Itihasa-Purana

{{italictitle}} {{Short description|Traditional Hindu accounts of "past events"}} {{Other uses|Itihaas (disambiguation){{!}}Itihaas}} {{use dmy dates|date=April 2016}} {{use Indian English|date=April 2016}} {{Hinduism small}} {{Hindu scriptures}}

In Hinduism, '''''Itihasa-Purana''''', also called '''the fifth Veda''',{{sfnp|Klostermaier|2007|p=59}}{{sfnp|Flood|1996|p=104}}{{sfnp|Debroy|2014|p=7}} refers to the traditional accounts of cosmogeny, myths, royal genealogies of the lunar dynasty and solar dynasty, and legendary past events,<ref group=web name="Devdutt"/> as narrated in the ''Itihasa'' (''Mahabharata'' and the ''Ramayana''){{sfnp|Klostermaier|2007|p=59}} and the Puranas.{{sfnp|Klostermaier|2007|p=59}} They are highly influential in Indian culture, and many classical Indian poets derive the plots of their poetry and drama from the ''Itihasa''.{{sfnp|Pargiter|1922}} The Epic-Puranic chronology derived from the ''Itihasa-Purana'' is an influential frame of reference in traditional Indian thought.

==Etymology==

''Itihāsa'', इतिहास, derives from the phrase ''iti ha āsa'' {{lang|sa|इति ह आस}}, which means "so indeed it was".<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.wisdomlib.org |title=Itihasa, Itihāsa, Iti-hasa: 27 definitions |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/itihasa |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20251129180833/https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/itihasa |archive-date=2025-11-29 |access-date=2026-04-22 |website=www.wisdomlib.org |language=en}}</ref>

''Purana'', {{IPAc-en|p|ʊ|ˈ|r|ɑː|n|ə}}; {{langx|sa|{{lang|sa|पुराण}}}}, ''{{IAST|purāṇa}}'' literally means "ancient, old."<ref group=web name="Merriam-Webster_Purana"/>{{sfnp|Debroy|2014|p=7}}

==Characterisation==

''Itihasa'' refers to the Sanskrit Epics of the ''Mahabharata'' and the ''Ramayana''.{{sfnp|Klostermaier|2007|p=59}} The Puranas are a vast genre of Hindu literature about a wide range of topics, particularly about cosmogony, myths, legends and purported history.{{sfn|Bailey|2001|pp=437-439}} Together they are also called the fifth Veda,{{sfnp|Klostermaier|2007|p=59}}{{sfnp|Flood|1996|p=104}}{{sfnp|Debroy|2014|p=7}} "the Holy Book of the masses who were not entitled to study the four Vedas."{{sfnp|Klostermaier|2007|p=59}}

The tradition of ''Itihāsa'' is generally understood to be developed by the bardic tradition of Sūtas and Cāraṇas whose duties consisted of composing royal eulogies.{{sfnp|Goldman|2018}}

In the mythical narratives of the ''Itihasa-Purana'' there is no clear distinction between mythology, hagiography and historiography.{{sfnp|Flood|1996|p=104}} The Indian tradition regards the ''Itihasa-Purana'' as authoritative historical writings, documenting past events{{sfnp|Klostermaier|2007|p=59}} and prescribing ''dharma'', the right way to live.{{sfnp|Samarpan|2017}} The ''Itihasa-Purana'' forms the basis for the Epic-Puranic chronology, the traditional timeline of legendary history. The ''Mahabharata'' includes the story of the Kurukshetra War and preserves the traditions of the Lunar dynasty in the form of embedded tales. The ''Ramayana'' contains the story of Rama and is incidentally related to the legends of the Solar dynasty. The Puranas provide the idea of yugas and the Dashavatara, the ten incarnations of Vishnu in the four respective yugas.

