Gallstone

{{short description|Disease where stones form in the gallbladder}} {{cs1 config|name-list-style=vanc|display-authors=6}} {{Infobox medical condition (new) | name = Gallstone | image = Gallstones.png | caption = Gallstones typically form in the gallbladder and may result in symptoms if they block the biliary system. | field = Gastroenterology<br />General surgery | pronounce = Cholelith {{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|oʊ|l|ə|l|ɪ|θ}}, cholelithiasis {{IPAc-en|ˌ|k|oʊ|l|ə|l|ɪ|ˈ|θ|aɪ|ə|s|ᵻ|s}} | synonyms = Gallstone disease, cholelith, cholecystolithiasis (gallstone in the gallbladder), choledocholithiasis (gallstone in a bile duct)<ref name=Qui2013/> | symptoms = None, crampy pain in the right upper abdomen<ref name=NIH2013/><ref name=Lee2015/><ref name=WS2016/> | complications = Inflammation of the gallbladder, inflammation of the pancreas, liver inflammation<ref name=NIH2013/><ref name=WS2016/> | onset = After 40 years old<ref name=NIH2013/> | duration = | types = | causes = | risks = Birth control pills, pregnancy, family history, obesity, diabetes, liver disease, rapid weight loss<ref name=NIH2013/> | diagnosis = Based on symptoms and physical examination, confirmed by ultrasound<ref name=NIH2013/><ref name=WS2016/> | differential = | prevention = Healthy weight, diet high in fiber, diet low in simple carbohydrates<ref name=NIH2013/> | treatment = '''Asymptomatic''': none,<ref name=NIH2013/> ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) and Chenodeoxycholic acid <br />'''Pain''': surgery ERCP, Cholecystectomy<ref name=NIH2013/> | medication = | prognosis = Good after surgery<ref name=NIH2013/> | frequency = 10–15% of adults (developed world)<ref name=WS2016/> | deaths = }} <!-- Definition and symptoms -->

A '''gallstone''' is a stone formed within the gallbladder from precipitated bile components.<ref name=NIH2013/> The term '''cholelithiasis''' may refer to the presence of gallstones or to any disease caused by gallstones,<ref name=NICE2014>{{cite book |title=Gallstone Disease: Diagnosis and Management of Cholelithiasis, Cholecystitis and Choledocholithiasis |series=National Institute for Health and Care Excellence: Guidelines |date=October 2014 |publisher=National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) |pmid=25473723 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK258747/ |page=101 }}</ref> and choledocholithiasis refers to the presence of migrated gallstones within bile ducts.

Most people with gallstones (about 80%) are asymptomatic.<ref name=NIH2013/><ref name=Lee2015>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lee JY, Keane MG, Pereira S | title = Diagnosis and treatment of gallstone disease | journal = The Practitioner | volume = 259 | issue = 1783 | pages = 15–9, 2 | date = June 2015 | pmid = 26455113 }}</ref> However, when a gallstone obstructs the bile duct and causes acute cholestasis, a reflexive smooth muscle spasm often occurs, resulting in an intense cramp-like visceral pain in the right upper part of the abdomen known as a biliary colic (or "gallbladder attack").<ref name=WS2016/> This happens in 1–4% of those with gallstones each year.<ref name=WS2016/><!-- Quote = Biliary colic occurs in 1 to 4 % annually --> Complications from gallstones may include inflammation of the gallbladder (cholecystitis), inflammation of the pancreas (pancreatitis), obstructive jaundice, and infection in bile ducts (cholangitis).<ref name=WS2016/><ref name=NHS2018>{{cite web|title=Complications|url=https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/gallstones/complications/|website=nhs.uk|access-date=13 May 2018}}</ref> Symptoms of these complications may include pain that lasts longer than five hours, fever, yellowish skin, vomiting, dark urine, and pale stools.<ref name=NIH2013/>

<!-- Cause and diagnosis --> Risk factors for gallstones include birth control pills, pregnancy, a family history of gallstones, obesity, diabetes, liver disease, or rapid weight loss.<ref name=NIH2013/> The bile components that form gallstones include cholesterol, bile salts, and bilirubin.<ref name=NIH2013/> Gallstones formed mainly from cholesterol are termed ''cholesterol stones'', and those formed mainly from bilirubin are termed ''pigment stones''.<ref name=NIH2013>{{cite web|title=Gallstones|url=https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/health-topics/digestive-diseases/gallstones/Pages/facts.aspx|website=NIDDK|access-date=27 July 2016|date=November 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160728005016/https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/health-topics/digestive-diseases/gallstones/Pages/facts.aspx|archive-date=28 July 2016}}</ref><ref name=Lee2015/> Gallstones may be suspected based on symptoms.<ref name=WS2016/> Diagnosis is then typically confirmed by ultrasound.<ref name=NIH2013/> Complications may be detected using blood tests.<ref name=NIH2013/>

