Hypergamy

{{Short description|Practice of a person marrying a spouse of higher social status}} {{Primary sources|date=July 2025}} {{Close Relationships}} [[File:Schnorr von Carolsfeld Bibel in Bildern 1860 129.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Esther is crowned in this 1860 woodcut by Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld.]] '''Hypergamy''' (colloquially referred to as "'''dating up'''" or "'''marrying up''')<ref>{{cite web|first=Almara|last=Abgarian|date=21 October 2018|url=https://metro.co.uk/2018/10/21/what-is-hypergamy-and-are-some-people-prone-to-it-8041028/|title=What is hypergamy and are some people prone to it?|website=metro.co.uk|access-date=2 July 2019}}</ref> is a term used in social science for the act or practice of a person dating or marrying a spouse perceived to be of higher "mating value" than themselves.

The antonym "'''hypogamy'''" refers to the inverse: marrying a person perceived to be of lower "mating value" (colloquially "'''marrying down'''"). The term '''hypergyny''' can also be used to describe the practice of women marrying up.<ref>{{cite journal|date=May 1979|first=Mildred|last=Dickemann|title=The ecology of mating systems in hypergynous dowry societies|journal=Social Science Information|volume=18|issue=2|pages=163–195|doi=10.1177/053901847901800201|s2cid=144749330 |quote=It seemed clear from my materials that, as long ago proposed by Risley (1908) and Rivers (1921), this practice was a product of hypergyny, the upward flow of brides in a society which, being pyramidal, had fewer grooms at the top}}</ref> Concepts such as hypergamy, hypogamy, and hypergyny could be considered special cases of mésalliance.{{sfn|Eckland|1971|p=233}}

==By physical attractiveness== In the context of evolutionary psychology and digital sociology, hypergamy by physical attractiveness refers to the tendency of individuals to seek partners who are perceived as more physically attractive than themselves. With the advent of big data from online dating platforms, researchers have begun to quantify these patterns, observing distinct disparities in how men and women evaluate and pursue attractiveness.

Quantitative data from various dating platforms suggests a significant skew in how attractiveness is appraised. Data released by OKCupid indicated that while men tended to rate women on a traditional normal distribution (bell curve) of attractiveness, women rated approximately 80% of men as "below average" in physical appeal.<ref name="Rudder2014">Rudder, Christian (2014). ''Dataclysm: Who We Are (When We Think No One's Looking)''. Crown. ISBN 978-0385347372.</ref>

Research into the intersection of race and physical attractiveness in online dating often highlights the persistence of specific demographic preferences. Studies published in journals such as ''Psychological Science'' and various sociological reviews have noted that in Western dating markets, white men often receive a disproportionate amount of interest and higher attractiveness scores compared to other ethnic groups.<ref name="Lin2013">Lin, K. H.; Lundquist, J. S. (2013). "Mate Selection in Cyberspace: The Intersection of Race, Gender, and Education". ''American Journal of Sociology''. '''119''' (1): 183–215.</ref> Sociologists argue that these preferences are influenced by "sexual racism" or "racialized erotic capital," where Eurocentric beauty standards elevate the perceived desirability of certain groups.<ref name="Feliciano2009">Feliciano, C.; Robnett, B.; Komaie, G. (2009). "Gendered Racial Exclusion among White Internet Daters". ''Social Forces''. '''87''' (3): 1539–1564.</ref> Data-driven analyses suggest that most attractive white men often occupy the "top tier" of the digital dating hierarchy, receiving the highest volume of positive signals from a broad spectrum of female users, which researchers interpret as a convergence of hypergamy and existing social hierarchies.

==By income== In a 2016 paper that explored the income difference between couples in 1980 and 2012, researcher Yue Qian noted that the tendency for women to marry men with higher incomes than themselves still persists in the modern era.<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1111/jomf.12372| volume=79 | title=Gender Asymmetry in Educational and Income Assortative Marriage| year=2016| author=Yue Qian| journal=Journal of Marriage and Family | issue=2 | pages=318–336}}</ref>

The observed gender cliff in the distribution of women's share to the household income at 50% can be explained by income hypergamy preferences by both men and women, together with gender pay gap.<ref name="e812">{{cite journal | last1=Grow | first1=André | last2=Van Bavel | first2=Jan | title=The Gender Cliff in the Relative Contribution to the Household Income: Insights from Modelling Marriage Markets in 27 European Countries | journal=European Journal of Population | volume=36 | issue=4 | date=2020 | issn=0168-6577 | pmid=32994759 | pmc=7492320 | doi=10.1007/s10680-019-09547-8 | doi-access=free | pages=711–733 | url=https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10680-019-09547-8.pdf | access-date=9 February 2025}}</ref>

