{{Short description|Ability of some flying animals}} [[File:Eichlinia cucurbitae-hovering nectaring.jpg|thumb|Squash vine borer hovering]] '''Hovering''' is the ability exhibited by some winged animals to remain relatively stationary in midair. Usually this involves rapid downward thrusts of the wings to generate upward lift. Sometimes hovering is maintained by flapping or soaring into a headwind; this form of hovering is called "wind hovering", "windhovering", or "kiting".<ref name="HF"> {{cite web |url=https://web.stanford.edu/group/stanfordbirds/text/essays/Hovering_Flight.html |title=Hovering Flight |last1=Ehrlich |first1=Paul R. |last2=Dobkin |first2=David S. |last3=Wheye |first3=Darryl |publisher=stanfordbirds }}</ref><ref name="Ames">{{cite news |last=Lekwa |first=Steve |date=Feb 22, 2021 |url=https://www.amestrib.com/story/opinion/2021/02/22/steve-lekwa-kiting-common-activity-iowas-raptors/4548379001/ |title=Kiting is a common activity for Iowa's raptors |newspaper=Ames Tribune }}</ref>
==True hoverers==
===Hummingbirds=== Hummingbirds hover over flowers to obtain nectar, flapping their wings at up to 70 beats per second.<ref name="NBSH"> {{cite web|url=https://www.audubon.org/news/the-hummingbird-wing-beat-challeng|title=The Hummingbird Wing Beat Challenge|date=April 22, 2020|publisher=National Audubon Society}}</ref> <gallery> Archilochus colubris-male hovering.jpg|Ruby-throated hummingbird Sword-billed hummingbird (male) at Guango Lodge, Ecuador (21310837273).jpg|Sword-billed hummingbird </gallery>
===Bats=== [[File:Choeronycteris mexicana, Mexican long-tongued bat (7371567444) 2.jpg|thumb|150px|Mexican long-tongued bat]] Like hummingbirds, fruit bats and nectar bats hover over flowers while feeding on fruits or nectar. Comparison between bats and hummingbirds has revealed that these animals exert similar amounts of energy relative to body weight during hovering: hummingbirds can twist their wings more easily and are more aerodynamic, but bats have bigger wings and larger strokes.<ref name="Stanford"> {{cite web |url=https://news.stanford.edu/2018/09/26/comparing-hovering-bats-hummingbirds/ |title=Stanford engineers study hovering bats and hummingbirds in Costa Rica |date=September 26, 2018 |publisher=Stanford news }}</ref><ref name="Science"> {{cite news |url=https://www.sciencenews.org/article/how-nectar-bats-fly-nowhere |title=How nectar bats fly nowhere |author=Susan Milius |date=October 15, 2018 |publisher=Science News }}</ref>
===Kingfishers=== [[File:Pied Kingfisher in hovering in Flight.jpg|thumb|150px|Pied kingfisher]] Small Kingfishers such as Belted kingfisher may hover over water before diving in to catch fish.<ref name="NBSK"> {{cite web |url=https://www.audubon.org/field-guide/bird/belted-kingfisher |title=Belted Kingfisher ''Megaceryle alcyon'' |publisher=National Audubon Society }}</ref> Larger species such as Ringed kingfisher are too heavy to hover for more than a few seconds.<ref name="Ringed"> {{cite web |url=https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Ringed_Kingfisher/overview |title=Ringed Kingfisher ''Megaceryle torquata'' |publisher=Cornell University }}</ref> [[File:Ryttla - Hovering - Ystad-2025.jpg|thumb|150px|Many passerines can hover, the picture shows a Blue Tit and a Great Tit hovering and looking for a place to enter a bird feeder.]]