<!-- Prevention and treatment --> The risk of gallstones may be decreased by maintaining a healthy weight with exercise and a healthy diet.<ref name=NIH2013/> If there are no symptoms, treatment is usually not needed.<ref name=NIH2013/> In those who are having gallbladder attacks, surgery to remove the gallbladder is typically recommended.<ref name=NIH2013/> This can be carried out either through several small incisions or through a single larger incision, usually under general anesthesia.<ref name=NIH2013/> In rare cases when surgery is not possible, medication can be used to dissolve the stones or lithotripsy can be used to break them down.<ref name=NIH2017Tx>{{cite web |title=Treatment for Gallstones |url=https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/digestive-diseases/gallstones/treatment |website=National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases|date=November 2017}}</ref>

<!-- Epidemiology and prognosis --> In developed countries, 10–15% of adults experience gallstones.<ref name=WS2016>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ansaloni L, Pisano M, Coccolini F, Peitzmann AB, Fingerhut A, Catena F, Agresta F, Allegri A, Bailey I, Balogh ZJ, Bendinelli C, Biffl W, Bonavina L, Borzellino G, Brunetti F, Burlew CC, Camapanelli G, Campanile FC, Ceresoli M, Chiara O, Civil I, Coimbra R, De Moya M, Di Saverio S, Fraga GP, Gupta S, Kashuk J, Kelly MD, Koka V, Jeekel H, Latifi R, Leppaniemi A, Maier RV, Marzi I, Moore F, Piazzalunga D, Sakakushev B, Sartelli M, Scalea T, Stahel PF, Taviloglu K, Tugnoli G, Uraneus S, Velmahos GC, Wani I, Weber DG, Viale P, Sugrue M, Ivatury R, Kluger Y, Gurusamy KS, Moore EE | title = 2016 WSES guidelines on acute calculous cholecystitis | journal = World Journal of Emergency Surgery | volume = 11 | page = 25 | date = 2016 | pmid = 27307785 | pmc = 4908702 | doi = 10.1186/s13017-016-0082-5 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Gallbladder and biliary-related diseases occurred in about 104 million people (1.6% of people) in 2013 and resulted in 106,000 deaths.<ref>{{cite journal | title = Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 301 acute and chronic diseases and injuries in 188 countries, 1990–2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013 | journal = Lancet | volume = 386 | issue = 9995 | pages = 743–800 | date = August 2015 | pmid = 26063472 | pmc = 4561509 | doi = 10.1016/s0140-6736(15)60692-4 | last1 = Vos | first1 = Theo | last2 = Barber | first2 = Ryan M. | last3 = Bell | first3 = Brad | last4 = Bertozzi-Villa | first4 = Amelia | last5 = Biryukov | first5 = Stan | last6 = Bolliger | first6 = Ian | last7 = Charlson | first7 = Fiona | last8 = Davis | first8 = Adrian | last9 = Degenhardt | first9 = Louisa | last10 = Dicker | first10 = Daniel | last11 = Duan | first11 = Leilei | last12 = Erskine | first12 = Holly | last13 = Feigin | first13 = Valery L. | last14 = Ferrari | first14 = Alize J. | last15 = Fitzmaurice | first15 = Christina | last16 = Fleming | first16 = Thomas | last17 = Graetz | first17 = Nicholas | last18 = Guinovart | first18 = Caterina | last19 = Haagsma | first19 = Juanita | last20 = Hansen | first20 = Gillian M. | last21 = Hanson | first21 = Sarah Wulf | last22 = Heuton | first22 = Kyle R. | last23 = Higashi | first23 = Hideki | last24 = Kassebaum | first24 = Nicholas | last25 = Kyu | first25 = Hmwe | last26 = Laurie | first26 = Evan | last27 = Liang | first27 = Xiofeng | last28 = Lofgren | first28 = Katherine | last29 = Lozano | first29 = Rafael | last30 = MacIntyre | first30 = Michael F. }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | title = Global, regional, and national age-sex specific all-cause and cause-specific mortality for 240 causes of death, 1990–2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013 | journal = Lancet | volume = 385 | issue = 9963 | pages = 117–71 | date = January 2015 | pmid = 25530442 | pmc = 4340604 | doi = 10.1016/s0140-6736(14)61682-2 }}</ref> Gallstones are more common among women than men and occur more commonly after the age of 40.<ref name=NIH2013/> Gallstones occur more frequently among certain ethnic groups than others.<ref name=NIH2013/> For example, 48% of Native Americans experience gallstones, whereas gallstone rates in many parts of Africa are as low as 3%.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VcgmpMZE6a8C&pg=PA944|title=Principles and practice of geriatric surgery|date=2011|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4419-6999-6|veditors=Rosenthal RA, Zenilman ME, Katlic MR|edition=2nd|location=Berlin|page=944|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160815224542/https://books.google.ca/books?id=VcgmpMZE6a8C&pg=PA944|archive-date=2016-08-15|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="NIH2013" /> Once the gallbladder is removed, outcomes are generally positive.<ref name="NIH2013" /> {{TOC limit|3}}