==Cosmogony and cyclic time (Yugas)== {{see also|Hindu cosmology}}

===Yuga===

According to the Hindu texts, time is cyclic. The history of mankind is divided into four ages—Satya Yuga, Treta Yuga, Dvapara Yuga and Kali Yuga—collectively forming one Maha Yuga. Seventy-one Maha Yugas form a Manvantara (''"age of Manu"''), a period of time over which a "Manu" presides. For the duration of his period, each Manu is the archetypal first man, the progenitor of humanity, and also the first king and lawgiver. Along with a Manu, every Manvantara also has its own set of Indra, gods and the seven sages. Fourteen Manus reign in Kalpa, (a single day in the life of Brahma), an equivalent of 1,000 Maha Yugas, at the end of which, the creation is destroyed and is followed by a Pralaya (dissolution) of equal length. The creation starts again, in the next Kalpa in an endless cycle of creations and dissolutions.

===Dashavatara===

The ''Dashavatara'' refers to the ten primary (i.e. full or complete) incarnations (avatars) of Vishnu, the Hindu god of preservation which has Rigvedic origins. Vishnu is said to descend in the form of an avatar to restore cosmic order. The word ''Dashavatara'' derives from {{IAST|daśa}}, meaning "ten", and avatar ({{IAST|avatāra}}), roughly equivalent to "incarnation".

Various versions of the list of Vishnu's avatars exist, varying per region and tradition.{{sfn|Wuaku|2013|p=148}}{{sfn|Vaswani|2017|pp=12-14}}{{sfn|Carman|1994|pp=211-212}}{{sfn|Leyden|1982|p=22}} Some lists mention Krishna as the eighth avatar and the Buddha as the ninth avatar,{{sfn|Wuaku|2013|p=148}} while others – such as the ''Yatindramatadipika'', a 17th-century summary of Srivaisnava doctrine{{sfn|Carman|1994|pp=211-212}} – give Balarama as the eighth avatar and Krishna as the ninth.{{sfn|Carman|1994|pp=211-212}} The latter version is followed by some Vaishnavas who do not accept the Buddha as an incarnation of Vishnu.{{sfn|Krishna|2009}} Though no list can be uncontroversially presented as standard, the "most accepted list found in Puranas and other texts is [...] Krishna, Buddha."{{sfn|Dalal|2010|p=112}}{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2001|p=73}}{{sfn|Doniger O'Flaherty|1994|p=175}}{{sfn|Klostermaier|2007}}{{sfn|Krishna|2010|pp=28-29}}{{refn|group=note|name="Buddha"}}