==By education== A study found traditional marriage practices in which men "marry down" and women "marry up" in education do not persist in countries where women have higher educational attainment.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The End of Hypergamy: Global Trends and Implications|journal = Population and Development Review|volume = 42|issue = 4|pages = 615–625|last=Esteve|first=Albert|date=2016-11-21|language=en|pmc = 5421994|pmid = 28490820|doi = 10.1111/padr.12012}}</ref>

==General differences by sex== One study found that women are more selective in their choice of marriage partners than are men.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Geary |first1=David C. |last2=Vigil |first2=Jacob |last3=Byrd-Craven |first3=Jennifer |year=2003 |title=Evolution of human mate choice |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00224490409552211 |journal=The Journal of Sex Research |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=27–42 |doi=10.1080/00224490409552211 |pmid=15216422 |s2cid=6848381 |access-date=30 December 2020|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Geary |first1=David C. |last2=Vigil |first2=Jacob |last3=Byrd-Craven |first3=Jennifer |year=2003 |title=Evolution of Human Mate Choice |url=http://web.simmons.edu/~turnerg/MCC/Matechoice2PDF.pdf |access-date=30 December 2020 |website=web.simmons.edu}}</ref>

Studies of mate selection in dozens of countries around the world have found men and women report prioritizing different traits when it comes to choosing a mate, with both groups favouring attractive partners in general, but that men tend to prefer women who are young while women tend to prefer men who are rich, in high social standing or physically attractive.<ref name="Evolutionary Anthropology">{{cite journal|title=Women's Mating Strategies |year=1996 |url=http://www.anthro.utah.edu/PDFs/ec_evolanth.pdf |last=Cashdan |first=Elizabeth |journal=Evolutionary Anthropology |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=134–143 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1520-6505(1996)5:4<134::AID-EVAN3>3.0.CO;2-G |s2cid=83722614 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130412152104/http://www1.anthro.utah.edu/PDFs/ec_evolanth.pdf |archive-date=2013-04-12|quote= It is clear that women value wealthy, high-status men in good physical condition, both for the resources such men can provide and for the genetic quality that they can give the woman’s offspring. }}</ref> They argue that as societies shift towards becoming more gender-equal, women's mate selection preferences shift as well. Some research provides support for that theory,<ref>{{cite book|title=Men's and Women's Preferences in Marital Partners in the United States, Russia, and Japan|last=Hadfield|first=Elaine|publisher=Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology |volume=26 |year=1995|pages=728–750|url=http://www.elainehatfield.com/97.pdf|access-date=2013-11-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203072411/http://www.elainehatfield.com/97.pdf|archive-date=2013-12-03|url-status=dead}}</ref> while other research contradicts it.<ref>{{cite book|last=Buss|first=David M.|author-link=David Buss|year=2016|orig-year=1994|title=The Evolution of Desire: Strategies of Human Mating|title-link=The Evolution of Desire|place=New York|publisher=Basic Books|edition=3rd|pages=68–71|isbn=978-0465097760}}</ref>

According to a review article from 2017, woman tend to prefer men that display kindness, prosocial behaviors, risk-taking, and dominance; although dominance may only be attractive when combined with agreeableness.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309525008|title=Women's Mate Preferences|page=3|date=January 2017|website=ResearchGate|access-date=16 November 2021}}</ref> Research conducted throughout the world strongly supports the position that women prefer marriage with partners who are culturally successful or have high potential to become culturally successful. The most extensive of these studies included 10,000 people in 37 cultures across six continents and five islands. Women rated "good financial prospect" higher than men did in all cultures. In 29 samples, the "ambition and industriousness" of a prospective mate were more important for women than for men. Meta-analysis of research published from 1965 to 1986 revealed the same sex difference (Feingold, 1992).

== Prevalence == In Britain, marrying up has decreased significantly since the 1950s.<ref name=":0" /> It is becoming less common for women to marry older men, because current socioeconomic dynamics allow women more autonomy. Hypergamy does not necessitate the man being older; rather, it requires him to have higher status. The term 'social equals' typically pertains to shared social circles rather than economic equality.<ref>{{cite book |last=Rutter |first=Virginia |title=The Gender of Sexuality: Exploring Sexual Possibilities |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers (Gender Lens Series) |year=2011 |isbn=978-0742570030 |page=19 |author-link=Virginia Rutter}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Gender and Families (Gender Lens Series)|last=Coltrane|first=Scott|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|year=2008|isbn=978-0742561519|page=[https://archive.org/details/genderfamilies0000colt/page/94 94]|url=https://archive.org/details/genderfamilies0000colt/page/94}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=McVeigh |first=Tracy |date=2012-04-07 |title=Shift in marriage patterns 'has effect on inequality' |url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2012/apr/08/marriage-and-class-study |access-date=2018-11-14 |website=The Guardian |language=en}}</ref>