==Definition== Gallstone disease refers to the condition where gallstones are either in the gallbladder or common bile duct.<ref name=NICE2014/> The presence of stones in the gallbladder is referred to as ''cholelithiasis'', from the Greek {{wikt-lang|en|chole-}} ({{lang|grc|χολή}}, 'bile') + {{wikt-lang|en|lith-}} ({{lang|grc|λίθος}}, 'stone') + {{wikt-lang|en|-iasis}} ({{lang|grc|ἴασις}}, 'process').<ref name=Qui2013>{{cite book | vauthors = Quick CR, Reed JB, Harper SJ, Saeb-Parsy K, Deakin PJ |title=Essential Surgery E-Book: Problems, Diagnosis and Management: With student consult online access |date=2013 |publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences |isbn=978-0-7020-5483-9 |page=281 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RYhRAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA281 |language=en}}</ref> The presence of gallstones in the common bile duct is called ''choledocholithiasis'', from the Greek {{wikt-lang|en|choledocho-}} ({{lang|grc|χοληδόχος}}, 'bile-containing', from {{lang|grc-Latn|chol-}} + {{lang|grc-Latn|docho-}}, 'duct') + {{lang|grc-Latn|lith-}} + {{lang|en|-iasis|italic=yes}}.<ref name=Qui2013/> Choledocholithiasis is frequently associated with obstruction of the bile ducts, which can lead to ''cholangitis'', from the Greek: {{lang|grc-Latn|chol-}} + {{wikt-lang|en|angio-|ang-}} ({{lang|grc|ἄγγος}}, 'vessel') + {{wikt-lang|en|-itis}} ({{wikt-lang|grc|-ῖτις}}, 'inflammation'), a serious infection of the bile ducts. Gallstones within the ampulla of Vater can obstruct the exocrine system of the pancreas and can result in pancreatitis.{{cn|date=March 2022}}

==Signs and symptoms== thumb|520x520px|The proportion of people with gallstones who experience symptoms as a result of them<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Gurusamy |first1=Kurinchi Selvan |last2=Davidson |first2=Christopher |last3=Gluud |first3=Christian |last4=Davidson |first4=Brian R |date=2013-06-30 |editor-last=Cochrane Hepato-Biliary Group |title=Early versus delayed laparoscopic cholecystectomy for people with acute cholecystitis |url=https://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/14651858.CD005440.pub3 |journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |issue=6 |article-number=CD005440 |language=en |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD005440.pub3|pmid=23813477 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Gallstones, regardless of size or number, are asymptomatic in 60–80% of patients.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Acalovschi |first=Monica |last2=Blendea |first2=Dan |last3=Feier |first3=Cristina |last4=Letia |first4=Alfred I. |last5=Ratiu |first5=Nadia |last6=Dumitrascu |first6=Dan L. |last7=Veres |first7=Adina |date=August 2003 |title=Risk factors for symptomatic gallstones in patients with liver cirrhosis: a case-control study |url= |journal=The American Journal of Gastroenterology |language=en |volume=98 |issue=8 |pages=1856–1860 |doi=10.1111/j.1572-0241.2003.07618.x |issn=0002-9270}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last=Lammert |first=Frank |last2=Wittenburg |first2=Henning |date=August 2024 |title=Gallstones: Prevention, Diagnosis, and Treatment |url=http://www.thieme-connect.de/DOI/DOI?10.1055/a-2378-9025 |journal=Seminars in Liver Disease |language=en |volume=44 |issue=03 |pages=394–404 |doi=10.1055/a-2378-9025 |issn=0272-8087|url-access=subscription }}</ref> These "silent stones" do not require treatment and can remain asymptomatic even years after they form.

