{{Short description|Chinese art genre featuring architecture}}{{Infobox Chinese | t = 界畫 | s = 界画 | p = jièhuà | j = gaai3 waa6*2 | mi = {{IPAc-cmn|j|ie|4|.|h|ua|4}} | ci = {{IPAc-yue|g|aai|3|.|w|aa|2}} | y = gaaiwá }} '''''Jiehua''''' (simplified Chinese: 界画; traditional Chinese: 界畫) painting, sometimes translated as “border painting,” “boundary painting,” or “ruled-line painting,” is a field within Chinese visual art that describes paintings featuring detailed renderings of architecture with ''shan shui'' (mountains and rivers) backgrounds and figures, boats, and carts as embellishments. Referring to this style with the term ''jiehua'' instead of a direct translation is commonly agreed to be the most accurate, as the word ''jie'' (界) refers to a device called ''jiechi'' (界尺) which was a ruler with marks or grooves that helped Chinese painters draw the straight lines necessary to depict architectural detail. These paintings are characterized by their meticulous attention to detail, technical consideration, and mechanical perfection, distinguishing ''jiehua'' from other painting genres.
== Techniques, materials and tools == thumb|The use of jiehua devices.|400x400px ''Jiehua'' painters commonly utilized a tool called jiechi (界尺), a ruler marked with grooves, to guide their hands in creating precise straight lines needed for architectural detailing. Scholar Shen Kangshen 沈康身 attempted to reconstruct the historical usage of jiechi in a more generalized manner, relying on a Ming-era instrument.<ref>Shen Kangshen 沈康身, “Jiehua shixue he toushixue” 界画视学和透视学 [Jiehua’s perspective and perspective], in Kejishi wenji 科技史文集 (Shanghai: Shanghai kexue jishu chubanshe, 1982), 8:161.</ref> According to Shen, a complete set of ''jiehua'' tools consists of a parallel ruler (jiechi 界尺), a groove ruler (caochi 槽尺), and a brush (bi 笔). The parallel ruler comprises two straight edges affixed to two movable rods. By anchoring the lower edge and adjusting the angle between the rods and edges, the upper edge shifts to create parallel lines. The groove ruler, a squared-off stick featuring a semicircular slot, holds the brush tip. The painter affixes the bottom of the groove ruler to the upper edge of the parallel ruler. The other hand maintains the angles between the groove ruler and the parallel ruler, as well as between the groove ruler and the brush. The groove ruler can glide along the parallel ruler, guiding the brush to produce straight lines.<ref name="Yu-2022a">{{Cite book |last=Yu |first=Leqi |title=Painting Architecture: Jiehua in Yuan China |publisher=Hong Kong University Press |year=2022 |isbn=978-988-8754-23-6 |location=Hong Kong |page=11}}</ref>
The use of the ''jiechi'' ruler and other tools was a common practice among ''jiehua'' artists, historical records also highlight several ''jiehua'' specialists who were known for their freehand techniques. During the Northern Song era, writer Guo Ruoxu 郭若虚 criticized his contemporaries for depending on rulers when discussing architectural subjects in his work ''Tuhua Jianwen Zhu'' (Paintings Seen and Heard 图画见闻志). He indicated that previous ''jiehua'' painters such as Guo Zhongshu 郭国宝 and Wang Shiyuan 王士元 did not use rulers, which he regarded as more admirable. Later Guo and Wang were both celebrated as experts of ''jiehua'' painting.<ref>Guo Ruoxu 郭若虚, Tuhua jianwen zhi 图画见闻志 [Experiences in painting], juan 1, in Huashi congshu 画史丛书, ed. Yu Anlan 于安澜 (Shanghai: Shanghai renmin meishu chubanshe, 1982), 1:6.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Anlan |first=Yu |title=Huashi Congshu 画史丛书 |publisher=Shanghai renmin meishu chubanshe |year=1982 |location=Shanghai |pages=6}}</ref> This points to ''jiehua'' as an art form as defined not by the tools used but rather by style. Yuan scholar Rao Ziran 饶自然 reinforced this concept when discussing ''jiehua'', stating, "Even if you do not use rulers, you should still consistently use the principles of ''jiehua'' to achieve it,"<ref>Rao Ziran 饶自然, Huizong shierji 绘宗十二忌 [The twelve faults in painting tradition], in Zhongguo shuhua quanshu 中国书画全书, ed. Lu Fusheng 卢辅圣 (Shanghai: Shanghai shuhua chubanshe, 2000), 2:952.</ref> reaching beyond the literal translation of "ruled-line painting." While ''jiehua'' as a genre emphasizes mechanical aids and subject categories, it recognizes itself as a painting style.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Yu |first=Leqi |title=Painting Architecture: Jiehua in Yuan China, 1271–1368 |publisher=Hong Kong University Press |year=2022 |isbn=978-988-8754-23-6 |location=Hong Kong |pages=13}}</ref>
== Style and literati impact == Art historians’ descriptions of ''jiehua'' style emphasize the essential requirement of understanding Chinese construction techniques and standards. Four basic principles compose ''jiehua'' style: faultless calculation, structural clarity, correct scale, and mathematical and architectural knowledge.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Yu |first=Leqi |title=Painting Architecture: Jiehua in Yuan China, 1271-1368 |publisher=Hong Kong University Press |year=2022 |isbn=978-988-8754-23-6 |location=Hong Kong |pages=14}}</ref> Records indicate that ''jiehua'' experts were able to create paintings with accuracy that met or even surpassed experienced craftsmen. An account in ''Yizhou Minghua Lu'' (益州名画录) about court painter Zhao Zhongyi 赵忠义 whose ''jiehua'' painting passed the inspection of a skilled architect supports this.<ref>Huang Xiufu 黄休复, Yizhou minghualu 益州名画录 [Records of famous painters of Yizhou], juan Zhong 中, in Huashi congshu 画史丛书, ed. Yu Anlan 于安澜 (Shanghai: Shanghai renmin meishu chubanshe, 1982), 4:20.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Yu |first=Leqi |title=Painting Architecture: Jiehua in Yuan China, 1271-1368 |publisher=Hong Kong University Press |year=2022 |isbn=978-988-8754-23-6 |location=Hong Kong |pages=15}}</ref>
