Saxon Superstars sweep 2019/2020 Junkanoo season |work=Eyewitness News |location=Nassau |url=https://ewnews.com/__trashed-12}}</ref> In the state of Florida, Junkanoo parades take place in Miami in June and in Key West in October, locales that have black populations including those with roots in the Caribbean.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bahamas Junkanoo Revue |url=https://historymiami.org/south-florida-folklife-center/artist-in-residence-programs/bahamas-junkanoo-revue/ |access-date=2023-12-15 |website=HistoryMiami Museum |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Origins == The festival is believed to have begun in the Bahamas; however, evidence shows that Junkanoo's origins point strongly to Jamaica and that it later spread throughout the Caribbean as early as the 18th century.<ref name=":02">{{cite conference |last1=Bilby |first1=Kenneth |author-link1= |last2= |first2= |author-link2= |date=November 2007 |title=Masking the Spirit in the South Atlantic World: Jankunu's PartiallyHidden History |url=https://glc.yale.edu/sites/default/files/files/Bilby.pdf |conference=The Legacies of Slavery and Emancipation: Jamaica in the Atlantic World |location=New Haven, Connecticut |publisher=Yale University |pages=3 |id= |book-title=}}</ref> Though stemming from the same origin, celebrations have been localized by different countries and, over time, evolved to be somewhat different.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sands |first1=Rosita M. |last2=DuValier |first2=Maureen "Bahama Mama" |last3=Simms |first3=Ronald |date=1989 |title=Junkanoo Past, Present, and Future |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1214745 |journal=The Black Perspective in Music |volume=17 |issue=1/2 |pages=93–108 |doi=10.2307/1214745 |jstor=1214745 |issn=0090-7790|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

This tradition is one of the oldest dance celebrations in Jamaica.<ref name=":1">{{cite web |title=2nd Day of Christmas – Jonkonnu |url=https://jis.gov.jm/information/25daysofchristmas/jonkonnu-day-2/ |website=Jamaica Information Service}}</ref> In addition to being a cultural dance of the Garifuna people of Belize and various islands,<ref>{{cite news |first= Ericka |last=Hamburg |date= December 23, 2007 |title= Free to dance - Belize's liberating Jonkonnu celebration recalls a slavery-era tradition |newspaper=Los Angeles Times |page=3 |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2007-dec-23-tr-junkanoo23-story.html |access-date=2020-12-27 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Gene |last=Scaramuzzo |date= April 28, 1989 |title= African-Caribbean Music Takes Off |newspaper= The Times-Picayune |page= L21 |url=https://infoweb.newsbank.com/apps/news/openurl?ctx_ver=z39.88-2004&rft_id=info%3Asid/infoweb.newsbank.com&svc_dat=AWNB&req_dat=0F1B56E1B179D300&rft_val_format=info%3Aofi/fmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Actx&rft_dat=document_id%3Anews%252F0FADA1E6F0DF76B4 |via=NewsBank}}</ref> this type of dancing is also performed in the Bahamas on their independence day and other historical holidays.

Historically, Junkanoo parades took place among blacks in southeastern North Carolina and can be traced back to Jamaican roots.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lasseter |first=M.E. |date=2014 |title=Jonkonnu, Jankunu, Junkanoo, John Canoe: Reorienting North Carolina's Practice in the American Mediterranean |url=https://docsouth.unc.edu/commland/features/essays/johnkonnu-1/ |access-date=2023-09-05 |website=Commemorative Landscapes of North Carolina {{!}} Documenting the American South |publisher=University of North Carolina - Chapel Hill |language=en}}</ref> The custom had included disguised mocking of slave holders, and it became less popular after slavery was abolished. The last known Junkanoo celebration in the Southern United States was in Wilmington, North Carolina, in the late 1880s.<ref>{{cite news |last=Brockell |first=Gillian |date=26 December 2021 |title=Jonkonnu: The holiday when Black revelers could mock their enslavers |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/history/2021/12/26/jonkonnu-christmas-enslaved/ |newspaper=The Washington Post}}</ref>

Dances are choreographed to the beat of goatskin drums and cowbells.