=== Biliary colic === Biliary colic, also known as symptomatic cholelithiasis, is what patients consider to be a "gallstone attack".<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last=Haisley |first=KR |last2=Hunter |first2=JG |date=2019 |title=Gallbladder and the Extrahepatic Biliary System |journal=Schwartz's Principles of Surgery, 11e |via=McGraw-Hill Education}}</ref> These attacks occur when a gallstone blocks the opening to the cystic duct or the cystic duct itself, increasing the pressure inside the gallbladder as it contracts, which leads to pain.<ref name=":5" /> Patients typically experience sudden, severe pain in the right upper side of their abdomen or in the epigastric area (the upper, center part of the abdomen). This pain typically peaks approximately 1 hour after the onset and usually subsides completely within 5 hours.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Patel |first=H |last2=Jepsen |first2=J |date=2024 |title=Gallstone Disease: Common Questions and Answers |journal=Am Fam Physician |volume=109 |issue=6 |pages=518-524}}</ref> Sometimes, the pain may be referred to the right shoulder; this is called "Collin's sign".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gilani |first=S. N. S. |last2=Bass |first2=G. |last3=Leader |first3=F. |last4=Walsh |first4=T. N. |date=December 2009 |title=Collins' sign: validation of a clinical sign in cholelithiasis |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11845-009-0404-7 |journal=Irish Journal of Medical Science |language=en |volume=178 |issue=4 |pages=397–400 |doi=10.1007/s11845-009-0404-7 |issn=0021-1265|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Patients may also experience nausea and vomiting. These attacks often occur after eating a fatty meal or at night.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last=Doherty |first=GM |date=2010 |title=Cholelithiasis |journal=Quick Answers Surgery |via=The McGraw-Hill Companies}}</ref> Of note, laboratory studies of AST, ALT, alkaline phosphatase, direct bilirubin, amylase, lipase, and white blood cell count are normal.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":7" />

===Complications===

==== Acute cholecystitis ==== Acute cholecystitis, or inflammation of the gallbladder, is caused by gallstones in 90–95% of cases.<ref name=":5" /> It presents very similarly to biliary colic: a sudden onset of severe pain in the right upper side of the abdomen or epigastric area.<ref name=":6" /> However, this pain differs from a gallstone attack because it lasts more than 6 hours and does not subside like a normal attack would.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":6" /> In addition, patients also experience fever, decreased appetite, nausea, and vomiting.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":02">{{Citation |last=Jones |first=Mark W. |title=Gallstones (Cholelithiasis) |date=2025 |work=StatPearls |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459370/ |access-date=2025-04-24 |place=Treasure Island (FL) |publisher=StatPearls Publishing |pmid=29083691 |last2=Weir |first2=Connor B. |last3=Ghassemzadeh |first3=Sassan}}</ref> On physical exam, the patient can have an increased temperature, tachycardia (fast heart rate greater than 100 beats per minute), tenderness in the right upper quadrant (RUQ) of the abdomen, and a positive Murphy's sign. Murphy's sign, which is specific for acute cholecystitis, is the sudden stoppage of inspiration when deep pressure is applied to the RUQ.<ref name=":32">{{Cite journal |last=Ahern |first=G |last2=Brygel |first2=M |date=2014 |title=Abdomen |url=https://accesssurgery-mhmedical-com/content.aspx?bookid=2740&sectionid=232638265 |journal=Exploring Essential Surgery |via=McGraw-Hill Education }}{{Dead link|date=July 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Laboratory studies typically show a moderately increased white blood cell count and normal to slightly elevated AST, ALT, alkaline phosphatase, and direct bilirubin.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":02" />

==== Choledocholithiasis ==== Choledocholithiasis occurs when a gallstone obstructs the common bile duct.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Fujita |first=Naotaka |last2=Yasuda |first2=Ichiro |last3=Endo |first3=Itaru |last4=Isayama |first4=Hiroyuki |last5=Iwashita |first5=Takuji |last6=Ueki |first6=Toshiharu |last7=Uemura |first7=Kenichiro |last8=Umezawa |first8=Akiko |last9=Katanuma |first9=Akio |last10=Katayose |first10=Yu |last11=Suzuki |first11=Yutaka |last12=Shoda |first12=Junichi |last13=Tsuyuguchi |first13=Toshio |last14=Wakai |first14=Toshifumi |last15=Inui |first15=Kazuo |date=September 2023 |title=Evidence-based clinical practice guidelines for cholelithiasis 2021 |url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00535-023-02014-6 |journal=Journal of Gastroenterology |language=en |volume=58 |issue=9 |pages=801–833 |doi=10.1007/s00535-023-02014-6 |issn=0944-1174 |pmc=10423145 |pmid=37452855}}</ref> Patients typically experience right upper quadrant pain, back pain, jaundice (or yellowing of the skin), decreased appetite, nausea, vomiting, and fever.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":1" /> However, choledocholithiasis, just like gallstones, can also be asymptomatic.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":22">{{Cite journal |last=Doherty |first=GM |date=2010 |title=Choledocholithiasis & Gallstone Pancreatitis |journal=Quick Answers Surgery |via=The McGraw-Hill Companies}}</ref> If the patient has symptoms, the physical exam is similar to that of acute cholecystitis.<ref name=":1" /> Laboratory studies show an increase in direct (conjugated) bilirubin, gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase (GGT), and alkaline phosphatase. AST and ALT can be elevated or normal.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" /><ref name=":22" />