The tension between ''jiehua'' and craftsmanship led to consequences: its difficulty to master and a general disdain of the genre stemming from literati ideology. By the standard of ancient Chinese aesthetics, the Six Principles of Chinese painting (Liufa 六法) placed spirit resonance as the most significant element while the painting skills and artists’ practice were secondary. ''Jiehua'' contains many artificial aspects from theme to painting method and it requires fundamental knowledge of mathematics and architecture. ''Jiehua'' was considered more like an architectural drawing than an artwork, a quality that went against natural spirit resonance and nature’s beauty of literati ideals.<ref>Ren, Baihua (2020). “The Water Mill: Authentication and Analysis of an Ancient Chinese Jiehua Painting.” ''University of Glasgow,'' p. 22.</ref> In the early Eastern Jin dynasty, Gu Kaizhi 顧愷之 considered architectural artwork as static subjects lacking expressive ideas, and ranked it last amongst all other painting styles.<ref>Zhang Yanyuan 张彦远, ''Lidai minghua ji'' 历代名画记 [Records of famous paintings of successive dynasties], juan 5, in ''Huashi congshu'' 画史丛书, ed. Yu Anlan 于安澜 (Shanghai: Shanghai renmin meishu chubanshe, 1982), 1:70; trans. Jerome Silbergeld, “All Receding Together, One Hundred Slanting Lines: Replication, Variation, and Some Fundamental Problems in the Study of Chinese Paintings of Architecture,” in ''Qiannian danqing: Xidu Zhong Ri cang Zhongguo Tang, Song, Yuan huihua zhenpin'' 千年丹青：细读中日藏中国唐宋元绘画珍品, ed. Shanghai Museum (Beijing: Peking University Press, 2010), 16.</ref> The ''Tangchao Minghualu'' (Famous Paintings of the Tang Period 唐朝名画录) from the Tang dynasty similarly placed paintings depicting architecture at the bottom of the painting system.<ref>Zhu Jingxuan 朱景玄, ''Tangchao minghua lu'' 唐朝名画录 [Record of famous painters of the Tang dynasty], in ''Zhongguo shuhua quanshu'' 中国书画全书, ed. Lu Fusheng 卢辅圣 (Shanghai: Shanghai shuhua chubanshe, 2000), 1:161.</ref> The same is true in the Yuan dynasty, following Tang Hou 汤垕's creation of the thirteen painting categories, ''jiehua'' found itself relegated to the lowest position.<ref>Tang Hou 汤垕, ''Gujin huajian'' 古今画鉴 [Examination of past and present painting], in ''Zhongguo shuhua quanshu'' 中国书画全书, ed. Lu Fusheng 卢辅圣 (Shanghai: Shanghai shuhua chubanshe, 2000), 2:903.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Yu |first=Leqi |title=Painting Architecture: Jiehua in Yuan China, 1271-1368 |publisher=Hong Kong University |year=2022 |isbn=978-988-8754-23-6 |location=Hong Kong |pages=15–16}}</ref> As the Yuan dynasty waned, ''jiehua''<nowiki/>'s standing continued to diminish. Scholar Xu Qin 徐沁 from the Ming period, noted that the painters were viewed as inferior artisans.<ref>Xu Qin 徐沁, ''Ming hua lu'' 明画录 [Records of Ming painting], juan 1, in ''Huashi congshu'' 画史丛书, ed. Yu Anlan 于安澜 (Shanghai: Shanghai renmin meishu chubanshe, 1982), 3:14.</ref><ref>Chung, Anita (2017-12-18). ''Drawing Boundaries: Architectural Images in Qing China''. University of Hawaii Press. p. 32. {{ISBN|978-0-8248-6226-8}}</ref>
In spite of their distaste for the style, the literati attempted to integrate ''jiehua'' into their painting conventions. In the Tang period, efforts were made by art historians to free architectural paintings from reliance on mechanical aids, such as ''Lidai Minghuaji'' (Famous Paintings Through History 历代名画记).<ref>Zhang Yanyuan 张彦远, ''Lidai minghua ji'' 历代名画记 [Records of famous paintings of successive dynasties], juan 2, in ''Huashi congshu'' 画史丛书, ed. Yu Anlan 于安澜 (Shanghai: Shanghai renmin meishu chubanshe, 1982), 1:22; trans. modified from Susan Bush and Hsio-yen Shih, ''Early Chinese Texts on Painting'' (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2012), 61–62.</ref> The Song dynasty palace catalog ''Xuanhe Huapu'' (The Xuanhe Catalog of Paintings 宣和画谱) also differentiated between two categories of ''jiehua'': an inferior one strictly governed by rules, and a superior one not restricted by them.<ref>''Xuanhe huapu'' 宣和画谱 [The Xuanhe painting catalogue], juan 8, in ''Huashi congshu'' 画史丛书, ed. Yu Anlan 于安澜 (Shanghai: Shanghai renmin meishu chubanshe,1982), 2:81.</ref> Qing writer Zheng Ji 郑绩 transformed the meaning of ''jiehua'', shifting its association from carpenter's tools to abstract principles. Zheng Ji also claimed, ''jiehua'' no longer signified reliance on rulers but rather underscored adherence to rules and laws.<ref>Zheng Ji 郑绩, ''Menghuan ju huaxue jianming'' 梦幻居画学简明 [The essence of the painting technique of the Menghuan studio], juan 1, in ''Xuxiu siku quanshu'' 续修四库全书 (Shanghai: Shanghai guji chubanshe, 1995), 1086: 191–192.</ref><ref>Yu, Leqi (2022). ''Painting Architecture: Jiehua in Yuan China, 1271-1368''. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University. pp. 16–17. {{ISBN|978-988-8754-23-6}}</ref> Although ''jiehua'' style’s association with the usage of rulers originated right from the outset, members of the literati sought to transform ''jiehua'' into a form compatible with conventional literati preferences.
Contemporary scholars assert that even when ''jiehua'' painters used rulers, their depictions of architecture are generally regarded as lacking in specificity or accuracy when compared to the existing buildings. At the same time, ''jiehua'' artworks featuring architectural subjects are acknowledged as providing valuable insights into building details, especially of structures no longer standing.<ref>Fu, Xinian and Alexandra Harrer (2017). “Northern Song Architecture in the Painting: A Thousand Li of Rivers and Mountains by Wang Ximeng.” ''Traditional Chinese Architecture: Twelve Essays'', edited by Nancy S. Steinhardt, Princeton University Press, p. 296.</ref>
== History ==
=== Eastern Zhou Dynasty (770–221 BC) === The origins of ''jiehua'' can be traced back to as early as the Eastern Zhou Dynasty. Among the earliest possible practitioners of this art form was Jingjun 敬君, who was from the Qi state.<ref name="Yu-2022c" /> Additionally, excavations of lacquerware in excavations in Linzi, Shandong depict architectural subjects, and provide a glimpse into architectural representation in the Eastern Zhou period.<ref name="Yu-2022c" />
=== Qin and Han Dynasties (221 BC – 220 AD) === Artifacts from Zhou dynasty showed the first occurrence of textual references to early manifestations of ''jiehua,'' but the Qin and Han dynasties have the earliest preserved drawings. During this period, depictions of houses, pavilions, and palaces began emerging on Han stone reliefs. The paintings of this time served primarily utilitarian and illustrative functions, exemplified by Zhang Yuanyin’s ''Records of Famous Paintings of the Past Dynasties'' 《历代名画记》.<ref name="Wang-2009">{{Cite journal |last=Wang |first=Yanyun |date=January 2009 |title="游规矩于准绳之内寄妙理于法度之外——宋以前古代界画的发展特点" (Hinging on Rulers While Soaring beyond Norms——the Development Track of Pre-Song Dynasty Jiehua). |journal=艺术设计研究 (Decoration) |volume=4 |pages=15–20 |doi=10.3969/j.issn.1674-7518.2009.04.003}}</ref> This shows ''jiehua''’s early aesthetic principles, which emphasize precision and accuracy over the abstract impressionism that later characterized literati landscape traditions.
