Industrialisation

{{Short description|Period of social and economic change from agrarian to industrial society}} {{Use dmy dates|date=December 2023}} [[File:Bairoch.svg|thumb|The effect of industrialisation shown by rising income levels in the 19th century, including gross national product at purchasing power parity per capita between 1750 and 1900 in 1990 U.S. dollars for the First World, including Western Europe, United States, Canada and Japan, and Third World nations of Europe, Southern Asia, Africa, and Latin America<ref name="Bairoch1995">{{cite book |last=Bairoch |first=Paul |title=Economics and World History: Myths and Paradoxes |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LaF_cCknJScC&pg=PA95 |date=1995 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-03463-8 |page=95 |access-date=7 July 2021 |archive-date=27 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220927104231/https://books.google.com/books?id=LaF_cCknJScC&pg=PA95 |url-status=live}}</ref>]] thumb|The effect of industrialisation is also shown by rising levels of CO2 emissions.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/annual-co2-emissions-per-country?time=1750..1900&country=~OWID_WRL |title=Annual CO₂ emissions |website=Our World in Data |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240331224348/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/annual-co2-emissions-per-country?time=1750..1900&country=~OWID_WRL |archive-date=31 March 2024}}</ref> thumb|Industrialisation also means the mechanisation of traditionally manual economic sectors such as agriculture. [[File:Industrialisation.jpg|thumb|Factories, refineries, mines, and agribusiness are all elements of industrialisation.]] '''Industrialisation''' (UK) or '''industrialization''' (US) is "the period of social and economic change that transforms a human group from an agrarian and feudal society into an industrial society. This involves an extensive reorganisation of an economy for the purpose of manufacturing."<ref>{{cite book |last1 = O'Sullivan |first1=Arthur |author-link = Arthur O'Sullivan (economist)|first2=Steven M. |last2=Sheffrin |title = Economics: Principles in Action |publisher = Pearson Prentice Hall |year = 2003 |location = Upper Saddle River, New Jersey |page = 472 |isbn = 0-13-063085-3 |oclc=50237774}}</ref> Industrialisation is associated with an increase in polluting industries heavily dependent on fossil fuels. With the increasing focus on sustainable development and green industrial policy practices, industrialisation increasingly includes technological leapfrogging, with direct investment in more advanced, cleaner technologies.

The reorganisation of the economy has many unintended consequences both economically and socially. As industrial workers' incomes rise, markets for consumer goods and services of all kinds tend to expand and provide a further stimulus to industrial investment and economic growth. Moreover, family structures tend to shift as extended families tend to no longer live together in one household, location or place.

==Background== {{Further|History of industrialisation|Proto-industrialization|l2=Proto-industrialisation}} The first transformation from an agricultural to an industrial economy is known as the Industrial Revolution and took place from the mid-18th to the early 19th century. It began in Great Britain, spreading to Belgium, Switzerland, Germany, and France and eventually to other areas in Europe and North America.<ref>Griffin, Emma, A Short History of the British Industrial Revolution. In 1850 over 50 percent of the British lived and worked in cities. London: Palgrave (2010)</ref> Characteristics of this early industrialisation were technological progress, a shift from rural work to industrial labour, and financial investments in new industrial structures.<ref>{{Cite book |chapter=Sustainable Industrialization in Africa: Toward a New Development Agenda |doi=10.1007/978-1-137-56112-1_1 |publisher=Springer |date=2016 |title=Sustainable Industrialization in Africa |last1=Sampath |first1=Padmashree Gehl |page=6 |isbn=978-1-349-57360-8 |quote=Contemporary notions of industrialization can be traced back to the experience of Great Britain, Western Europe and North America during the 19th and early 20th centuries (Nzau, 2010). The literature that reviews the experiences of these countries seems to agree that, although the early-industrializing countries started at different stages of growth, they followed more or less a similar format of change that led to their transformation. Marked by the shift from a subsistence/agrarian economy to more industrialised/mechanised modes of production, hallmarks of industrialization include technological advance, widespread investments into industrial infrastructure, and a dynamic movement of labor from agriculture into manufacturing (Lewis, 1978; Todaro, 1989; Rapley, 1994).}}</ref> Later commentators have called this the First Industrial Revolution.<ref>Pollard, Sidney: Peaceful Conquest. The Industrialisation of Europe 1760–1970, Oxford 1981.</ref>