===Moths===
====Sphinx moths==== Some sphinx moths (family Sphingidae) are known as hummingbird moths for their ability to hover over flowers while nectaring. Moths are relatively heavy insects and sometimes hang on to the flower with their forelegs as they hover.<ref name="Mass"> {{cite web |url=https://www.massaudubon.org/nature-wildlife/insects-arachnids/hummingbird-moth |title=Hummingbird Moth (Clearwing Moth) |publisher=Mass Audubon }}</ref> <gallery> Hemaris thysbe-hovering nectaring.jpg|Hummingbird clearwing Broad-bordered bee hawk-moth patuxent research refuge 7.9.21 DSC 1713.jpg|Broad-bordered bee hawk-moth </gallery>
====Clearwing moths==== Some clearwing moths (family Sesiidae) also hover while nectaring<ref name='Florida'>{{cite journal |last1=Brown |first1=LN |last2=Mizell |first2=RF |date=1993 |journal=Tropical Lepidoptera |title=The clearwing borers of Florida (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae) |url=https://journals.flvc.org/troplep/article/download/89327/85680/116170 |pages=1–21 |volume=4 |issue=3 |publisher=Florida Online Journals }}</ref><ref name='Springer'>{{cite book |last1=Potter |first1=Daniel |chapter=Clearwing Moths (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae) |editor1-last=Capinera |editor1-first=J.L. |date=2 October 2014 |title=Encyclopedia of Entomology |pages=928 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-1-4020-6359-6_5123 |doi=10.1007/978-1-4020-6359-6_5123 |publisher=Springer, Dordrecht |isbn=978-1-4020-6242-1 }}</ref> or puddling.<ref name='inatpuddling'>{{cite web |url=https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/170969282 |title=''Melittia celebica'' |date=4 July 2023 |publisher=iNaturalist }}</ref> Females may also hover to inspect ovipositing sites.<ref name='inatovipositing'>{{cite web |url=https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/118200645 |title=''Pyropteron icteropus'' |date=22 May 2022 |publisher=iNaturalist }}</ref> <gallery> Chamaesphecia bibioniformis-male hovering.jpg|''Chamaesphecia bibioniformis'' Eichlinia cucurbitae-hovering dorsal.jpg|Squash vine borer File:Bumblebee mimic.webm|thumbtime=0|''Hemaris diffinis'' is an excellent bumblebee mimic </gallery>
===Hoverflies=== Hoverflies are flies that often hover over the plants they visit. This hovering behaviour is unlike that of hummingbirds since they do not feed in midair. Hovering in general may be a means of finding a food source; in addition, male hovering is often a territorial display seeking females,<ref name='Scopus'>{{cite journal |last1=Collett |first1=T.S. |last2=Land |first2=M.F. |date=September 1978 |journal=Journal of Comparative Physiology |title=How hoverflies compute interception courses |url=https://www.scopus.com/record/display.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0001324077&origin=inward&txGid=ad71bb12cbc836c7415c848ba45e1ee5 |pages=191–204 |volume=125 |issue=3 |doi=10.1007/BF00656597 |publisher=Springer-Verlag |s2cid=26039329 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> while female hovering serves to inspect ovipositing sites.<ref name='Biotech'>{{cite journal |last1=Almohamad |first1=Raki |last2=Verheggen |first2=François J. |last3=HaubrugeUniv |first3=Éric |date=2009 |journal=Biotechnologie, Agronomie, Société et Environnement |title=Searching and oviposition behavior of aphidophagous hoverflies (Diptera: Syrphidae): a review |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/26849775 |pages=467–481 |volume=13 |issue=3 }}</ref><ref name='ucanr'>{{cite web |url=https://ucanr.edu/sites/tuolumne_county_master_gardeners/files/147388.pdf |title=Hover Flies, a Gardener's Friend |author=Vera Strader |publisher=University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources }}</ref><ref name='Bugguide'>{{cite web |url=https://bugguide.net/node/view/2317562 |title=''Allograpta exotica'' ovipositing - ''Allograpta exotica'' - Female |author=Peter Chen |date=December 6, 2023 |publisher=Iowa State University |website=Bugguide }}</ref> <gallery> File:Eupeodes_fumipennis-female_hovering.jpg|Western aphideater File:Eupeodes_volucris-female_hovering.jpg|Large-tailed aphideater Episyrphus_balteatus-female_hovering.jpg|Marmalade hoverfly </gallery>