A 2012 analysis of a survey of 8,953 people in 37 countries, which found that the more gender-equal a country, the likelier male and female respondents were to report seeking the same qualities in each other rather than different ones.<ref name="Psychological Science">{{cite journal|title = Stepping out of the caveman's shadow: nations' gender gap predicts degree of sex differentiation in mate preferences|date=1 October 2012|last1=Zentner|first1=M.|journal=Psychological Science|doi=10.1177/0956797612441004|pmid=22933455|volume=23|issue=10|pages=1176–85|last2=Mitura|first2=K|s2cid=3099690 }}</ref>

An empirical study examined the mate preferences of subscribers to an online dating service in Israel that had a highly skewed sex ratio (646 men for 1,000 women). Despite this skewed sex ratio, they found that "On education and socioeconomic status, women on average express greater hypergamic selectivity; they prefer mates who are superior to them in these traits... while men express a desire for an analogue of hypergamy based on physical attractiveness; they desire a mate who ranks higher on the physical attractiveness scale than they themselves do."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bokek-Cohen |first1=Y. |last2=Peres |first2=Y. |last3=Kanazawa |first3=S. |name-list-style=amp |year=2007 |title=Rational choice and evolutionary psychology as explanations for mate selectivity |url=http://personal.lse.ac.uk/kanazawa/pdfs/JSEC2008.pdf |journal=Journal of Social, Evolutionary, and Cultural Psychology |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=42–55 |doi=10.1037/h0099356}}</ref>{{rp|51}}

One study did not find a statistical difference in the number of women or men "marrying-up" in a sample of 1,109 first-time married couples in the United States.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Dalmia|first1=Sonia|last2=Sicilian|first2=Paul|year=2008|title=Kids Cause Specialization: Evidence for Becker's Household Division of Labor Hypothesis|journal=International Advances in Economic Research|volume=14|issue=4|pages=448–459|doi=10.1007/s11294-008-9171-x|s2cid=153727934 }}</ref>

==Mathematical model== Gilles Saint-Paul (2008) proposes a mathematical model that purports to demonstrate that human female hypergamy occurs because women have greater lost mating opportunity costs from monogamous mating (given their slower reproductive rate and limited window of fertility compared to men), and thus must be compensated for this cost of marriage. At the end of his introduction, Saint-Paul states his model is consistent with statistics published by Bertrand et al (2013) but also notes that in US Bureau of Labor and Statistics (BLS) data gathered the same year "aggregate evidence is not so clear-cut."<ref>{{cite journal |last=Saint-Paul |first=G. |year=2008 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-demographic-economics/article/genes-legitimacy-and-hypergamy-another-look-at-the-economics-of-marriage/82BADB41DBF5B71F72E4A001F95623C8 |title=Genes, Legitimacy and Hypergamy: Another look at the economics of marriage.] Econstor, IZA Discussion Papers, No. 4456|journal=Journal of Demographic Economics |volume=81 |issue=4 |pages=331–377 |doi=10.1017/dem.2015.8 |hdl=10419/36029 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

==Historical references==

References to Hindu law books from the Indian subcontinent in the 19th century include the Sanskrit terms ''anuloma'' and ''pratiloma'', respectively, for the concepts of hypergamy and hypogamy.<ref name="Shah2012">{{citation|last=Shah|first=A. M.|title=The Structure of Indian Society: Then and Now|date=6 December 2012|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EjORKo7maRUC&pg=PA37|pages=37–|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-19770-3}}</ref>

The early Christian Church, through voices such as St. Basil the Great, sought to limit the effects of hypergamous customs, notably the large age gap that may have resulted from hypergamous mate selection. This guideline was not a part of church canon but some orthodox or Coptic churches recommend respective gaps of around 4–8 years or 1–15 years, with narrower age gaps recommended for younger couples.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tanase |first=Nicolae |title=Soțul ideal, soția ideală |publisher=Agapis |year=2001 |isbn=978-606-8654-36-2 |location=Romania |pages=46 |language=ROM}}</ref>

== Notes == {{notelist}}

== References == {{reflist}}

== Sources == * {{cite book |editor-last1=Adams |editor-first1=Bert N. |editor-last2=Weirath |editor-first2=Thomas |title=Readings on the Sociology of the Family |publisher=Markham |publication-place=Chicago |date=1971 |isbn=0-8410-4025-7|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/readingsonsociol0000adam_w6e3/page/233|chapter=Theories of Mate Selection|first=Bruce K.|last=Eckland}}

== External links == * {{Wiktionary-inline}}

{{Human sexuality and sexology}} {{Types of marriages|state=autocollapse}} {{Interpersonal relationships}} Category:Dating Category:Evolutionary psychology Category:Mating systems Category:Morganatic marriage Category:Sexual selection