The "Second Industrial Revolution" labels the later changes that came about in the mid-19th century after the refinement of the steam engine, the invention of the internal combustion engine, the harnessing of electricity and the construction of canals, railways, and electric-power lines. The invention of the assembly line gave this phase a boost. Coal mines, steelworks, and textile factories replaced homes as the place of work.<ref>Buchheim, Christoph: Industrielle Revolutionen. Langfristige Wirtschaftsentwicklung in Großbritannien, Europa und in Übersee, München 1994, S. 11-104.</ref><ref>Jones, Eric: The European Miracle: Environments, Economics and Geopolitics in the History of Europe and Asia, 3. ed. Cambridge 2003.</ref><ref>Henning, Friedrich-Wilhelm: Die Industrialisierung in Deutschland 1800 bis 1914, 9. Aufl., Paderborn/München/Wien/Zürich 1995, S. 15-279.</ref>

By the end of the 20th century, East Asia had become one of the most recently industrialised regions of the world.<ref>''Industry & Enterprise: A International Survey of Modernisation & Development'', ISM/Google Books, revised 2nd edition, 2003. {{ISBN|978-0-906321-27-0}}. [https://books.google.com/books?id=lZS7OXZUsnMC] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160511033359/https://books.google.com/books?id=lZS7OXZUsnMC&dq=isbn:0906321271|date=11 May 2016}}</ref>

There is considerable literature on the factors facilitating industrial modernisation and enterprise development.<ref>Lewis F. Abbott, ''Theories of Industrial Modernisation & Enterprise Development: A Review'', ISM/Google Books, revised 2nd edition, 2003. {{ISBN|978-0-906321-26-3}}.[https://books.google.com/books?q=theories+of+industrial+modernisation+and+enterprise+development&btnG=Search+Books]</ref>

==Social consequences== [[File:"Der Streik" von Robert Koehler.jpg|thumb|An 1886 portrait by Robert Koehler depicting agitated workers facing a factory owner in a strike]] The Industrial Revolution was accompanied by significant changes in the social structure, the main change being a transition from farm work to factory-related activities.<ref>{{Cite web|last=revolution|first=social|title=social effects of industrial revolution|url=https://www.google.com|access-date=1 April 2021|archive-date=17 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120317093950/https://www.google.com/|url-status=live}}</ref> This has resulted in the concept of Social class, i.e., hierarchical social status defined by an individual's economic power. It has changed the family system as most people moved into cities, with extended family living apart becoming more common. The movement into more dense urban areas from less dense agricultural areas has consequently increased the transmission of diseases. Overcrowded housing, poor sanitation, and limited access to clean water created ideal conditions for illnesses such as cholera, typhoid, and tuberculosis to spread rapidly. The place of women in society has shifted from primary caregivers to breadwinners, thus reducing the number of children per household. Furthermore, industrialisation contributed to increased cases of child labour and thereafter education systems.<ref>{{Cite web|last=revolution|first=social|title=social effect of industrial revolution|url=https://abhiipedia.abhinamu.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004002844/http://abhiipedia.abhinamu.com/|url-status=dead|archive-date=4 October 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Diamond, Jared (2012). The World Until Yesterday. ISBN 9780670024810.}}</ref><ref name="ka">{{Cite book |author-link=Kameel Ahmady |title=Ahmady, Kameel 2021:Traces of Exploitation in the World of Childhood (A Comprehensive Research on Forms, Causes and Consequences of Child Labour in Iran). Avaye Buf, Denmark. p 41}}</ref>

===Industrialisation (urbanisation) === {{Main|Urbanization|l1 = Urbanisation}}

[[File:Guangzhou dusk panorama.jpg|thumb|A panorama of Guangzhou at dusk]] As the Industrial Revolution was a shift from an agrarian society, people migrated from villages in search of jobs to places where factories were established. This shifting of rural people led to urbanisation and an increase in the population of towns. The concentration of labour in factories has increased urbanisation and the size of settlements to serve and house factory workers.