===Bee flies=== Bee flies are parasitoids that can dart about in the air with great agility. Males hover as a courtship display,<ref name='NHM'>{{cite web |url=https://www.nhm.ac.uk/resources-rx/files/bee-fly-identification-129900.pdf |title=Bee-flies ''Bombylius'' sp. |publisher=Natural History Museum }}</ref><ref name="courtship">{{cite journal |last1=Ferguson |first1=David J |last2=Yeates |first2=David K |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/288683339 |title=The courtship behavior of the bee fly ''Meomyia vetusta'' Walker (Diptera: Bombyliidae) |date=May 2013 |journal=Australian Entomologist |volume=40 |pages=89–92 |via=ResearchGate }}</ref> while females hover over ovipositing sites - usually the entrance of a host insect nest, and shoot eggs into the nest using an ejecting movement of their abdomen.<ref name="Searching">{{cite journal |last1=Boesi |first1=Roberto |last2=Polidori |first2=Carlo |last3=Andrietti |first3=Francesco |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230785533 |title=Searching for the Right Target: Oviposition and Feeding Behavior in ''Bombylius'' Bee Flies (Diptera: Bombyliidae) |date=March 2009 |journal=Zoological Studies |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=141–150 |via=ResearchGate }}</ref> Species that have a long proboscis can hover over flowers while feeding, much as hummingbirds do, though these flies may touch the flower with their legs for balance while hovering.<ref name='Buzz'>{{cite web |url=https://www.buzzaboutbees.net/bee-fly.html |title=The Large Bee Fly - ''Bombylius major'' |date=April 20, 2021 |publisher=Buzzaboutbees }}</ref> <gallery> File:Bombylius egg ejection 290310 1504.gif|''Bombylius'' egg ejection File:Bombylius major-hovering.jpg|Large bee-fly File:Bombylius canescens-male hovering.jpg|Western bee-fly </gallery>
===Odonata=== Odonata is an insect order that includes dragonflies and damselflies. They are strong aviators renowned for their acrobatic flights, including the ability to hover, usually for a short pause during their ceaseless territorial patrols.<ref name="Britton"> {{cite web |url=https://australian.museum/learn/animals/insects/dragonflies-and-damselflies-order-odonata/ |title=Dragonflies and damselflies - Order Odonata |author=David Britton |date=Mar 7, 2023 |publisher=Australian Museum }}</ref>
====Dragonflies==== In addition to short hovers while cruising, female dragonflies may hover over the water before or during oviposition, males may also hover-guard their mate at this time.<ref name='McMillan'>{{cite journal |last1=McMillan |first1=Victoria E. |date=June 1991 |journal=Animal Behaviour |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0003347205806360 |title=Variable mate-guarding behaviour in the dragonfly ''Plathemis lydia'' (Odonata: Libellulidae) |pages=979–987 |volume=41 |issue=6 |doi=10.1016/S0003-3472(05)80636-0 |publisher=Elsevier B.V. |s2cid=54360417 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> <gallery> File:Aeshna juncea hovering.jpg|Sedge darner male File:Anax junius-hovering.jpg|Green darner male File:Tramea lacerata-flying tandem separated.jpg|Black saddlebags pair hovering over oviposition site </gallery> <gallery caption="female dragonflies hover-ovipositing" mode=packed> Pachydiplax longipennis-female ovipositing.webm|Blue dasher Plathemis lydia-ovipositing.webm|Common whitetail </gallery>