==Etymology== The origin of the word "''junkanoo''" is disputed. Theories include that it is named after a folk hero named John Canoe, or that it is derived from the French term ''gens inconnus'' (unknown people), as the revellers wear masks.<ref> {{cite web |title=The Joy of Junkanoo |url=http://www.bahamas.co.uk/about/junkanoo/what-is-junkanoo |website=The Islands of the Bahamas |publisher=The Bahamas Ministry of Tourism and Aviation |access-date=2020-12-27}}</ref> Variations include ''jonkonnu, jankunu or jonkunnu''.<ref name=":1"/><ref name=":bilby"/>

==History== The festival may have originated several centuries ago when enslaved Africans or their descendants, on the plantations in Jamaica, celebrated holidays granted around Christmastime.<ref name=":1"/><ref name=":bilby"/> This was done with dance, music (drumming), and costumes. The costumes and drumming used in celebration in Jamaica show strong similarities to West African mask dances, blended with European culture.<ref name=":1"/>

Evidence suggests that the origin of this Jamaican tradition is likely to be Akan.<ref name=":jokonnu"/> Similarities can possibly be found in three other "groups" of West African festival traditions. These are:

* the annual New Yam Festival of the Mmo secret society of the Igbo peoples * the Egungun masquerades of the Yoruba people, and * the Homowo yam festival of the Ga people<ref name=":bilby">{{Cite journal |last=Bilby |first=Kenneth M. |date=2010-01-01 |title=Surviving Secularization: Masking the Spirit in the Jankunu (John Canoe) Festivals of the Caribbean |journal=New West Indian Guide / Nieuwe West-Indische Gids |language=en |volume=84 |issue=3–4 |pages=179–223 |doi=10.1163/13822373-90002440 |issn=2213-4360 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

The tradition continued in countries like Jamaica after emancipation. Junkanoo evolved far from simple origins to a formal, organized parade with intricate costumes, themed music and official prizes within various categories in The Bahamas.

Douglas Chambers, professor of African studies at the University of Southern Mississippi, suggests a possible Igbo origin from the Igbo yam deity ''Njoku Ji,'' referencing festivities in time for the New Yam Festival. Chambers also suggests a link with the Igbo ''okonko'' masking tradition of southern Igboland, which features horned maskers and other masked characters, similar to junkanoo masks.<ref name="doug">{{cite book |page=182 |title=Murder at Montpelier: Igbo Africans in Virginia |isbn=1-57806-706-5 |last=Chambers |first=Douglas B. |publisher=University Press of Mississippi |date=March 1, 2005}}</ref>

Similarities with the Yoruba Egungun festivals have also been identified.<ref name="Allsop">{{cite book|last=Allsop|first=Richard|title=The Dictionary of Caribbean English Usage|year=2003|publisher=University of the West Indies Press|location=Jamaica|isbn=978-976-640-145-0|pages=776|url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofcari0000unse|url-access=registration}}</ref> However, an Akan origin is more likely because the celebration of the Fancy Dress Festivals/Masquerades are during the same time (Christmas week, 25 December – 1 January) in the Central and Western Regions of Ghana. In addition, John Canoe was an existing Ahanta chief and an Akan warrior hero that ruled Axim, Ghana before 1720, the same year the John Canoe festival was created in the Caribbean.<ref name="Fort Gross Frederiksburg">[http://www.ghanamuseums.org/forts/fort-gross-federickburg.php "Fort Gross Frederiksburg, Princestown (1683)"], Ghana Museums and Monuments Board.</ref> Jeroen Dewulf pointed out, the term may have had a religious dimension, relating to the Akan deity ''Nyankompong'' (in today's spelling), who was known in eighteenth-century English sources as ''John Company''.<ref name="Dewulf, Jeroen">{{cite journal|last=Dewulf|first=Jeroen|title=Rethinking the Historical Development of Caribbean Performance Culture from an Afro-Iberian Perspective: The Case of Junkanoo|journal=New West Indian Guide / Nieuwe West-Indische Gids|volume=95|issue=3–4|pages=223–253|date=December 2021|doi=10.1163/22134360-bja10012 |s2cid=237712750 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

According to Edward Long, an 18th-century Jamaican enslaver/historian, the John Canoe festival was created in Jamaica and the Caribbean by enslaved Akan who backed the man known as John Canoe.<ref name=":jokonnu"/> Canoe was an ally soldier for the Germans until he turned his back on them for his Ahanta people, siding with the Asante, Nzema, Wassa and others in an alliance called Kotoko (another name for the Asante state), to take the area from the Germans and other Europeans. The news of his victory reached Jamaica, and he has been celebrated ever since the Christmas of 1708 when he first defeated Prussian forces for Axim. Twenty years later, his stronghold was broken by neighbouring Fante forces, aided by the military might of the British.