==== Ascending cholangitis ==== Ascending cholangitis is a complication of choledocholithiasis. When a gallstone obstructs the common bile duct, inflammation and infection of the biliary tree can occur.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":32" /> Approximately 2/3 of patients present with the classic Charcot's triad: jaundice, fever or chills, and right upper quadrant pain.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":32" /> This can progress to septic shock, which presents as Reynold's pentad (Charcot's triad plus hypotension and altered mental status).<ref name=":02" /> Laboratory studies show an increase in white blood cell count, direct bilirubin, alkaline phosphatase, AST, and ALT.<ref name=":5" />

==== Gallstone (biliary) pancreatitis ==== Pancreatitis is the inflammation of the pancreas. Gallstone pancreatitis occurs when a gallstone slips down the biliary tree and gets stuck in either the pancreatic duct or at the ampulla of Vater.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":32" /> Gallstone pancreatitis presents the same as acute pancreatitis: a sudden onset of epigastric pain that moves towards the back, decrease in appetite, nausea, and vomiting. Laboratory studies will show an elevated lipase, amylase, and white blood cell count.<ref name=":32" /><ref name=":22" />

==== Gallstone ileus ==== Large gallstones can potentially erode through the gallbladder wall and into the neighboring small intestine. This large stone then travels through the small intestine until it is too narrow for the stone to continue, causing a small bowel obstruction. This obstruction often occurs at previous surgical sites or at the ileocecal valve (the portion of the bowel where the small intestine meets the large intestine). The patient presents with the inability to defecate or pass gas, nausea, vomiting, and severe abdominal pain.<ref name=":5" />

==== Cancer ==== Rarely, gallbladder cancer may occur as a complication in the setting of chronic gallstones.<ref name="NHS2018" />

==Risk factors== Gallstone risk increases for females (especially before menopause) and for people near or above 40 years;<ref name=Roizen2005/> the condition is more prevalent among people of European or American Indigenous descent than among other ethnicities.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last1=Afdhal |first1=Nezam |last2=Zakko |first2=Salam |date=Sep 2022 |title=Gallstones: Epidemiology, risk factors and prevention |url=https://www.uptodate.com/contents/gallstones-epidemiology-risk-factors-and-prevention |access-date=2023-05-26 |website=UpToDate}}</ref> A lack of melatonin could significantly contribute to gallbladder stones, as melatonin inhibits cholesterol secretion from the gallbladder, enhances the conversion of cholesterol to bile, and is an antioxidant, which is able to reduce oxidative stress to the gallbladder.<ref name=Koppisetti2008/> Gilbert syndrome has been linked to an increased risk of gallstones.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=del Giudice |first1=Emanuele Miraglia |last2=Perrotta |first2=Silverio |last3=Nobili |first3=Bruno |last4=Specchia |first4=Claudia |last5=d'Urzo |first5=Giovanna |last6=Iolascon |first6=Achille |title=Coinheritance of Gilbert Syndrome Increases the Risk for Developing Gallstones in Patients With Hereditary Spherocytosis |journal=Blood |date=October 1999 |volume=94 |issue=7 |pages=2259–2262 |doi=10.1182/blood.V94.7.2259.419k42_2259_2262 |pmid=10498597 |s2cid=40558696 |url=http://ashpublications.org/blood/article-pdf/94/7/2259/1658539/2259.pdf }}</ref> Researchers believe that gallstones may be caused by a combination of factors, including inherited body chemistry, body weight, gallbladder motility (movement), and low-calorie diet.<ref name=":0" /> The absence of such risk factors does not, however, preclude the formation of gallstones.