====Damselflies==== Some male damselflies hover in front of females or over the oviposition site during courtship; sometimes females also hover in response.<ref name="BugLady">{{cite web |url=https://uwm.edu/field-station/bug-of-the-week/river-jewelwing-damselfly/ |title=River Jewelwing Damselfly |author=The BugLady |date=December 14, 2022 |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee }}</ref><ref name='IJO'>{{cite journal |last1=Guillermo-Ferreiraa |first1=Rhainer |last2=Neissc |first2=Ulisses Gaspar |last3=Hamadad |first3=Neusa |last4=Bispo |first4=Pitágoras C. |date=2 October 2014 |journal=International Journal of Odonatology |title=Behavior of the Amazonian damselfly ''Chalcopteryx scintillans'' McLachlan (Zygoptera: Polythoridae) and comments on its morphological distinction from ''C. rutilans'' (Rambur) |url=https://worlddragonfly.org/article/13887890-2014-983189/ |pages=251–258 |volume=17 |issue=4 |doi=10.1080/13887890.2014.983189 |publisher=Worldwide Dragonfly Association |doi-access=free |bibcode=2014IJOdo..17..251G }}</ref> After mating, males may hover-guard their mate by either circling over her or by hovering while attached to her in tandem. Males hover-guarding in tandem do not need wings at all to remain suspended in the air; they are held aloft by clasping their mate with their abdomen, and can maintain their position even when the head and thorax are removed by predators.<ref name="Field"> {{cite web |url=https://fieldguides.fieldmuseum.org/sites/default/files/rapid-color-guides-pdfs/388_0.pdf |title=Damselflies of Chicagoland A Photo Field Guide, version 2 |author=Marla Garrison |date=2011 |publisher=The Field Museum, Chicago }}</ref><ref name="Champlain"> {{cite web |url=https://www.lakechamplaincommittee.org/learn/news/item/nature-note-dragonflies-and-damselflies |title=Nature Note: Dragonflies and Damselflies |date=August 31, 2009 |publisher=Lake Champlain Committee }}</ref> <gallery> File:Calopteryx maculata-male hovering.jpg|Ebony jewelwing male hover-patrolling File:Argia moesta-male hovering.jpg|Powdered dancer male hover-patrolling File:Argia moesta-ovipositing.jpg|Powdered dancer males hover-guarding </gallery>
===Hymenoptera===
====Bees==== Many bee species, such as bumblebees, hover momentarily as they approach flowers to feed.<ref name='Bees'>{{cite web |url=https://www.buzzaboutbees.net/do-bumble-bees-hover.html |title=Do Bumble Bees Hover? |publisher=Buzzaboutbees }}</ref> Males of some species, including carder bees, hover while patrolling their territories.<ref name='Best'>{{cite web |url=https://bestbeebrothers.com/blogs/blog/why-carpenter-bees-hover |title=Why Do Carpenter Bees Hover? |date=January 12, 2023 |publisher=Best Bee Brothers }}</ref><ref name='UK'>{{cite web |url=https://entomology.ca.uky.edu/ef611 |title=Carpenter Bees |author=MICHAEL F. POTTER |publisher=University of Kentucky }}</ref><ref name='UF'>{{cite web |url=https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/MISC/BEES/Anthidium_manicatum.html |title=common name: European wool carder bee |author1=Samantha Gallagher |author2=Andrea Lucky |date=December 2019 |publisher=University of Florida }}</ref> <gallery> File:Bombus fervidus-hovering.jpg|Golden northern bumble bee Xylocopa nasalis-hovering.jpg|Oriental carpenter bee Anthidium manicatum-male hovering.jpg|European wool carder bee </gallery>
Large eyed male carpenter bees primarily hover to protect their territory and attract female carpenter bees. Hovering allows them to spot intruders and other male competitors. When a male carpenter bee encounters an intruder, including a person and other mammals, it may dart towards it to chase it away.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.whatsthatbug.com/why-do-carpenter-bees-hover|title=Why Do Carpenter Bees Hover? Uncovering Their Mysterious Behavior |work=whatsthatbug.com|date=13 October 2023 }}</ref>
[[File:CarpenderBeeHovering 1 prob4 63.webm|thumb|center|thumbtime=10|Large eyed male mountain carpenter bee hovering]]