Ahanta and other Asante Kotoko captives were taken to Jamaica as prisoners of war. The festival itself includes motifs from battles typical of Akan fashion. The many war masks and dance formations of the Ahanta people became part of this celebration worldwide, especially in the Caribbean. The elaborate masks and attire resemble Akan battledress with charms, referred to as a Batakari<ref name="Long">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QLw_AAAAcAAJ&q=edward%20long%20coromantee&pg=PA446 |first=Edward |last=Long |title=The History of Jamaica Or, A General Survey of the Antient and Modern State of that Island: With Reflexions on Its Situation, Settlements, Inhabitants, Climate, Products, Commerce, Laws, and Government |publisher=T. Lowndes |year=1774 |pages=445–475}}</ref>

==Description== Junkanoo has been prominent and celebrated in colonies such as Jamaica (as ''Jankunu, Jonkonnu or Jonkunnu''), The Bahamas (as Junkanoo), and North Carolina.<ref name="doug"/><ref>{{Cite web |date=2010-03-19 |title=Commemorative Landscapes of North Carolina |url=https://docsouth.unc.edu/commland/features/essays/johnkonnu-1/ |access-date=2023-12-15 |website=docsouth.unc.edu |language=en}}</ref>

Historian Stephen Nissenbaum described the festival as it was performed in 19th-century North Carolina: <blockquote>Essentially, it involved a band of black men—generally young—who dressed themselves in ornate and often bizarre costumes. Each band was led by a man who was variously dressed in animal horns, elaborate rags, female disguise, whiteface (and wearing a gentleman's wig!), or simply his "Sunday-go-to-meeting-suit." Accompanied by music, the band marched along the roads from plantation to plantation and town to town, accosting whites and sometimes even entering their houses. In the process, the men performed elaborate and (to white observers) grotesque dances that were probably of African origin. In return for this performance, they always demanded money (the leader generally carried "a small bowl or tin cup" for this purpose), though whiskey was an acceptable substitute.<ref>{{cite book |first=Stephen |last=Nissenbaum |title=The Battle for Christmas |location=New York |publisher=Vintage Books |year=1997 |page=285 |isbn=978-0679740384}}</ref></blockquote>

==Characters== [[File:Jamaica Carnival Jonkonnu.jpg|thumb|A few Jonkunnu characters at Jamaica Carnival, in Kingston.]] Traditionally, Junkanoo entails a band of masqueraders with the following characters:<ref name=":1"/><ref name=":jokonnu">{{cite news|date=2021-01-12|title=The Classics:Remembering Jonkonnu|url= https://jamaica-gleaner.com/article/esponsored/20210112/classics-remembering-jonkonnu|newspaper=Jamaica Gleaner|access-date=2025-03-09}}</ref> * '''The King and Queen'''— prominent characters representing European royalty. They usually wear elaborate costumes with shiny materials and crowns. * '''Pitchy Patchy'''— a main character in Jamaican Jonkonnu, whose role is to keep masqueraders and the surrounding crowd of spectators in order, by cracking a cattle whip. Pitchy Patchy is often depicted in a suit made of colourful, tattered pieces of cloth.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lewin |first=Olive |title=Rock it come over: the folk music of Jamaica |date=2000 |publisher=Univ. of the West Indies Press |isbn=978-976-640-028-6 |location=Kingston, Jamaica}}</ref> * '''Belly Woman'''— a humorous character with a large belly, representing fertility and abundance. Belly Woman is usually a male performer who plays the role of a pregnant lady. * '''Horse Head'''— a character often seen with a horse head/skull costume. * '''Cow Head'''— a character often seen with a cow head costume including long horns, and is sometimes seen on stilts. * ''' The Red Indians / Wild Apache Indians'''— common characters that depict Native Americans or Amerindians. They often wear beads, mirrors and feathers. * ''' The Devil'''— a prominent character that represents evil in the world, whose appearance is scary and mischievous. The Devil's costume includes a pitchfork and tail. * '''The Red-Set Girls'''— backup dancers to the rest of the characters, who wear flamboyant dresses. * '''House Head'''— a character often depicted as a house/building, carried on the head by a performer, which symbolizes the hope for a better future. * '''The Bride and Groom'''— characters dressed like a typical bride and groom. * '''Jack in the Green'''— a man covered with green foliage. * '''Policeman'''— a character dressed in a police costume. * '''Warrior'''— a character dressed like a warrior, sometimes seen with a wooden sword painted silver.