=== Wei, Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties (220–589) === During the Wei, Jin, Northern and Southern dynasties, the scope of ''jiehua'' expanded beyond technical architectural drawings to incorporate scenery and environments. Although there are few surviving works from this period, many names of jiehua painters were recorded. The painter Yang Xiushan 杨修善 from the Cao Wei court created a landmark ''jiehua'' work called the ''Two Capitals'' 《两京图》, which depicts the splendor of the dual capitals of Luoyang and Chang'an.<ref name="Wang-2009" /> Buddhist temple architecture emerged as a prominent subject in ''jiehua'' during this period, coinciding with the spread of the religion. Craftsmen like Jiang Shaoyou 蒋少游 joined the ranks of ''jiehua'' painters.<ref name="Wang-2009" /> The integration of architectural knowledge into ''jiehua'' represents an evolution of the art form. During this period that the earliest records of ''jiehua'' being viewed as an inferior art form appear with Eastern Jin scholar Gu Kaizhi 顧愷之 ranking it as the lowest form.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Yu |first=Leqi |title=Painting Architecture: Jiehua in Yuan China, 1271-1368 |publisher=Hong Kong Press |year=2022 |isbn=978-988-8754-23-6 |location=Hong Kong |pages=15–16}}</ref>
=== Sui Dynasty (589–618) === The Sui dynasty constituted another period of evolution for ''jiehua''. With Buddhism spreading, the Sui dynasty experienced a proliferation of Buddhist temple construction, providing new subjects for ''jiehua'' painting.<ref name="Wang-2009" /> Painters like Yang Qidan stood out for creating ''jiehua'' based on real, existing architecture, shifting the form toward realistic representation. On the technical side, the use of boundary rulers as tools to delineate architectural lines became more standard during the Sui dynasty.<ref name="Wang-2009" />
=== Tang Dynasty (618–907) === The Tang dynasty, with its support of the arts, ushered in a golden age of ''jiehua''. A famous ''jiehua'' that arose during this period are the Dunhuang murals. The Mogao Cave, which represents Tang architecture, is a good example.<ref>Yang Xin; Richard M. Barnhart; Nie Chongzheng; James Cahill; Lang Shaojun; Wu Hung (1997). ''Three Thousands Years of Chinese Paintings''. Yale University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-300-07013-2}}</ref> Few of these buildings still exist to this day.<ref>Steinhardt, Nancy Shatzman. "The Tang Architectural Icon and the Politics of Chinese Architectural History," ''The Art Bulletin'' (Volume 86, Number 2, 2004): 228–254. Page 228.</ref> Aside from the murals, painters like Yin Jizhao introduced new architectural, mathematical techniques, and knowledge to ''jiehua'' creation.<ref name="Wang-2009" /> Another painter, Yan Liben, was one of the first to depict automotive architectural structures in his ''jiehua'' paintings, such as carts and chariots.<ref name="Wang-2009" /> The thematic scope of ''jiehua'' continued its growth of incorporating landscape and human figures, like “Jiangfan Pavilion Picture” 《江帆楼阁图》 by Li Sixun 李思训. Paintings such as the “Jiangfan Pavilion Picture” demonstrate increased depictions of secular, everyday themes, alongside the Buddhist and other religious imagery.
=== Five Dynasties (907–960) === The disruptions of the Five Dynasties era constituted another period of change for ''jiehua''. Wei Xian's “Water Mill” 《闸口盘车图》 and Hu Yi's works exemplified ''jiehua'' painting during this time.<ref name="Wang-2009" /> The range of ''jiehua'' expanded beyond wall paintings and scrolls into new mediums like textiles for daily use. The Five Dynasties continued the Tang legacy of skilled craftsmen producing ''jiehua''.
=== Song Dynasty (960–1279) === ''Jiehua'' painting as a distinct artistic category emerged during the Southern Song period.<ref name="Yu-2022a" /> The Southern Song Capital of Lin’an, modern-day Hangzhou, served as the period’s primary art center. This was thanks to the influence of artists from nearby Wuxing, its sway as a capital city, and being confluence of cultural exchange.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Leqi |first=Yu |title=Painting Architecture: Jiehua in Yuan China |publisher=Hong Kong University Press |year=2022 |isbn=978-988-8754-23-6 |location=Hong Kong |pages=127}}</ref> Examples of these works were found in palaces or temples with its subjects ranging from ancient tales to objects from the natural world.
Court patronage for ''jiehua'' peaked in the Northern Song period, exemplified by ''Along the River During Qingming Festival'' 《清明上河图》.<ref name="Liu-2002">{{Cite journal |last=Liu |first=Heping |date=2002 |title="The Water Mill" and Northern Song Imperial Patronage of Art, Commerce, and Science |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3177285 |journal=The Art Bulletin |volume=84 |issue=4 |pages=566–595 |doi=10.2307/3177285 |jstor=3177285 |issn=0004-3079|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Historian Wen Chien-Cheng suggests that the renaissance of ''jiehua'' painting in the Northern Song Dynasty may be attributed to the prominence of landscape paintings and appreciation of realism.<ref name="Liu-2002" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cheng |first=Wen-Chien |date=2016 |title=Paintings of Traveling Bullock Carts (Panche Tu) in the Song Dynasty (960–1279) |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24812167 |journal=Archives of Asian Art |volume=66 |issue=2 |pages=239–269 |doi=10.1353/aaa.2016.0018 |jstor=24812167 |issn=0066-6637|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The surviving ''jiehua'' works from the Southern Song period portray close-ups of structures which were “often juxtaposed with voids that suggest distance and atmospheric mood," an adoption of Southern literati landscape features.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chung |first=Anita |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/9780824862268 |title=Drawing Boundaries: Architectural Images in Qing China |date=2017-12-18 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0-8248-6226-8 |pages=29|doi=10.1515/9780824862268 }}</ref>
=== Yuan Dynasty (1279–1368) === During the Yuan dynasty, ''jiehua'' replaced other names of depictions of architectural subjects and man-made objects, such as the term ''wumu'' which describes “wooden constructions” and features subjects of boats and carts.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Yu |first=Leqi |title=Painting Architecture: Jiehua in Yuan China |publisher=Hong Kong University Press |year=2022 |isbn=978-988-8754-23-6 |location=Hong Kong |pages=8}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Yu |first=Leqi |title=Painting Architecture: Jiehua in Yuan China |publisher=Hong Kong University Press |year=2022 |isbn=978-988-8754-23-6 |location=Hong Kong |pages=17}}</ref> At this time ''jiehua'' remained popular with court patronage and consumer demand, but not literati circles.<ref name="Yu-2022b" /> Around 100 ''jiehua'' artworks from the Yuan dynasty survive.<ref name="Yu-2022b">{{Cite book |last=Yu |first=Leqi |title=Painting Architecture: Jiehua in Yuan China |publisher=Hong Kong University Press |year=2022 |isbn=978-988-8754-23-6 |location=Hong Kong |pages=18}}</ref> These paintings showcase the artists’ attention to detail and new ''jiehua'' traditions, like the ''baimiao'' technique. Line drawing without shading and a modular approach for the rearranging of standardized components within a composition also appeared.<ref name="Yu-2022b" /><ref name="Yu-2022d">{{Cite book |last=Yu |first=Leqi |title=Painting Architecture: Jiehua in Yuan China |publisher=Hong Kong University Press |year=2022 |isbn=978-988-8754-23-6 |location=Hong Kong |pages=51}}</ref>