====Wasps==== [[File:Sphecius speciosus-male hovering.jpg|thumb|150px|Eastern cicada killer]] Among the social wasps, Stenogastrinae are known as '''hover wasps''' due to their distinctive hovering flight.<ref name="Carpenter">{{cite journal |last1=Carpenter |first1=James Michael |last2=Nguyen |first2=Lien Thi Phuong |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227616275 |title=Keys to the genera of social wasps of South-East Asia (Hymenoptera: Vespidae) |date=September 2003 |journal=Entomological Science |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=183–192 |publisher=American Museum of Natural History |via=ResearchGate |doi=10.1046/j.1343-8786.2003.00016.x |s2cid=86823797 }}</ref> Males often hover to display banding patterns on their abdomen as a territorial display.<ref name="BEANI">{{cite journal |last1=Beani |first1=L. |last2=Turillazzi |first2=S. |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0003347299911016 |title=Stripes display in hover-wasps (Vespidae: Stenogastrinae): a socially costly status badge |date=June 1999 |journal=Animal Behaviour |volume=57 |issue=6 |pages=1233–1239 |publisher=The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour |via=Elsevier |doi=10.1006/anbe.1999.1101 |pmid=10373256 |s2cid=45496129 |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="Turillazzi">{{cite journal |last1=Turillazzi |first1=S. |last2=Francescato |first2=E. |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0003347299911016 |title=Patrolling behaviour and related secretory structures in the males of some Stenogastrine wasps |date=1990 |journal=Insectes Sociaux |volume=37 |pages=146–157 |via=Springer Nature |doi=10.1007/BF02224027 |s2cid=25746201 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>
Among the solitary wasps, parasitoid species such as scoliid wasps exhibit hovering behaviour while hunting for prey to feed their larvae.<ref name='Daily'>{{cite news |url=https://www.dailypress.com/1990/08/26/flying-pests-are-more-than-just-annoying/ |title=FLYING PESTS ARE MORE THAN JUST ANNOYING |date=July 30, 2019 |publisher=Daily Press }}</ref><ref name='UME'>{{cite news |url=https://extension.umd.edu/resource/scoliid-wasps-lawns/ |title=Scoliid Wasps - Lawns |date=March 1, 2023 |publisher=University of Maryland Extension }}</ref> Males of some parasitoids may hover briefly while they patrol their territories, seeking females and chasing away rivals.<ref name='MDC'>{{cite web |url=https://mdc.mo.gov/discover-nature/field-guide/eastern-cicada-killer-wasp |title=Eastern Cicada-Killer Wasp |publisher=Missouri Department of Conservation }}</ref><ref name='CES'>{{cite web |url=https://content.ces.ncsu.edu/cicada-killer-wasp |title=Cicada Killer Wasp |publisher=N.C. Cooperative Extension }}</ref><ref name='ydr'>{{cite news |url=https://www.ydr.com/story/life/2015/07/13/masterful-gardening-sand-wasps-our-allies-pest-control/72142742/ |title=Masterful Gardening: Sand wasps - our allies in pest control |author=Connie Schmotzer |date=July 13, 2015 |publisher=YorkDailyRecord }}</ref>
==Wind hoverers==
===Raptors=== Many birds of prey such as kestrels, harriers, and members of the Buteo genus can "windhover" by facing the wind.<ref name="BFK"> {{cite web |url=https://birdfact.com/articles/kestrel-hovering |title=Kestrel Hovering: A Complete Guide |date=March 15, 2023 |publisher=Birdfact }}</ref><ref name="IPM"> {{cite web |url=https://indianapublicmedia.org/amomentofscience/how-does-the-windhover-hover.php |title=How does the windhover hover? |author=J Rawleigh |date=April 4, 2023 |publisher=Indiana Public Media }}</ref><ref name="Iowa">{{cite news |last=Caswell |first=Brandon |date=Dec 29, 2021 |url=https://www.thegazette.com/sports/hovering-raptors-in-iowa/ |title=Hovering raptors in Iowa |newspaper=The Gazette }}</ref> Elanine kites also engage in "windhovering"; this behaviour is also called "kiting" due the common names of this genus.<ref name="bkskit"> {{cite web |url=https://ebird.org/species/bkskit1 |title=Black-winged Kite ''Elanus caeruleus'' |publisher=Cornell Lab of Ornithology }}</ref><ref name="auskit"> {{cite web |url=https://ebird.org/species/auskit1 |title=Black-shouldered Kite ''Elanus axillaris'' |publisher=Cornell Lab of Ornithology }}</ref><ref name="Audubon"> {{cite web |url=https://www.audubon.org/field-guide/bird/northern-harrier |title=Northern Harrier ''Circus hudsonius'' |publisher=National Audubon Society }}</ref> <gallery> File:Common kestrel hovering.jpg|Common kestrel File:Falco cenchroides 2.jpg|Nankeen kestrel File:Northern Harrier - 51872832791.jpg|Northern harrier File:Letter-winged Kite (Elanus scriptus)4.jpg|Letter-winged kite </gallery>