The following table summarises the position of avatars within the Dashavatara in many but not all traditions:{{sfn|Vaswani|2017|pp=12-14}}{{sfn|Carman|1994|pp=211-212}}{{sfn|Leyden|1982|p=22}}<ref name="maharashtra.gov.in">{{cite web |title=Junnar |publisher=The Gazetteers Dept, Government of Maharashtra |url=http://www.maharashtra.gov.in/pdf/gazeetter_reprint/Poona-III/places_j.html# |orig-year=1885 |author=Pathak, Arunchandra S. |year=2006 |access-date=2008-11-03 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091016101200/http://www.maharashtra.gov.in/pdf/gazeetter_reprint/Poona-III/places_j.html |archive-date=16 October 2009 }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;" |- | Position | Krishna, Buddha (common list) {{sfn|Vaswani|2017|pp=12-14}}{{refn|group=note|name="Buddha"}}{{refn|group=note|Leyden: Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra.{{sfn|Leyden|1982|p=22}}}} | Balarama, Krishna (Vaishnavites) {{sfn|Vaswani|2017|pp=12-14}}{{sfn|Carman|1994|pp=211-212}}{{refn|group=note|Leyden: Southern Deccan, Mysore.{{sfn|Leyden|1982|p=22}}}} | Balarama, Buddha {{sfn|Nagaswamy|2010|p=27}}{{refn|group=note|name="HareKrsna"}}{{refn|group=note|Leyden: Rajasthan, Nepal, Northern Deccan.{{sfn|Leyden|1982|p=22}}}} | Krishna, Vithoba <ref name="maharashtra.gov.in"/>{{refn|group=note|Maharashtra, Goa.<ref name="maharashtra.gov.in"/>}} | Balarama, Jagannatha {{sfn|Mukherjee|1981|p=155}}{{refn|group=note|Mukherjee: Orissa;{{sfn|Mukherjee|1981|p=155}} Leyden: West Bengal.{{sfn|Leyden|1982|p=22}}}} | ''Yuga''{{sfn|Vaswani|2017|pp=12-14}} |- | 1 | colspan=5 | Matsya{{sfn|Vaswani|2017|pp=12-14}}{{sfn|Carman|1994|pp=211-212}} ''(fish; saves Manu Vaivasvata)'' | rowspan="4" | ''Satya Yuga''{{sfn|Vaswani|2017|pp=12-14}} |- | 2 | colspan=5 | Kurma{{sfn|Vaswani|2017|pp=12-14}}{{sfn|Carman|1994|pp=211-212}} ''(turtle, tortoise)'' |- | 3 | colspan=5 | Varaha{{sfn|Vaswani|2017|pp=12-14}}{{sfn|Carman|1994|pp=211-212}} ''(boar, wild swine)'' |- | 4 | colspan=5 | Narasimha{{sfn|Vaswani|2017|pp=12-14}}{{sfn|Carman|1994|pp=211-212}} ''(man-lion)'' |- | 5 | colspan=5 | Vamana{{sfn|Vaswani|2017|pp=12-14}}{{sfn|Carman|1994|pp=211-212}} ''(dwarf-god)'' | rowspan="3" |''Treta Yuga''{{sfn|Vaswani|2017|pp=12-14}} |- | 6 | colspan=5 | Parashurama{{sfn|Vaswani|2017|pp=12-14}}{{sfn|Carman|1994|pp=211-212}} ''(Brahman warrior)'' |- | 7 | colspan=5 | Rama{{sfn|Vaswani|2017|pp=12-14}}{{sfn|Carman|1994|pp=211-212}}{{refn|group=note|Donald J. LaRocca, Metropolitan Museum of Art, describes a ''katar'' with Rama-Krishna-Buddha, referring to ''Rama'' as ''Ramachandra'', or alternately ''Balarama''.{{sfn|LaRocca|1996|p=4}} Yet, Hoiberg specifically states that ''Rama'', as an avatar of Vishnu, is ''Ramachandra''.{{sfn|Hoiberg|2000|p=264}}}} |- | 8 | Krishna{{sfn|Vaswani|2017|pp=12-14}}{{refn|group=note|name="HareKrsna"}} | Balarama{{sfn|Vaswani|2017|pp=12-14}}{{sfn|Leyden|1982|p=22}}{{sfn|Carman|1994|pp=211-212}} | Balarama{{sfn|Nagaswamy|2010|p=27}}{{refn|group=note|name="HareKrsna"}} | Krishna<ref name="maharashtra.gov.in"/> | Balarama{{sfn|Mukherjee|1981|p=155}}{{sfn|Leyden|1982|p=22}} | rowspan=2 |''Dvapara Yuga'',{{sfn|Vaswani|2017|pp=12-14}} ''Kali Yuga'' in case of Buddha{{sfn|Vaswani|2017|pp=12-14}} |- | 9 | Buddha{{sfn|Vaswani|2017|pp=12-14}}{{refn|group=note|name="Buddha"}} | Krishna{{sfn|Vaswani|2017|pp=12-14}}{{sfn|Leyden|1982|p=22}}{{sfn|Carman|1994|pp=211-212}} | Buddha{{sfn|Nagaswamy|2010|p=27}}{{refn|group=note|name="Buddha"}} | Vithoba<ref name="maharashtra.gov.in"/> | Jagannatha{{sfn|Mukherjee|1981|p=155}}{{sfn|Leyden|1982|p=22}} |- | 10 | colspan="5" | Kalki{{sfn|Vaswani|2017|pp=12-14}}{{sfn|Carman|1994|pp=211-212}} ''(prophesied 10th avatar who ends the Kali Yuga)'' |''Kali Yuga'' |}

==Royal genealogies==

The Solar Dynasty and Lunar dynasty were two legendary principal dynasties of the Kshatriyas varna, or warrior–ruler class mentioned in the ancient Indian texts. They trace their origin to Vaivasvata Manu, who presides over the present, seventh manvatara.