The Yuan dynasty experienced a shift in the preferential materials used for ''jiehua'' painting. Favored among literati scholars, silk became a popular medium for painting, used by around forty-eight percent of paintings in museum collections.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Yu |first=Leqi |title=Painting Architecture: Jiehua in Yuan China |publisher=Hong Kong University Press |year=2022 |isbn=978-988-8754-23-6 |location=Hong Kong |pages=96}}</ref> As in the Southern Song period, Hangzhou continued to serve as a hotspot for artistic ingenuity of ''jiehua'' during the Yuan period. In 1284, the Mongols instituted the Maritime Trade Supervisorate, placing Hangzhou as a center for international trade, which resulted in the exportation ''jiehua'' paintings to neighboring countries.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Yu |first=Leqi |title=Painting Architecture: Jiehua in Yuan China |publisher=Hong Kong University Press |year=2022 |isbn=978-988-8754-23-6 |location=Hong Kong |pages=135}}</ref>
=== Ming (1368–1644) === In the transition between the Yuan and Ming periods, ''jiehua'' declined in status.<ref name="Chung-2017">{{Cite book |last=Chung |first=Anita |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/9780824862268 |title=Drawing Boundaries |date=2017-12-18 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0-8248-6226-8 |pages=29|doi=10.1515/9780824862268 }}</ref> Anita Chung notes, “unlike their predecessors, almost no ''jiehua'' specialists of the Ming are recorded in literature as having achieved faultless calculation and the right proportion."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chung |first=Anita |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/9780824862268 |title=Drawing Boundaries: Architectural Images in Qing China |date=2017-12-18 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0-8248-6226-8 |pages=33|doi=10.1515/9780824862268 }}</ref> This can be attributed to a decline in imperial patronage, an emphasis on technical skill, and increasing popularity of ''literati'' paintings.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chung |first=Anita |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/9780824862268 |title=Drawing Boundaries: Architectural Images in Qing China |date=2017-12-18 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0-8248-6226-8 |pages=32|doi=10.1515/9780824862268 }}</ref> The Ming period oversaw shifts in ''jiehua'' technique, with artists favoring smaller, more delicate representations, instead of “structural clarity” of entire buildings juxtaposed with a mountainous landscape.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chung |first=Anita |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/9780824862268 |title=Drawing Boundaries: Architectural Images in Qing China |date=2017-12-18 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0-8248-6226-8 |pages=34|doi=10.1515/9780824862268 }}</ref> This shift is represented in Qiu Ying’s paintings of this time, like ''Spring Morning in the Han Palace'' and the ''Jiucheng Palace''.
=== Qing (1644–1911) === The Qing dynasty marked a resurgence in production of ''jiehua'' paintings.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chung |first=Anita |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/9780824862268 |title=Drawing Boundaries: Architectural Images in Qing China |date=2017-12-18 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0-8248-6226-8 |pages=46|doi=10.1515/9780824862268 }}</ref> Many surviving examples of ''jiehua'' during this period are court paintings. The artist’s social status would be raised by their work and would allow them to interact with other wealthy potential patrons. Paintings commissioned by those in the court would emphasize material possessions and feature subjects such as “ritual spaces, places and cities”.<ref name="Chung-2017" /> Artworks commissioned by the merchant class would feature gardens as a way to showcase their high social standings.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chung |first=Anita |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/9780824862268 |title=Drawing Boundaries: Architectural Images in Qing China |date=2017-12-18 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0-8248-6226-8 |pages=156|doi=10.1515/9780824862268 }}</ref> Another important detail during this period was the influence of European art. Throughout the Qing period, ''jiehua'' artists working within the court were introduced to European art by visiting missionaries. These missionary travelers introduced techniques in linear perspective and shading which allowed for more realism.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chung |first=Anita |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/9780824862268 |title=Drawing Boundaries: Architectural Images in Qing China |date=2017-12-18 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0-8248-6226-8 |pages=61|doi=10.1515/9780824862268 }}</ref>
=== Modern (1911–present) === After the fall of imperial China, ''jiehua'' descended into obscurity. It was not until the turn of the 21st century that a resurgence in interest by contemporary Chinese artists appeared. On the traditional front artist Zhang Xiayong is known for resurrecting traditional practices of ''jiehua'' creation. Zhang gained recognition through his work ''Fanlou Art Market.'' This piece demonstrates fine line brushwork and his an emphasis on the revival of traditional artistic techniques (大赏艺术).<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-11-24 |title=Zhang Xiaoyou's world painting-a strange peak in the field of Chinese painting and calligraphy |url=https://min.news/en/culture/c90bcb4d3e0a08516bc577b273db5034.html |access-date=2023-11-24 |website=iMedia}}</ref> His study of architecture aligns his work with the detailed architectural renderings of traditional ''jiehua'', while also embodying a linear perspective seen in many Western paintings, popularized in Qing dynasty ''jiehua''.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lin |first=Qi |date=2016-08-09 |title=Artist gives new shine to a dying art form in his golden years |url=https://english.www.gov.cn/news/2016/08/09/content_281475412721003.htm |access-date=2023-11-24 |website=english.www.gov.cn}}</ref> Some artists have begun experimenting with different media while still retaining aspects of ''jiehua'' tradition. One example is in “ceramic jiehua landscapes” (陶瓷界画山水). They also incorporate traditional ''jiehua'' practices against a shan shui backdrop, while opting for freehand brushwork to “express the traditional humanistic spirit" over the ancient traditional toolset.<ref>{{Cite web |last=熊 |first=国华 |date=2021-12-16 |title=熊国华：现代陶瓷界画山水的发展 - 雅道陶瓷网 |url=https://www.yadao8.com/taocizhishi/5320.html |access-date=2023-11-24 |website=www.yadao8.com}}</ref>
== Artists and artworks ==
=== Sui Dynasty === thumb|Spring Excursion (游春图) by Zhan Ziqian (展子虔)
==== “Spring Excursion” 《游春图》by Zhan Ziqian 展子虔 ==== Zhan Ziqian was a painter living through the transitional phases of the Northern Qi and Northern Zhou Dynasties and Sui dynasty.<ref name="Wang-2009" /> His artistic prowess served as a foundation for the subsequent evolution of ''jiehua'' paintings. His only surviving work, ''Spring Excursion'', deviated from the architectural images displayed in stone reliefs from earlier dynasties, instead incorporating landscape themes with well rendered structures nestled within the landscape.<ref name="Wang-2009" /> It was the use of fine brushwork to create intricate architectural designs that led to the emergence of ''jiehua’s'' defining trait of architectural precision and detail.