=== Exploitation === {{Main|Exploitation of labour|Child labour|Exploitation of natural resources|Exploitation colonialism}}

===Changes in family structure=== [[File:Дети -шахтёры.jpg|thumb|Child coal miners in Prussia, late 19th century]] Family structure changes with industrialisation. Sociologist Talcott Parsons noted that in pre-industrial societies there was an extended family structure spanning many generations that probably remained in the same location for generations. In industrialised societies the nuclear family, consisting of only parents and their growing children, predominates. Families and children reaching adulthood are more mobile and tend to relocate to where jobs exist. As employment opportunities concentrate in urban areas, families and young adults relocate in search of work. Extended family bonds become more tenuous.<ref>''[http://www.blacksacademy.net/content/3236.html The effect of industrialisation on the family, Talcott Parsons, the isolated nuclear family]'' {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101120221546/http://blacksacademy.net/content/3236.html |date=20 November 2010 }} Black's Academy. Educational Database. Accessed April 2008.</ref> One of the most important criticisms of industrialisation is that it caused children to stay away from home for many hours and to use them as cheap workers in factories.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Prügl, Elisabeth (1999). The Global Construction of Gender - Home based work in Political Economy of 20th Century. Columbia University Press. pp. 25–31, 50–59.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Hugh Cunningham; Pier Paolo Viazzo, eds. (1996). Child Labour in Historical Perspective: 1800-1985 (PDF). UNICEF. ISBN 978-88-85401-27-3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 November 2015.}}</ref><ref name="ka"/>

== By region == ===Chile=== Industrialization in Chile was spearheaded by Charles Saint Lambert who by 1840 had established modern reverberatory furnaces for copper smelting in Fundición Lambert, La Serena.<ref>{{cite book |author=Soc. Patrimonial Pedro Pablo Muñoz Godoy, El sitio de La Serena y la revolución de los libres |date=2013 |pages=106 |publisher=Volantines Ediciones |title=El sitio de La Serena y la revolución de los libres}}<!-- auto-translated from Spanish by Module:CS1 translator --></ref><ref name="luis">{{Cite journal |title=The Chilean Copper Smelting Industry in the Mid-Nineteenth Century: Phases of Expansion and Stagnation, 1834–58 |journal=Journal of Latin American Studies|year=1992 |last=Valenzuela |first=Luis |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=507-550 |doi=10.1017/S0022216X00024263}}</ref> Through his contacts in he and his son continuously imported the latest smelting technologies from Swansea.<ref name="luis"/> Considering the enterprizes of Saint Lambert an outlier the onset of Chilean industrialization has often been dated to the end of the 19th century.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Collier |first=Simon |title=Chile from Independence to the War of the Pacific |date=1985 |work=The Cambridge History of Latin America |volume=3: From Independence to c.1870 |pages=583–614 |editor-last=Bethell |editor-first=Leslie |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-history-of-latin-america/chile-from-independence-to-the-war-of-the-pacific/1D93EF636C84A01EFB9836385EAAAEC0 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/chol9780521232241.016 |isbn=978-0-521-23224-1 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> The 1870s saw of industries like sugar refineries, confectioneries and shoe and textile factories emerge.<ref>Salazar, Gabriel; Pinto, Julio (2002). ''Historia contemporánea de Chile III. La economía: mercados empresarios y trabajadores.'' LOM Ediciones. {{ISBN|956-282-172-2}}, p. 135</ref> Since the 1980s some scholars have argued that Chile was en route to becoming a full-fledged industrialized nation before 1914, yet economist Ducoing claims no industrialization took place, but rather a modernization process.<ref>{{Cite web | last1 = Ducoing Ruiz | first1 = C. A. | title = Capital formation in machinery and industrialization. Chile 1844–1938 | year = 2012 | url = https://repositori.upf.edu/bitstream/handle/10230/19896/1282.pdf?sequence=1 }}</ref>

===East Asia=== {{See also|Industrialisation of China}} Between the early 1960s and 1990s, the Four Asian Tigers (Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan) underwent rapid industrialisation and maintained exceptionally high growth rates.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Four Asian Tigers |url=https://corporatefinanceinstitute.com/resources/economics/four-asian-tigers/ |access-date=2023-01-27 |website=Corporate Finance Institute |language=en-US}}</ref> ===Africa=== {{Main|Industrialisation in Africa}}