According to ''Harivamsa'', Ikshvaku was the son of Vaivasvata Manu, and the primogenitor of the Suryavamsha, or the Solar Dynasty, and was granted the kingdom of Aryavarta by his father Vaivasvata Manu. Vaivasvata Manu settled down in the Aryavarta region after he survived the Great Flood that ended the sixth mamanvatara. A. K. Mozumdar states that Manu is the one who built a city on the Sarayu (the river that his mother Sanjana was the goddess of) and called it Ayodhya, meaning the 'invincible city'. This city served as the capital of many kings from the solar dynasty and is also believed to be the birthplace of Rama.{{sfn|Mazumdar|2008|p=161}}

The Lunar dynasty (IAST: ''Candravaṃśa'') is said to be descended from moon-related deities (''Soma'' or ''Chandra'').<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TGyzMJYZn-0C&pg=PA21 |title=Message of the Purans |publisher=Diamond Pocket Books Ltd |first=B. B. |last=Paliwal |year=2005 |page=21 |isbn=978-8-12881-174-6}}</ref> According to the ''Shatapatha Brahmana'', Pururavas was the son of Budha (himself often described as the son of Soma) and the gender-switching deity Ila (born as the daughter of Manu).{{sfn|Thapar|2013|p=308}} Pururavas's great-grandson was Yayati, who had five sons named Yadu, Turvasu, Druhyu, Anu, and Puru. These seem to be the names of five Vedic tribes as described in the Vedas.<ref>{{cite book |author=A. K. Warder |author-link=A. K. Warder |title=An Introduction to Indian Historiography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nCluAAAAMAAJ |year=1972 |publisher=Popular Prakashan |pages=21–22 }}</ref>

==Influence on classical Indian poetry== Many classical Indian poets derive the plots of their poetry and drama from the Itihasa.{{sfnp|Pargiter|1922}} The rules of classical Indian poetics prescribe that the themes of the mahakavyas<ref>Dandin, Kavyadarsha, I.15</ref><ref>Visvanatha Kaviraja, Sahityadarpana, VI.318</ref> (ornate epics) and natakas<ref>Bharata, Natyasastra, XVIII.10</ref> (drama) should primarily be selected from the ''itihasa''. In accordance, great mahakavyas such as Kalidasa’s ''Raghuvamsa'', Kumaradasa’s ''Janaki-harana'', Bhatti's ''Ravanavadha'' (or ''Bhattikavya'') have drawn their themes from the ''Ramayana'', and Bharavi’s ''Kiratarjuniya'', Magha’s ''Sisupalavadha'' and Sriharsa's ''Naisadhiyacarita'' from the ''Mahabharata''.

== Historical consciousness ==

The belief that South Asian society lacked historical consciousness until colonial times persists, as colonial writers like Robert Orme and James Mill argued that rational, factual history emerged in India only with the British Raj. They claimed pre-colonial Indian history, seen as mythic, did not meet modern standards because it was too formulaic and lacked historical context. But this notion has also been challenged.{{Sfn|Chatterjee|2008|p=513}} Kumkum Chatterjee, focused on a vernacular tradition of ''Itihasa/Purana'' in early modern Bengal, argued that these narratives are based on historical experiences derived from Mughal rule in Bengal and much of India during the 17th and 18th centuries.{{Sfn|Chatterjee|2008|p=514}} Puranas have evolved over time, constantly updated to reflect changing social conditions. They traditionally cover creation myths, cosmic cycles, genealogies, divine exploits, and royal histories, but they also include additional content like sectarian deities and social norms.{{sfn|Chatterjee|2008|p=515}}