=== Tang Dynasty === thumb|200x200px|Jiangfan Pavilion (江帆楼阁图) by Li Sixun (李思训)
==== “Jiangfan Pavilion” 《江帆楼阁图》 by Li Sixun 李思训 ==== During the earlier days of ''jiehua'', the art form was influenced by color palette, figure painting, landscape depictions, and architectural design. One noteworthy contributor to Tang dynasty ''jiehua'' was Li Sixun, who made an impact by framing landscapes as a prominent focal point. This was a style influenced by Zhan Ziqian, whose work, ''Jiangfan Pavilion'', shows this shift towards landscapes over architectural structures. Li Sixun’s use of 唐三彩, the three colors of Tang (green, yellow, and white), boats, and figures in his ''jiehua'' cemented these as common features. The placement of boats in the upper corners of the painting introduced a tangible sense of distance and depth absent in earlier ''jiehua''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=陈 |first=亚青 |date=2016 |title=醉在'江帆楼阁'间 |url=http://www.cnki.net/KCMS/detail/detail.aspx?dbcode=CJFD&dbname=CJFDLASN2018&filename=SCDK201803015&uniplatform=OVERSEA&v=tuk8xSIe7f-20KUezV_qZY3_tRwTtAAPjBaHDIZ4QxnSAz7Htcbo2To8VUx7vQ6f |journal=收藏投资导刊 |issue=10 |pages=50 |via=CNKI}}</ref>
==== “Wangchuan Villa” 《辋川图》and “Snowy Stream” 《雪溪图》by Wang Wei 王维 ==== {{More|Wangchuan ji}} thumb|Wangchuan Villa painting (辋川图) by Wang Wei 王维 Wang Wei, a figure and known as one of the Four Greatest Artists during the Tang period, produced several ''jiehua'' pieces. His piece “Wangchuan Villa” depicts his own residence in detail against a prominent 山水 landscape background. Adorned with the distinctive ''Tang sancai'' 唐三彩 (green, white, and yellow) (Chen ye), the hues are emblematic of Tang dynasty ''jiehua'' art. While Wang Wei painted a variety of subjects and used many painting styles, with his ''jiehua'', he either painted with the ''sancai'' 唐三彩 colors, as seen in “Wangchuan Villa,” or in ink monochrome (shuimo), as seen in multiple pieces such as “Snowy Stream” 《雪溪图》.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=王 |first=彧浓 |date=January 2018 |title=华 ——论唐代四大画家之王维 |url=http://www.cnki.net/KCMS/detail/detail.aspx?dbcode=CJFD&dbname=CJFDLAST2018&filename=MSDZ201802037&uniplatform=OVERSEA&v=ZRwCqfVvHzEsu1kr2Q457wos_2g5IL1jj6eP39-zgc0IDHXzN7WTTaWa3QYzgMz3 |journal=美与时代（中旬刊）·美术学刊 / "Beauty & Times" |pages=76 |via=CNKI}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=February 4, 2015 |title=Wang Wei |url=https://www.comuseum.com/?s=wang+wei |website=China Online Museum}}</ref> thumb|Luoyang Tower (洛阳楼图) by Li Zhaodao (李昭道)
==== “Luoyang Tower” 《洛阳楼图》by Li Zhaodao 李昭道 ==== Li Zhaodao, the son of the famous ''jiehua'' painter Li Sixun, distinguished himself from Tang dynasty ''jiehua'' artists. His work “Luoyang Tower” showcases an arranged complex of pavilions and buildings, creating a sense of symmetry along the work's central axis. As a reflection of established ''jiehua'' conventions and a direct influence of his father, who was also an artist, ''Luoyang Tower'' incorporates human figures and a 山水 background.<ref>{{Cite web |date=February 3, 2015 |title=Li Zhaodao |url=https://www.comuseum.com/?s=li+zhaodao |website=China Online Museum}}</ref>
=== Five Dynasties Dynasty ===
==== “Water Mill” 《闸口盘车图》by Wei Xian 卫贤 ==== left|thumb|300x300px|Water Mill (闸口盘车图) by Wei Xian 卫贤 (Five Dynasties) During the Five Dynasties and Northern Song period, ''jiehua'' style focused on the integration of diverse landscapes, both rural and urban,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=梅 |first=豪 |date=2019 |title=国宝《闸口盘车图》是卫贤作品? |url=http://www.cnki.net/KCMS/detail/detail.aspx?dbcode=CJFD&dbname=CJFDLAST2019&filename=YSSC201902028&uniplatform=OVERSEA&v=nPtM3SDUfn1QO663NuaHwhedmhWN7uh8aZs5BeNLpKmzAIbnIEOLcw76BM74Smju |journal=艺术市场 |issue=2 |pages=75 |via=CNKI}}</ref> while emphasizing the accuracy and details of structures.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yu |first=Leqi |date=2022 |title=Painting Architecture: Jiehua in Yuan China, 1271–1368 |journal=Hong Kong University Press |pages=7 |via=HKU}}</ref> Wei Xian was a painter from this time from Jingzhao who is known for “Water Mill,” which shows decorative timbers and a wooden tavern by the main building of the water mill itself. There is also a depiction of a government water mill at the river's entrance, including the entire milling process.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ren |first=Baihua |date=2020 |title=The Water Mill: Authentication and Analysis of an Ancient Chinese Jiehua Painting |journal=University of Glasgow |pages=23; 149}}</ref> The painting is regarded an achievement in architectural painting, influencing other ''jiehua'' like Along the River during Qingming Festival.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ren |first=Baihua |date=2020 |title=The Water Mill: Authentication and Analysis of an Ancient Chinese Jiehua Painting |journal=University of Glasgow |pages=23}}</ref>
=== Northern Song === thumb|Summer Palace of Emperor Ming (明皇避暑宮) by Guo Zhongshu (郭忠恕)
==== “Summer Palace of Emperor Ming” 《明皇避暑宮》by Guo Zhongshu 郭忠恕 ==== Guo Zhongshu, a figure of the Five Dynasties period and Song dynasty, was a practitioner of the freehand technique and is known as one of the most well known ''jiehua'' to have lived.<ref name="Yu-2022e" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yu|first=Leqi|date=2022|title=Painting Architecture: Jiehua in Yuan China, 1271–1368|journal=Hong Kong University Press|pages=12|via=HKU}}</ref> He is known for versatility in painting landscapes, architectural structures, and figures. His works prominently features palaces, pavilions, and houses. His style incorporated rich structure, center strokes, a flow without sharp corners, expressive lines, and attention to penmanship, connections, lines, and shading.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=李 |first1=贞 |last2=陈 |first2=艳 |date=2016 |title=气势庞大 精致细腻——郭忠怒的《明皇避暑图》赏析 |url=http://www.cnki.net/KCMS/detail/detail.aspx?dbcode=CJFD&dbname=CJFDLAST2016&filename=MZXS201630021&uniplatform=OVERSEA&v=riF2PnmCdMxsQ4fi2-AXVX0VLy0Xc9_gNWAtkoybBmseToBm6pIyk0tZ_jtnHNyb |journal=名作欣赏：文学研究（下旬） |issue=10 |pages=48 |via=CNKI}}</ref> Monochrome ink was popular among ''jiehua'' artists at the time, which influenced Zhongshu. His painting “Summer Palace of Emperor Ming” exemplifies this.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=李 |first1=李 |date=2016 |title=气势庞大 精致细腻——郭忠怒的《明皇避暑图》赏析 |url=http://www.cnki.net/KCMS/detail/detail.aspx?dbcode=CJFD&dbname=CJFDLAST2016&filename=MZXS201630021&uniplatform=OVERSEA&v=riF2PnmCdMxsQ4fi2-AXVX0VLy0Xc9_gNWAtkoybBmseToBm6pIyk0tZ_jtnHNyb |journal=名作欣赏：文学研究（下旬） |issue=10 |pages=49 |via=CNKI}}</ref> Guo is also known for warning another architect of Northern Song, Yu Hao, of an error in Yu’s pagoda design based solely on a miniature model. Yu was grateful for this.<ref name="Yu-2022e">{{Cite journal |last=Yu |first=Leqi |date=2022 |title=Painting Architecture: Jiehua in Yuan China, 1271–1368 |journal=Hong Kong University Press |pages=1 |via=HKU}}</ref>