==Popular culture== thumb|Example of Junkanoo costume December 2007

The Junkanoo parade has been featured in movies, such as the James Bond film ''Thunderball'' (erroneously described as a local Mardi Gras-type festival), ''After the Sunset'', and ''Jaws The Revenge.'' It was also in the season one episode, ''Calderone's Return (Part II),'' of the 1984 television series ''Miami Vice'', taking place on the fictitious island of St. Andrews.

A song titled "Junkanoo Holiday (Fallin'-Flyin')" was written by Kenny Loggins and is featured on his 1979 album ''Keep The Fire''. This song immediately follows the hit song, "This Is It," on the album. "This Is It" has a fade ending that segues into "Junkanoo Holiday (Fallin'-Flyin')", omitting a complete break between the two songs.

In the thirteenth episode of the television show ''Top Chef: All-Stars'', "Fit for a King", the contestants danced at a Junkanoo parade, learned about its history, and competed to make the best dish for the Junkanoo King.

The post-Covid return to Junkanoo was briefly discussed across the two-part episodes 189 and 190 of Nicole Byer and Sasheer Zamata's podcast, ''Best Friends'', documenting their trip to The Bahamas.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sasheer Was Scared To Leave Nicole Stranded In the Middle of the Ocean |url=https://www.earwolf.com/episode/sasheer-was-scared-to-leave-nicole-stranded-in-the-middle-of-the-ocean/ |website=Earwolf |access-date=February 14, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Nicole and Sasheer Regale You With the Final Chapter of Their Bahamas Trip |url=https://www.earwolf.com/episode/nicole-and-sasheer-regale-you-with-the-final-chapter-of-their-bahamas-trip/ |website=Earwolf |access-date=February 14, 2023}}</ref>

==Gallery== <gallery mode="packed"> File:Valley Boy at Rush for Peace Freeport Bahamas 2011.jpg|Rush for Peace (Freeport, Bahamas, 2011) File:JunkanooCostumeAfterTheParade2006.JPG|Costume sans participant after the parade File:Junkanoo costume.jpg|Junkanoo costume File:SaxonsCostume.jpg|Junkanoo costume File:Junkanoo Festival, Nassau 2.jpg|Junkanoo Festival, Nassau 2005 File:Junkanoo2.jpg|Junkanoo musician 2005 </gallery>

==See also== *Pitchy patchy * John Canoe, the 1708 king of Axim, after whom the practice may have been named

==References== {{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading== {{Commons category|Junkanoo}} * {{cite book |last=Bethel |first=Clement |author-link=E. Clement Bethel |title=Junkanoo: Festival of the Bahamas |publisher=Macmillan Caribbean |year=1992 |isbn=0-333-55469-8}} * {{cite journal |last=Rommen |first=Timothy |title=Home Sweet Home: Junkanoo as National Discourse in the Bahamas |journal=Black Music Research Journal |volume=19 |number=1 |date=1999 |pages=71–92 |doi=10.2307/779275|jstor=779275 }} * {{cite thesis |last=Wisdom |first=Keith Gordon |title=Bahamian Junkanoo: An Act in a Modern Social Drama |type=PhD |publisher=University of Georgia |date= 1985 |url=http://kwul.kwu.ac.kr/oversea/52_8524388.PDF}} * {{cite thesis |last=Wood |first=Vivian Nina Michelle |title=Rushin' hard and runnin' hot: Experiencing the music of the Junkanoo Parade in Nassau, Bahamas |type=PhD |publisher=Indiana University |date=1995}}

Category:Music of the Bahamas Category:Music of Jamaica Category:Parades in the Bahamas Category:Nassau, Bahamas Category:December observances Category:January observances Category:Folk festivals in the Bahamas Category:Folk festivals in Jamaica Category:Folk festivals in Belize Category:Cultural festivals in the Caribbean Category:Cultural festivals in the Bahamas Category:Cultural festivals in Jamaica Category:Carnivals in the Bahamas Category:Culture of Jamaica Category:Culture of the Bahamas Category:Carnival