==Notes==

{{reflist|group=note|2|refs=   {{refn|group=note|name="Buddha"|Buddha as an avatar of Vishnu: ;Krishna, Buddha ''Printed sources'' * {{harvnb|Bansal|2005|p=27|loc="Vishnu Dashavatara"}}. * {{harvnb|Dalal|2010|p=112|loc="Dashavatara"}}. Dalal: "The standard and most accepted list found in Puranas and other texts is: [...] Rama, Krishna, Buddha, Kalki"; * {{harvnb|Doniger O'Flaherty|1994|p=175|loc=}}. Doniger: "Visnu is generally said to have had ten incarnations [...] Krsna [...] the Buddha." * {{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=175|loc=}}. Flood: "...by the eight century the standard number of descent-forms in the Vaisnava Puranas is ten. These are [...] Krsna, Buddha." * {{harvnb|Klostermaier|2007|p=|loc="Visnu Avataras"}}. Klostermaier: "The most common tradition speaks of ten such avataras [...] Krsna [...] Buddha." * {{harvnb|Krishna|2010|pp=28–29|loc=}}. Krishna: "Krishna [...] Buddha [...] There is a difference of opinion as to whether Buddha was an incarnation of Vishnu [...] The alternative then is Balarama, Rama of the plough and elder brother of Krishna, who is listed after Rama, thereby removing Buddha and making Krishna the ninth incarnation." * {{harvnb|Leeming|2001|p=19|loc="Avatar"}}. * {{harvnb|Lochtefeld|2001|p=73|loc="Avatar"}}. Lochtefeld: "Although there is some variation in the list of Vishnu's Avatars, the generally accepted list is as follows [...] Krishna, Buddha." * {{harvnb|Vaswani|2017|pp=12–14|loc=}}. * {{harvnb|Wuaku|2013|p=148|loc=}}. ;Balarama, Buddha * {{harvnb|Nagaswamy|2010|p=27|loc=}}. ''Web-sources'' * {{cite web|website=Encyclopedia Britannica |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/45474/avatar |title=avatar}} ;Unspecified * Holt, John Clifford (2008), ''The Buddhist Viṣṇu: Religious Transformation, Politics, and Culture'', p.14-15; p.372 note 9 refers to four Purana's which mention the Buddha in 9th position: ''Varaha Purana'' 4.2; ''Matsya Purana'' 285.6-7; ''Agni Purana'' 49.8; ''Bhagavata Purana'' X.40.22 and I.3. ;Krishna/Balarama, Buddha * The Hare Krsnas, [http://www.harekrsna.com/philosophy/incarnations/dasavatara.htm ''Incarnations of the Lord - Dasavatara - Ten Primary Visnu Incarnations'']. The Hare Krsnas refer to the eight avatar both as Krsna and as Balarama.}}   {{refn|group=note|name="HareKrsna"|The Hare Krsnas, [http://www.harekrsna.com/philosophy/incarnations/dasavatara.htm ''Incarnations of the Lord - Dasavatara - Ten Primary Visnu Incarnations'']. The Hare Krsnas refer to the eight avatar both as Krsna and as Balarama.}} }}