{{Wide image|Alongtheriver QingMing.jpg|9000px|“Along the River during Qingming Festival” (清明上河图) by Zhang Zeduan 张择端 in the Northern Song Dynasty|dir=rtl}}
==== “Along the River during Qingming Festival” 《清明上河图》by Zhang Zeduan 张择端 ==== Zhang Zeduan was a Song dynasty landscape painter famed for his iconic piece “Along the River during Qingming Festival," dubbed “China’s Mona Lisa."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bradsher |first=Keith |date=3 July 2007 |title=China's 'Mona Lisa' Makes a Rare Appearance in Hong Kong |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/03/arts/design/03pain.html?_r=2 |access-date=23 October 2023 |website=The New York Times}}</ref> The artwork portrays urban life during the Qingming Festival, as well as cultural and historical elements. The scroll is more than seventeen feet long and depicts everyday activities, featuring bustling markets, transactions at shops, social gatherings, boat journeys, and horseback rides. This work inspired ''jiehua'' artists of subsequent dynasties, even as late as the Qing period, with hundreds of replicas and forgeries of well-regarded copies made, each following the overall composition and the theme of the original.<ref>Doar, Bruce. "International Conference on Qingming Shanghe Tu and Song Dynasty Genre Paintings, Beijing, 10–12 October 2005.," ''China Heritage Newsletter, China Heritage Project'' 4 (December 2005)</ref>
=== Yuan Dynasty ===
==== “Dragon Boat Regatta” 《龙舟夺标图》by Wang Zhenpeng 王振鹏 ==== {{Wide image|Dragon Boat Regatta.jpg|1200px|Dragon Boat Regatta (龙舟夺标图) by Wang Zhenpeng 王振鹏|dir=rtl}} Wang Zhenpeng was from Wenzhou in Zhejiang and is recognized as a ''jiehua'' expert during the Yuan dynasty. His skills earned him the title "弧云处士" from Emperor Renzong. He was influenced by Guo Zhongshu's painting techniques and also inherited the Southern Song emphasis on cantilever and parallel lines, as seen in ''Dragon Boat Regatta.''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yu |first=Leqi |date=2022 |title=Painting Architecture: Jiehua in Yuan China, 1271–1368 |journal=Hong Kong University Press |pages=70 |via=HKU}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=舒|first=乙|date=January 2018|title=但取万民同乐意 为作一片无声诗——王振鹏《龙池竞渡图卷》赏析|url=http://www.cnki.net/KCMS/detail/detail.aspx?dbcode=CJFD&dbname=CJFDLAST2018&filename=LLJY201806021&uniplatform=OVERSEA&v=7u9hza9GPCjMLVUvfp-pGcvZsy2YWDW6-ysu6PkV51WGOs5NOyBcf7z8IT9ozREU|journal=老年教育（书画艺术） / "Education Journal for Senior Citizens|issue=6|pages=49|via=CNKI}}</ref> His techniques included flexibly arranged modular motifs and polished ink lines.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yu |first=Leqi |date=2022 |title=Painting Architecture: Jiehua in Yuan China, 1271–1368 |journal=Hong Kong University Press |pages=18 |via=HKU}}</ref> Wang Zhenpeng presented his ''jiehua'' to the throne and was placed into a high office position by the emperor.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yu |first=Leqi |date=2022 |title=Painting Architecture: Jiehua in Yuan China, 1271–1368 |journal=Hong Kong University Press |pages=85 |via=HKU}}</ref> He became a celebrated artist of the Yuan court, and even after Wang disappeared from the stage of art during Renzong’s reign, his pupils—such as Li Rongjin, Wei Jiuding, and Zhu Yu—and other followers continued to carry forward his style.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yu |first=Leqi |date=2022 |title=Painting Architecture: Jiehua in Yuan China, 1271–1368 |journal=Hong Kong University Press |pages=90 |via=HKU}}</ref> thumb|Hanyuan Picture (汉苑图) by Li Rongjin (李容瑾)
==== “Hanyuan Picture” 《汉苑图》by Li Rongjin 李容瑾 ==== thumb|Hanyuan Picture (汉苑图) by Li Rongjin 李容瑾|405x405px Li Rongjin, a landscape painter of the Yuan dynasty, was a student of Wang Zhenpeng. Influenced by Zhenpeng, he blended both freehand and rule-lined techniques.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=陈 |first=佳懿 |date=2022 |title=界画《汉苑图》的创作意图简析 |url=http://www.cnki.net/KCMS/detail/detail.aspx?dbcode=CJFD&dbname=CJFDLASN2022&filename=MRFS202213019&uniplatform=OVERSEA&v=JhgeLnMfYnvqtklGWdfdNt8Md7B2_AS3VTP7HQap12x_m-QbIizmRkD0G0N0bfgV |journal=明日风尚 |issue=12 |pages=73 |via=CNKI}}</ref> Li Rongjin's ''Hanyuan Picture'' shows the influence of the Northern Song landscape tradition, associated with Li Cheng and Guo Xi. The painting features misty hills by a flowing river, eroded riverbanks, and trees, Rocks in the foreground, shaped like rolling clouds, represent Li-Guo motifs.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yu |first=Leqi |date=2022 |title=Painting Architecture: Jiehua in Yuan China, 1271–1368 |journal=Hong Kong University Press |pages=109 |via=HKU}}</ref> Though Li Rongjin’s architectural landscape ''Hanyuan Tu'' partly borrows Li Cheng’s style of rocks and trees, and other Northern Song large-scale compositions, he reconciles Li Cheng’s perspective treatment by establishing a consistent point of view.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yu |first=Leqi |date=2022 |title=Painting Architecture: Jiehua in Yuan China, 1271–1368 |journal=Hong Kong University Press |pages=81–82 |via=HKU}}</ref> This work, as well as others, from Li Rongjin served as inspiration for later ''jiehua'' artists.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yu |first=Leqi |date=2022 |title=Painting Architecture: Jiehua in Yuan China, 1271–1368 |journal=Hong Kong University Press |pages=135 |via=HKU}}</ref>
==== “Yellow Pavilion” 《黄鹤楼图》by Xia Yong 夏永 ==== Xia Yong, another artist from the Yuan era, is known for his technique known as "open-embroidery," which disappeared during the Ming dynasty.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yu |first=Leqi |date=2022 |title=Painting Architecture: Jiehua in Yuan China, 1271–1368 |journal=Hong Kong University Press |pages=23 |via=HKU}}</ref> He established a modular system and a tradition of plain-drawing that was innovative for the time.<ref name="Yu-2022b" /> Yong's artworks exhibit modularity, the art of arranging modular components to construct architectural images.<ref name="Yu-2022d" /> All bracket sets in his depiction of the ''Yellow Pavilion'' are a successive duplication of the exact same set, without any variance or blemishes that might be present in a more realistic depiction of a building. Yong’s modularity in the painting also presents the roof ridge ornaments in a more abstract and standardized fashion compared to earlier traditional ''jiehua'' depictions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yu |first=Leqi |date=2022 |title=Painting Architecture: Jiehua in Yuan China, 1271–1368 |journal=Hong Kong University Press |pages=62 |via=HKU}}</ref> There is also a simplification of structures, such as the complex network of cantilevers.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yu |first=Leqi |date=2022 |title=Painting Architecture: Jiehua in Yuan China, 1271–1368 |journal=Hong Kong University |pages=70 |via=HKU}}</ref> His reuse of modules impacted subsequent ''jiehua'' trends.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Leqi |first=Yu |title=Painting Architecture: Jiehua in Yuan China, 1271–1368 |publisher=Hong Kong University |year=2022 |location=Hong Kong |pages=54}}</ref>