Nutritional factors that may increase risk of gallstones include constipation; eating fewer meals per day; low intake of the nutrients folate, magnesium, calcium, and vitamin C;<ref name=Ortega1997/> low fluid consumption;<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.nap.edu/read/10925/chapter/6#124|title=4 Water {{!}} Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate | publisher = The National Academies Press|year=2005|isbn=978-0-309-09169-5 |page=124|doi=10.17226/10925 | author1 = Institute of Medicine | author2 = Food Nutrition Board |author3 = Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes | author4 = Panel on Dietary Reference Intakes for Electrolytes and Water}}</ref> and, at least for men, a high intake of carbohydrate, a high glycemic load, and high glycemic index diet.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tsai CJ, Leitzmann MF, Willett WC, Giovannucci EL | title = Dietary carbohydrates and glycaemic load and the incidence of symptomatic gall stone disease in men | journal = Gut | volume = 54 | issue = 6 | pages = 823–8 | date = June 2005 | pmid = 15888792 | pmc = 1774557 | doi = 10.1136/gut.2003.031435 }}</ref> Wine and whole-grained bread may decrease the risk of gallstones.<ref name=Misciagna1996/>

Rapid weight loss increases risk of gallstones.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nhs.uk/Livewell/loseweight/Pages/should-you-lose-weight-fast.aspx|title=Should you lose weight fast? – Live Well—NHS Choices | author = NHS Choices |website=www.nhs.uk|access-date=2016-02-16|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160216025459/http://www.nhs.uk/livewell/loseweight/Pages/should-you-lose-weight-fast.aspx|archive-date=2016-02-16}}</ref> The weight loss drug orlistat is known to increase the risk of gallstones.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fda.gov/Safety/MedWatch/SafetyInformation/ucm215504.htm|title=Safety Information—Xenical (orlistat) capsules | author = Office of the Commissioner |website=www.fda.gov|language=en|access-date=2016-06-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160611084534/https://www.fda.gov/Safety/MedWatch/SafetyInformation/ucm215504.htm|archive-date=2016-06-11}}</ref>

Cholecystokinin deficiency caused by celiac disease increases risk of gallstone formation, especially when diagnosis of celiac disease is delayed.<ref name=WangLiu2017>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wang HH, Liu M, Li X, Portincasa P, Wang DQ | title = Impaired intestinal cholecystokinin secretion, a fascinating but overlooked link between coeliac disease and cholesterol gallstone disease | journal = European Journal of Clinical Investigation | volume = 47 | issue = 4 | pages = 328–333 | date = April 2017 | pmid = 28186337 | pmc = 8135131 | doi = 10.1111/eci.12734 | type = Review | doi-access = free }}</ref>

Pigment gallstones are most commonly seen in the developing world. Risk factors for pigment stones include hemolytic anemias (such as from sickle-cell disease and hereditary spherocytosis), cirrhosis, and biliary tract infections.<ref name="pmid7410545" /> People with erythropoietic protoporphyria (EPP) are at increased risk to develop gallstones.<ref name="Merck2006" /><ref name="Thunell2008" /> Additionally, prolonged use of proton pump inhibitors has been shown to decrease gallbladder function, potentially leading to gallstone formation.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Cahan MA, Balduf L, Colton K, Palacioz B, McCartney W, Farrell TM | title = Proton pump inhibitors reduce gallbladder function | journal = Surgical Endoscopy | volume = 20 | issue = 9 | pages = 1364–7 | date = September 2006 | pmid = 16858534 | doi = 10.1007/s00464-005-0247-x | s2cid = 20833380 }}</ref>

Cholesterol modifying medications can affect gallstone formation. Statins inhibit cholesterol synthesis and there is evidence that their use may decrease the risk of getting gallstones.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kan HP, Guo WB, Tan YF, Zhou J, Liu CD, Huang YQ | title = Statin use and risk of gallstone disease: A meta-analysis | journal = Hepatology Research | volume = 45 | issue = 9 | pages = 942–948 | date = September 2015 | pmid = 25297889 | doi = 10.1111/hepr.12433 | s2cid = 25636425 }}</ref><ref name=":2">{{cite journal | vauthors = Preiss D, Tikkanen MJ, Welsh P, Ford I, Lovato LC, Elam MB, LaRosa JC, DeMicco DA, Colhoun HM, Goldenberg I, Murphy MJ, MacDonald TM, Pedersen TR, Keech AC, Ridker PM, Kjekshus J, Sattar N, McMurray JJ | title = Lipid-modifying therapies and risk of pancreatitis: a meta-analysis | journal = JAMA | volume = 308 | issue = 8 | pages = 804–11 | date = August 2012 | pmid = 22910758 | doi = 10.1001/jama.2012.8439 | doi-access = free | url = http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/69063/3/69063.pdf }}</ref> Fibrates increase cholesterol concentration in bile and their use has been associated with an increased risk of gallstones.<ref name=":2" /> Bile acid malabsorption may also be a risk.