==References==

==Sources==

;Printed sources ; {{refbegin}}  * {{cite book |last = Bailey |first = Gregory |year=2001 |editor-first = Oliver |editor-last = Leaman |title=Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0415172813 |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofas0000unse_d9k3 }} * {{Citation | last =Bansal | first =Sunita Pant | year =2005 | title =Hindu Gods and Goddesses | place =New Delhi, India | publisher =Smriti Books}}  * {{Citation | last =Carman | first =John Braisted | year =1994 | title =Majesty and Meekness: A Comparative Study of Contrast and Harmony in the Concept of God | publisher =Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing}} * {{Cite journal |last=Chatterjee |first=Kumkum |date=2008 |title=The Persianization of Itihasa: Performance Narratives and Mughal Political Culture in Eighteenth-Century Bengal |url=https://read.dukeupress.edu/journal-of-asian-studies/article/67/2/513/341777 |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |language=en |volume=67 |issue=02 |doi=10.1017/S0021911808000685 |issn=0021-9118|url-access=subscription }}  * {{Citation | last =Dalal | first =Roshen | year =2010 | title =Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide | publisher =Penguin Books India | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC&q=dashavatara&pg=PA112| isbn =9780143414216 }} * {{cite book | last =Debroy | first =Bibek | year =2014 | title =Brahmanda Purana Vol 1 | publisher =Penguin Random House India Private Limited}} * {{Citation | last =Doniger O'Flaherty | first =Wendy | year =1994 | title =Hindu Myths | publisher =Penguin Books India | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=ajLoN2yuZbwC&q=avatar+visnu&pg=PA175| isbn =9780144000111 }}  * {{Citation | last =Flood | first =Gavin D. | year =1996 | title =An Introduction to Hinduism | publisher =Cambridge University Press}}  * {{Cite journal |last=Goldman |first=Robert P. |date=2018 |title=Augmenting the Past: Historical and Political Consciousness in Vālmīki's Uttarakāṇḍa |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0257643018772406 |journal=Studies in History |language=en |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=182–206 |doi=10.1177/0257643018772406 |s2cid=165668247 |issn=0257-6430|url-access=subscription }}  * {{Citation | last =Hoiberg | first =Dale | year =2000 | title =Students' Britannica India: M to S : (Miraj to Shastri) - Volume 4 | publisher =Popular Prakashan | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=Kpd9lLY_0-IC&q=balarama&pg=PA152| isbn =9780852297605 }}  * {{Cite book |last=Klostermaier |first=Klaus K. |year=2007 |title=A Survey of Hinduism |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0-7914-7082-4 |edition=3rd |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E_6-JbUiHB4C }} * {{Citation | last =Krishna | first =Nanditha | year =2009 | title =Book of Vishnu | publisher =Penguin UK | isbn =978-01430-6-7627}} * {{Citation | last =Krishna | first =Nanditha | year =2010 | title =The Book of Vishnu | publisher =Penguin Books India | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=f9cSlaLMlgEC&q=book+of+Vishnu| isbn =9780143067627 }}  * {{Citation | last =LaRocca | first =Donald J. | year =1996 | title =The Gods of War: Sacred Imagery and the Decoration of Arms and Armor | publisher =Metropolitan Museum of Art}} * {{Citation | last =Leeming | first =David Adams | year =2001 | title =A Dictionary of Asian Mythology}} * {{Citation | last =Leyden | first =Rudolf von | year =1982 | title =Ganjifa: The Playing Cards of India|publisher= The Victoria and Albert Museum|isbn = 978-09052-0-9173}} * {{Citation | last =Lochtefeld | first =James G. | year =2001 | title =The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism. 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Milford|others=Cornell University Library}}  * {{cite book | last =Samarpan | year =2017 | title =Living Hinduism: Scriptures Philosophy Practices | publisher =Niyogi Books}}  *{{citation |last=Thapar |first=Romila |author-link=Romila Thapar |title=The Past Before Us|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aei9AAAAQBAJ |year=2013 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-72651-2 }}  * {{Citation | last =Vaswani | first =J.P. | year =2017 | title =Dasavatara | publisher =Jaico Publishing House | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=eSNADwAAQBAJ&q=Matsya&pg=PT13| isbn =9789386867186 }}  * {{cite book|last=Wuaku|first=Albert|title=Hindu Gods in West Africa: Ghanaian Devotees of Shiva and Krishna|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HakcAAAAQBAJ|date=11 July 2013|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-25571-5}} {{refend}}

;Web-sources {{reflist|group=web|refs=   <ref group=web name="Devdutt">{{Cite web|date=2017-06-03|title=Itihasa is not fantasy|url=https://devdutt.com/articles/itihasa-is-not-fantasy/|access-date=2021-05-11|website=Devdutt|language=en-US}}</ref>   <ref group=web name="Merriam-Webster_Purana">[https://archive.org/details/myriadworldsbudd00kons Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of Literature] (1995 Edition), Article on Puranas, {{ISBN|0-877790426}}, page 915</ref> }}

==Further reading==

* Pargiter, F.E. ** ''Ancient Indian Historical Tradition''. Delhi. 1972. ** ''The Purana Text of the Dynasties of the Kali Age''. Oxford. 1913. * Winternitz, M. ''History of Indian Literature''. Vol. I-II. Delhi. 1987. * Rapson, E.J. ''The Cambridge History of India''. Vol. I Cambridge. 1922. * Warder, A.K. ''Indian Kavya Literature'', Vol. I-VII. Delhi. 2004. * Smith, R. Morton ''Dates and dynasties in earliest India: translation and justification of a critical text of the Purana dynasties'', Shastri, J. L. (ed.). Delhi. Motilal Banarasidass. 1973. * Smith, Mary Carroll ''The core of India's great Epic''. Harvard University. 1972. * Thapar, Romila ** "Puranic Lineages and archaeological cultures" in ''Ancient Indian Social History: some interpretations''. New Delhi. Orient Longmans. 1978. ** "Origin Myths and the early Indian historical tradition" in ''Ancient Indian Social History: some interpretations''. New Delhi. Orient Longmans. 1978. ** "Genealogy as a source of social history" in ''Ancient Indian Social History: some interpretations''. New Delhi. Orient Longmans. 1978.

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