=== Ming Dynasty ===
==== “Enjoying Antiquities”《玩古图》by Du Jin 杜堇 ==== thumb|Enjoying Antiquities (玩古图) by Du Jin 杜堇|left Du Jin was from Dantu who rose to prominence in Ming dynasty painting, known for ''jiehua'' and landscapes. Since ''jiehua'' declined in popularity in the Ming era, Du Jin, along with his contemporaries, shifted their focus to intricate representations in small, interior spaces. ''Enjoying Antiquity'' is an example of this. Du Jin’s work emphasized figures and relegated architectural structures to the background. In contrast to the resurgence of colorful palettes in Ming dynasty artwork, Du Jin continued the Yuan-''jiehua'' tradition of the monochrome "baimiao" technique. His appreciation for the fine-line style of Southern Song painters showcased his artistic range as a ''jiehua'' artist.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019 |title=从杜堇《玩古图》看明代文人的收藏审美 |url=https://www.sohu.com/a/345984436_776727 |website=搜狐}}</ref>
==== “Spring Morning in the Han Palace” 《汉宫春晓图》and “The Jiucheng Palace” 《九成宫》by Qiu Ying 仇英 ==== thumb|Spring Morning in the Han Palace (汉宫春晓图) by Qiu Ying 仇英 Qiu Ying came from Taicang and is known as one of the “Four Masters of the Wu School” (吴门四家). He was influenced by Zhuo Chen, nurtured Ying’s talent. He started with the copying of masterpieces from the Tang and Song dynasties and produced ''jiehua'' that aligned with more traditional ''jiehua'' representations of extant buildings, as seen in ''The Jiucheng Palace.'' His style also aligned with newer Ming trends of intimate and detailed scenes within small, interior spaces, as seen in ''Spring Morning in the Han Palace''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=林|first=霞|date=2018|title=仇英与他的《汉宫春晓图》|url=http://www.cnki.net/KCMS/detail/detail.aspx?dbcode=CJFD&dbname=CJFDLASN2018&filename=SCDK2018Z1013&uniplatform=OVERSEA&v=tuk8xSIe7f9OoLbwcJF83CzFtOmjSunrJD0-6HHHQ32RoVoWqtNRJv_5G7nta_bz|journal=收藏投资导刊|issue=4|pages=51|via=CNKI}}</ref> All of his work is known for a vivid color palette.
=== Qing Dynasty ===
==== “Agarwood Pavilion” 《沉香亭图》by Yuan Jiang 袁江 ==== thumb|Agarwood Pavilion Picture (沉香亭图) by Yuan Jiang 袁江|left Yuan Jiang was from Jiangdu, Jiangsu and lived during the early Qing dynasties. Due to the unpopularity of ''jiehua'' during the Ming period, information about practitioners leading up to the early Qing is scarce, leaving little known about his life and artwork.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=蒋 |first=志坚 |date=2009 |title=袁江及其界画 |url=http://www.cnki.net/KCMS/detail/detail.aspx?dbcode=CJFD&dbname=CJFD2009&filename=YSSH200902012&uniplatform=OVERSEA&v=FOSDufpU74WQE8l-cJ6Pl_mu-BRdXZDwaSqminWis0mzNY4neqRgkSRkadgh9aM |journal=书画艺术 / "Painting & Calligraphy Art" |issue=2 |pages=50 |via=CNKI}}</ref> Qing-era ''jiehua'' saw an influx of Western influence on linear perspective, shading, and spatial awareness.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chung |first=Anita |date=2004 |title=Drawing Boundaries: Architectural Images in Qing China |url=https://public.ebookcentral.proquest.com/choice/publicfullrecord.aspx?p=3413639 |journal=University of Hawaii Press |pages=61 |via=Architectural Images in Qing China, University of Hawaii Press, 2004. ProQuest}}</ref> This is evident in ''Agarwood Pavilion,'' one of Yuan’s works. He frequently enhanced the height and form of the roofs of his architectural subjects to instill majesty and emphasized decoration with roofs and bridges.<ref name="余-2017">{{Cite journal |last1=余 |first1=玮 |last2=刘 |first2=刘 |date=2017 |title=袁江山水楼阁界画的建筑特色 |url=http://www.cnki.net/KCMS/detail/detail.aspx?dbcode=CJFD&dbname=CJFDLASN2017&filename=CJCK201733044&uniplatform=OVERSEA&v=PVpqyLC14b1meQcL4t6MLZ6wRUc33_PN5jtQ8elAZWS4eCf38dfPI7tEr_Bf5q8U |journal=长江丛刊 / "Yangtze River Series" |issue=33 |pages=91 |via=CNKI}}</ref> In his rendition of the Agarwood Pavilion, Yuan rendered the building without direct reference, adding rich colors that set it apart from traditional ''jiehua'' that focused on realistic portrayals.<ref name="余-2017" />
==== “Peach Garden” 《桃源图》and “Shanshui Courtyard Strip Screen” 《山水庭院条屏》by Yuan Yao 袁耀 ==== thumb|Landscape Courtyard Strip Screen (山水庭院条屏) by Yuan Yao 袁耀 Yuan Yao was a ''jiehua'' painting during the Qing dynasty, who became known for his landscape art and depiction of birds and flowers. He remained in obscurity because records often erroneously conflated his name with Yuan Jiang, a fellow artist.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=聂 |first=崇正 |date=1979 |title=袁耀有关扬州的两件作品 |url=http://www.cnki.net/KCMS/detail/detail.aspx?dbcode=CJFD&dbname=CJFD7984&filename=WENW197904009&uniplatform=OVERSEA&v=GsjhMtdfZnrI8_Q0ynXfzuzCnD1-Wm85_iwrk5cU6aTBZMGVUfJ0vBUo5jHpy906 |journal=文物 (Cultural Relics) |issue=4 |pages=46 |via=CNKI}}</ref> He was also related Yuan Jiang, raising speculation among scholars about their precise relationship - potentially uncle and nephew or father and son. The first documentation of Yao’s name is in ''画人补遗,'' dating to the Qianlong period.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=张|first=建民|date=2020|title=清代袁耀《桃源图》界画元素分析|url=http://www.cnki.net/KCMS/detail/detail.aspx?dbcode=CJFD&dbname=CJFDLAST2020&filename=ZYWW202003019&uniplatform=OVERSEA&v=JMwbTgVVttx321_MFds5WSRcEqOTpbzh9IgQtvndgW_bTgznDRJ6RZP-5OSrK7M_|journal=中原文物|issue=3|pages=140|via=CNKI}}</ref> His works are known for linear perspective, shading, and spatial awareness of architectural elements in pieces. ''Peach Garden'' and the ''Shanshui Courtyard Strip Screen'' demonstrate these architectural elements.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=张 |first=建民 |date=2020 |title=清代袁耀《桃源图》界画元素分析 |url=http://www.cnki.net/KCMS/detail/detail.aspx?dbcode=CJFD&dbname=CJFDLAST2020&filename=ZYWW202003019&uniplatform=OVERSEA&v=JMwbTgVVttx321_MFds5WSRcEqOTpbzh9IgQtvndgW_bTgznDRJ6RZP-5OSrK7M |journal=中原文物 |issue=3 |pages=142–143 |via=CNKI}}</ref>
==== “Landscapes”《山水》by Jiao Bingzhen 焦秉贞 ==== thumb|Landscapes (山水) by Jiao Bingzhen 焦秉贞|left Jiao Bingzhen, born in Jining, Shandong, was a Qing dynasty painter, known for being the first Qing dynasty artist to integrate traditional Chinese ''jiehua'' painting with Western painting elements. Bingzhen was a polymath, excelling as both a painter and a scientist. His artistic approach combined tilting, single built-in aerial perspective, and careful brushwork with Western techniques, integrating distant horizons and spatial perspective into his works. This can be seen in ''Landscapes''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=庞 |first=瑾 |date=January 2019 |title=焦秉贞《御制耕织图》:康熙朝艺术风尚的见证者 |url=http://www.cnki.net/KCMS/detail/detail.aspx?dbcode=CJFD&dbname=CJFDLAST2019&filename=MSDG201910020&uniplatform=OVERSEA&v=leJ9tGrOAjA24qxvhfW_T3_on8XfZRtW-B3cQ60r_ttg_OVdeS1YEs7I_-2CYIPe |journal=美术大观 / "Art Panorama" |issue=10 |pages=84 |via=CNKI}}</ref> Bingzhen's fusion showcases the another evolution of ''jiehua'' in the Qing dynasty before the art form’s collapse into obscurity with the fall of imperial China.