==Pathophysiology== Cholesterol gallstones develop when bile contains too much cholesterol and not enough bile salts. Besides a high concentration of cholesterol, two other factors are important in causing gallstones. The first is how often and how well the gallbladder contracts; incomplete and infrequent emptying of the gallbladder may cause the bile to become overconcentrated and contribute to gallstone formation. This can be caused by high resistance to the flow of bile out of the gallbladder due to the complicated internal geometry of the cystic duct.<ref>Experimental investigation of the flow of bile in patient specific cystic duct models M Al-Atabi, SB Chin..., Journal of biomechanical engineering, 2010</ref> The second factor is the presence of proteins in the liver and bile that either promote or inhibit cholesterol crystallization into gallstones. In addition, increased levels of the hormone estrogen, as a result of pregnancy or hormone therapy, or the use of combined (estrogen-containing) forms of hormonal contraception, may increase cholesterol levels in bile and also decrease gallbladder motility, resulting in gallstone formation.{{cn|date=March 2022}}

===Composition=== thumb|upright=1.3|From left to right: cholesterol stone, mixed stone, pigment stone. The composition of gallstones is affected by age, diet and ethnicity.<ref name=Channa2007/> On the basis of their composition, gallstones can be divided into the following types: cholesterol stones, pigment stones, and mixed stones.<ref name=Lee2015/> An ideal classification system is yet to be defined.<ref name=Kim2003/>

====Cholesterol stones==== Cholesterol stones vary from light yellow to dark green or brown or chalk white and are oval, usually solitary, between 2 and 3&nbsp;cm long, each often having a tiny, dark, central spot. To be classified as such, they must be at least 80% cholesterol by weight (or 70%, according to the Japanese classification system).<ref name=Kim2003/> Between 35% and 90% of stones are cholesterol stones.<ref name=Lee2015/>

====Pigment stones==== Bilirubin ("pigment", "black pigment") stones are small, dark (often appearing black), and usually numerous. They are composed primarily of bilirubin (insoluble bilirubin pigment polymer) and calcium (calcium phosphate) salts that are found in bile. They contain less than 20% of cholesterol (or 30%, according to the Japanese classification system).<ref name=Kim2003/> Between 2% and 30% of stones are bilirubin stones.<ref name=Lee2015/>

====Mixed stones==== Mixed (brown pigment stones) typically contain 20–80% cholesterol (or 30–70%, according to the Japanese classification system).<ref name=Kim2003/> Other common constituents are calcium carbonate, palmitate phosphate, bilirubin and other bile pigments (calcium bilirubinate, calcium palmitate and calcium stearate). Because of their calcium content, they are often radiographically visible. They typically arise secondary to infection of the biliary tract which results in the release of β-glucuronidase (by injured hepatocytes and bacteria) which hydrolyzes bilirubin glucuronides and increases the amount of unconjugated bilirubin in bile. Between 4% and 20% of stones are mixed.<ref name=Lee2015/>

Gallstones can vary in size and shape from as small as a grain of sand to as large as a golf ball.<ref>[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001318 Gallstones—Cholelithiasis; Gallbladder attack; Biliary colic; Gallstone attack; Bile calculus; Biliary calculus] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110207050708/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001318 |date=2011-02-07 }} Last reviewed: July 6, 2009. Reviewed by: George F. Longstreth. Also reviewed by David Zieve</ref> The gallbladder may contain a single large stone or many smaller ones. Pseudoliths, sometimes referred to as sludge, are thick secretions that may be present within the gallbladder, either alone or in conjunction with fully formed gallstones.

<gallery mode="packed" widths="360px" heights="220"> File:Gallstones.JPG|Gallbladder opened to show small cholesterol gallstones File:Gallstone µCT.jpg|X-ray microtomograph of a gallstone File:Gallstones.jpg|The large, yellow stone is largely cholesterol, while the green-to-brown stones are mostly composed of bile pigments File:Gallenstein FRONT.OGG|CT images of gallstones File:Big Gallstone.JPG|Large gallstone File:Human gallstones 2015 G1.jpg|Numerous small gallstones made up largely of cholesterol </gallery>

==Diagnosis== Diagnosis is typically confirmed by abdominal ultrasound.<!-- <ref name=NIH2013/> --> Other imaging techniques used are ERCP and MRCP. Gallstone complications may be detected on blood tests.<ref name=NIH2013/>

On abdominal ultrasound, sinking gallstones usually have posterior acoustic shadowing. In floating gallstones, reverberation echoes (or comet-tail artifact) is seen instead in a clinical condition called adenomyomatosis. Another sign is wall-echo-shadow (WES) triad (or double-arc shadow) which is also characteristic of gallstones.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Fitzgerald EJ, Toi A | title = Pitfalls in the ultrasonographic diagnosis of gallbladder diseases | journal = Postgraduate Medical Journal | volume = 63 | issue = 741 | pages = 525–32 | date = July 1987 | pmid = 3309915 | pmc = 2428351 | doi = 10.1136/pgmj.63.741.525 }}</ref>