===Seabirds=== Certain seabirds can windhover by soaring or flapping into the wind; often this behaviour takes advantage of thermals whipping off a coastal cliff.<ref name="VQR"> {{cite journal |url=https://www.vqronline.org/essay/flight-seabirds |title=The Flight of Seabirds |author=Louis J. Halle |date=December 12, 2003 |volume=55 |issue=1 |journal=The Virginia Quarterly Review }}</ref><ref name="BOW"> {{cite journal |url=https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/norful/cur/introduction |title=Northern Fulmar ''Fulmarus glacialis'' |date=March 4, 2020 |last1=Mallory |first1=Mark L. |last2=Hatch |first2=Scott A. |last3=Nettleship |first3=David N. |editor-first1=Shawn M. |editor-last1=Billerman |journal=Birds of the World |doi=10.2173/bow.norful.01 |s2cid=216353101 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>
Tropicbirds can even fly backwards against a strong headwind; Red-tailed tropicbird pairs use this ability to circle each other during courtship displays.<ref name="OBT"> {{cite web |url=https://www.oiseaux-birds.com/card-red-tailed-tropicbird.html |title=Red-tailed Tropicbird ''Phaethon rubricauda'' |author=Nicole Bouglouan |publisher=Oiseaux-Birds }}</ref><ref name="rettro"> {{cite web |url=https://ebird.org/species/rettro |title=Red-tailed Tropicbird ''Phaethon rubricauda'' |publisher=Cornell Lab of Ornithology }}</ref>
Smaller seabirds such as shearwaters and storm petrels feed by hovering low over the water surface,<ref name="Fork"> {{cite web |url=https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Fork-tailed_Storm-Petrel/overview |title=Fork-tailed Storm-Petrel ''Hydrobates furcatus'' |publisher=Cornell University }}</ref> flapping with half-open wings and paddling with their feet in a technique called "pattering" or "sea-anchoring".<ref name="SORA">{{cite journal |last1=Steele |first1=Martha |url=https://sora.unm.edu/node/141755 |title=Meet Our Cover Artist |date=1992 |journal=Bird Observer |volume=20 |issue=4 |page=233 |publisher=University of New Mexico }}</ref><ref name="Exploring">{{cite journal |last1=Xue |first1=Jiaqi |last2=Han |first2=Fei |last3=van Oorschot |first3=Brett Klaassen |last4=Clifton |first4=Glenna T |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/374487557 |title=Exploring storm petrel pattering and sea-anchoring using deep reinforcement learning |date=October 2023 |journal=Bioinspiration & Biomimetics |volume=18 |issue=6 |publisher=University of Portland |via=ResearchGate |doi=10.1088/1748-3190/ad00a2 |pmid=37797650 |bibcode=2023BiBi...18f6016X |s2cid=263705229 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The waves are accompanied by a slight horizontal wind that enables the birds to soar in place while using their feet to steady themselves.<ref name="Aerodynamics">{{cite journal |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237815118 |journal=Journal of Experimental Biology |year=1979 |volume=80 |pages=83–91 |title=Aerodynamics and hydrodynamics of the 'hovering' flight of Wilson's Storm Petrel |last= Withers |first=Philip |issue=1 |via=ResearchGate |doi=10.1242/jeb.80.1.83 |bibcode=1979JExpB..80...83W }}</ref> <gallery> File:Phaethon_rubricauda-hovering_flying_backwards.jpg|Red-tailed tropicbird flying backwards File:Phaethon rubricauda-courtship_fly_backwards.jpg|Red-tailed tropicbirds circling courtship File:Oceanites oceanicus - SE Tasmania.jpg|Wilson's storm petrel pattering File:Puffinus gavia-pattering.jpg|Fluttering shearwater pattering </gallery>
==References== {{reflist}}
Category:Ethology Category:Bird behavior Category:Insect behavior