== Influence in East Asia == While ''jiehua'' production was primarily driven by local demand, it was also in demand abroad. In the sixteenth century, ''jiehua'' painter Xia Yong's name appeared in Japanese sources along with some of his paintings and imitations. The ''Yueyang Pavilion'' owned by Masamune Tokusaburō and the ''Palace by the River'' in the Jinyuan Zhai collection have either survived or circulated in Japan. Another ''jiehua'' piece imitating Li Rongjin’s ''Han Palace'' was collected by the Osaka City Museum of Fine Arts and became popular in Japan.<ref name="Yu-2022f">{{Cite book |last=Yu |first=Leqi |title=Painting Architecture: Jiehua in Yuan China, 1271-1368 |publisher=Hong Kong Press |year=2022 |isbn=978-988-8754-23-6 |location=Hong Kong |pages=135}}</ref> A number of copies of ''Along the River During Qingming Festival'' 清明上河图 and works of Qiu Ying existed in Korean Joseon collections.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Seo |first=Yoonjung |date=June 2019 |title=A New Way of Seeing: Commercial Paintings and Prints from China and European Painting Techniques in Late Chosŏn Court Painting. |journal=Acta Koreana |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=75}}</ref>
When ''jiehua'' pieces first entered the overseas market remains unclear. The establishment of the Maritime Trade Supervisorate in Hangzhou in 1284 linked it to Qingyuan (modern-day Ningbo), a major harbor for trade with Japan.<ref name="Yu-2022f"/> Japanese monks and merchants actively sought paintings in the art markets of Hangzhou and Ningbo during the Yuan-Ming transition.{{Citation needed|date=November 2025}} In the early Ming period, records show that Ashikaga Yoshimasa sent envoys to acquire Chinese artworks. It was common for Japanese painters to travel to China learn about painting techniques and styles, which included ''jiehua''.<ref name="Yu-2022c">{{Cite book |last=Yu |first=Leqi |title=Painting Architecture: Jiehua in Yuan China, 1271-1368 |publisher=Hong Kong Press |year=2022 |isbn=978-988-8754-23-6 |location=Hong Kong |pages=6}}</ref> There is evidence that ''jiehua'' circulated across Korea, with Joseon envoys from Korea during the Qing period frequently acquiring ''jiehua'' both from Qing court painters. They used them as templates for their own Korean court paintings.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Seo |first=Yoonjung |date=June 2019 |title=A New Way of Seeing: Commercial Paintings and Prints from China and European Painting Techniques in Late Chosŏn Court Painting |journal=Acta Koreana |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=70; 77}}</ref> In spite of the influence of literati artistic tastes, ''jiehu''a thrived. As an art form, it permeated both local and overseas markets, influencing the artistic styles of China’s neighboring countries in the fourteenth through nineteenth centuries.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Yu |first=Leqi |title=Painting Architecture: Jiehua in Yuan China, 1271-1368 |publisher=Hong Kong University Press |year=2022 |isbn=978-988-8754-23-6 |location=Hong Kong |pages=136}}</ref>
A specific example of ''jiehua'' on Japanese art is the Kano School of Painting. The school’s style merged aspects of traditional Chinese painting with traditional Japanese painting.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hajian |first=Caleb |date=December 17, 2021 |title=Kano Painting Style: The Fusion of Japanese and Chinese Art |url=https://diluo.digital.conncoll.edu/Asianart/exhibition/kano-painting-style-the-fusion-of-japanese-and-chinese-art/}}</ref> Kano School pieces like ''Scenes in and around Kyoto'' feature architecture drawn in a style reminiscent of ''jiehua'' from that time period. In ''Scenes in and around Kyoto'' there are distinct Japanese artistic qualities like the gold leaf clouds shrouding the city and intense use of color, but it still bears a resemblance to copies of ''Along the River During Qingming Festival.'' These are recognized as Qiu Ying’s style, dating the piece to the late 1500s, much earlier than ''Scenes in and Around Kyoto'' (from the early 1600’s).<ref>Wang, Cheng-Hua (2020), "One Painting, Two Emperors, and Their Cultural Agendas: Reinterpreting the Qingming Shanghe Painting of 1737", ''Archives of Asian Art'', '''70''' (1): 85–117.</ref> Comparing both paintings side by side reveals that the Japanese work maintains the same linear perspective, composition, precision, and calculation of lines used in the detailed architectural renderings. All of which are defining qualities of ''jiehua'' artwork.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Department of Asian Art |date=October 2003 |title=The Kano School of Painting. |url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/kano/hd_kano.htm}}</ref>
The influence of ''jiehua'' on Korean art is illustrated in the ''Screen of Han Palace'' and other paintings known as ''Towers and Pavilions'' and ''Palace in Sumptuous Colors''. These Korean works depict architecture reminiscent of Chinese palaces against a landscape background. They were used for decoration of the Joseon palace complexes for their symbolism of the peaceful, prosperous society of ancient Chinese dynasties. The architecture in these pieces are not necessarily a realistic depiction of historical Han imperial palaces and structures, but rather an imaginary representation of buildings imitating Chinese pavilions.<ref name="Seo-2019">{{Cite journal |last=Seo |first=Yoonjung |date=June 2019 |title=A New Way of Seeing: Commercial Paintings and Prints from China and European Painting Techniques in Late Chosŏn Court Painting |journal=Acta Koreana |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=63}}</ref> Using idealized depiction of Chinese architectural elements references the ''jiehua'' modular system from the Yuan period with roots extending back to the Tang period.<ref name="Seo-2019"/>
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