==Current situation== {{Confusing|date=March 2008}} [[File:Gdp-and-labour-force-by-sector.png|thumb|2006 GDP by sector and labour force by occupation with the green, red, and blue components of the colours of the countries representing the percentages for the agriculture, industry, and services sectors, respectively]] {{As of|2018}} the international development community (World Bank, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), many United Nations departments, FAO WHO ILO and UNESCO,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Child|first=development|title=development and the whole child|url=https://www.unicef.org/about/history/files/Child-Nation-M-Black-Ch08-p191-214-development-whole-child.pdf|access-date=23 September 2020|archive-date=17 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210117215550/https://www.unicef.org/about/history/files/Child-Nation-M-Black-Ch08-p191-214-development-whole-child.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> endorses development policies like water purification or primary education and co-operation amongst third world communities.<ref>United Nations Millennium Development Goals https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/ / {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070504153515/http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/ |date=4 May 2007 }}. Un.org (20 May 2008). Retrieved on 2013-07-29.</ref> Some members of the economic communities do not consider contemporary industrialisation policies as being adequate to the global south (Third World countries) or beneficial in the longer term, with the perception that they may only create inefficient local industries unable to compete in the free-trade dominated political order which industrialisation has fostered.{{Citation needed|date=December 2012}} Environmentalism and Green politics may represent more visceral reactions to industrial growth. Nevertheless, repeated examples in history of apparently successful industrialisation (Britain, Soviet Union, South Korea, China, etc.) may make conventional industrialisation seem like an attractive or even natural path forward, especially as populations grow, consumerist expectations rise and agricultural opportunities diminish.

The relationships among economic growth, employment, and poverty reduction are complex, and higher productivity can sometimes lead to static or even lower employment (see jobless recovery).<ref name="ODI2">Claire Melamed, Renate Hartwig and Ursula Grant 2011. [http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=5752&title=jobs-growth-poverty-employment Jobs, growth and poverty: what do we know, what don't we know, what should we know?] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110520045610/http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=5752&title=jobs-growth-poverty-employment |date=20 May 2011}} London: Overseas Development Institute.</ref> There are differences across sectors, whereby manufacturing is less able than the tertiary sector to accommodate both increased productivity and employment opportunities; more than 40% of the world's employees are "working poor", whose incomes fail to keep themselves and their families above the $2-a-day poverty line.<ref name="ODI2"/> There is also a phenomenon of deindustrialisation, as in the former USSR countries' transition to market economies, and the agriculture sector is often the key sector in absorbing the resultant unemployment.<ref name="ODI2"/>

==See also== {{div col}} * {{anl|Automation}} * {{anl|Deindustrialization|Deindustrialisation}} * {{anl|Division of labour}} * {{anl|Great Divergence}} * Idea of Progress * {{anl|Mass production}} * {{anl|Mechanization|Mechanisation}} * {{anl|Newly industrialized country|Newly industrialised country}} * {{anl|Reindustrialization}} * {{anl|Scientific Revolution}} {{div col end}}

==References== {{Reflist}}

==Further reading== *{{Cite book |last=Ahmady |first=Kameel |author-link=Kameel Ahmady |title=Traces of Exploitation in the World of Childhood (A Comprehensive Research on Forms, Causes and Consequences of Child Labour in Iran) |publisher=Avaye Buf |year=2021 |isbn=9788793926646 |location=Denmark |publication-date=2021 |language=en}} *{{cite book |title=The Visible Hand: The Management Revolution in American Business |last=Chandler Jr. |first=Alfred D. |year=1993 |publisher=Belknap Press of Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0674940529 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/visiblehandmanag00chan }} * Hewitt, T., Johnson, H. and Wield, D. (Eds) (1992) ''industrialisation and Development'', Oxford University Press: Oxford. * Hobsbawm, Eric (1962): ''The Age of Revolution.'' Abacus. * Kemp, Tom (1993) ''Historical Patterns of Industrialisation'', Longman: London. {{ISBN|0-582-09547-6}} * Kiely, R (1998) ''industrialisation and Development: A comparative analysis'', UCL Press:London. *{{cite book |title=The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present |last=Landes |first= David. S. |year= 1969|publisher =Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge |location= Cambridge, New York |isbn= 0-521-09418-6}} * Pomeranz, Ken (2001)''The Great Divergence: China, Europe and the Making of the Modern World Economy'' (Princeton Economic History of the Western World) by (Princeton University Press; New Ed edition, 2001) * Tilly, Richard H.: [http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0159-2010101103 ''Industrialization as an Historical Process''], European History Online, Main: Institute of European History, 2010, retrieved: 29 February 2011.

==External links== {{wikivoyage|Industrialization of the United States}}

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Category:Industrialisation Category:Economic development Category:Economic growth Category:Industrial history Category:Late modern economic history Category:Secondary sector