A positive Murphy's sign is a common finding on physical examination during a gallbladder attack. <gallery mode="packed" widths="360px" heights="220"> File:Gallstones.PNG|A 1.9&nbsp;cm gallstone impacted in the neck of the gallbladder and leading to cholecystitis as seen on ultrasound. There is 4&nbsp;mm gall bladder wall thickening. File:Ultrasonography of sludge and gallstones, annotated.jpg|Biliary sludge and gallstones. There is borderline thickening of the gallbladder wall. File:StonesXray.PNG|Gallstones as seen on plain X-ray File:LargeGstoneMark.png|Large gallstone as seen on CT File:UOTW 8 - Ultrasound of the Week 1.webm|A normal gallbladder on ultrasound with bowel peristalsis creating the false appearance of stones </gallery>

==Prevention== Maintaining a healthy weight by getting sufficient exercise and eating a healthy diet that is high in fiber may help prevent gallstone formation.<ref name=NIH2013/>

Ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) appears to prevent formation of gallstones during weight loss. A high fat diet during weight loss also appears to prevent gallstones.<ref name=stokes>{{cite journal | vauthors = Stokes CS, Gluud LL, Casper M, Lammert F | title = Ursodeoxycholic acid and diets higher in fat prevent gallbladder stones during weight loss: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials | journal = Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology | volume = 12 | issue = 7 | pages = 1090–1100.e2; quiz e61 | date = July 2014 | pmid = 24321208 | doi = 10.1016/j.cgh.2013.11.031 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

==Treatment== ===Lithotripsy=== Extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy is a non-invasive method to manage gallstones that uses high-energy sound waves to disintegrate them first applied in January 1985.<ref name="Johns Hopkins Medicine">{{cite web | title=Gallstone Disease Treatment | website=Johns Hopkins Medicine | url=https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/gallstone-disease-treatment | access-date=2021-09-25}}</ref><ref name="Paumgartner Sauter 2005 pp. 525–527">{{cite journal |last1=Paumgartner |first1=Gustav |last2=Sauter |first2=Gerd H. |title=Extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy of gallstones: 20th anniversary of the first treatment |journal=European Journal of Gastroenterology & Hepatology |date=May 2005 |volume=17 |issue=5 |pages=525–527 |doi=10.1097/00042737-200505000-00009 |pmid=15827443 }}</ref> Side effects of extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy include biliary pancreatitis and liver haematoma.<ref name="Paumgartner Sauter 2005 pp. 525–527"/> The term is derived from the Greek words meaning 'breaking (or pulverizing) stones': {{wikt-lang|en|litho-}} + {{wikt-lang|grc|τρίβω|τρίψω}}, {{lang|grc-Latn|tripso}}).

===Surgical=== Cholecystectomy (gallbladder removal) has a 99% chance of eliminating the recurrence of cholelithiasis. The lack of a gallbladder has no negative consequences in most people, however 10 to 15% of people develop postcholecystectomy syndrome,<ref name=eMedicine/> which may cause nausea, indigestion, diarrhea, and episodes of abdominal pain.<ref>{{cite journal | title = Postcholecystectomy Syndrome | journal = StatPearls | date = January 2019 | pmid = 30969724 | last1 = Zackria | first1 = R. | last2 = Lopez | first2 = R. A. }}</ref> none|thumb|500x500px|The outcomes of choosing to 'do nothing' (watchful waiting) and having cholecystectomy in the case of symptomatic gallstones, as shown in the NHS decision aid for gallstones.<ref>{{Cite web |title=NHS England » Decision support tool: making a decision about gallstones |url=https://www.england.nhs.uk/publication/decision-support-tool-making-a-decision-about-gallstones/ |access-date=2024-09-18 |website=www.england.nhs.uk|date=21 November 2023 }}</ref> Data from <ref>{{Cite journal |last1=van Dijk |first1=Aafke H |last2=Wennmacker |first2=Sarah Z |last3=de Reuver |first3=Philip R |last4=Latenstein |first4=Carmen S S |last5=Buyne |first5=Otmar |last6=Donkervoort |first6=Sandra C |last7=Eijsbouts |first7=Quirijn A J |last8=Heisterkamp |first8=Joos |last9=Hof |first9=Klaas in 't |last10=Janssen |first10=Jan |last11=Nieuwenhuijs |first11=Vincent B |last12=Schaap |first12=Henk M |last13=Steenvoorde |first13=Pascal |last14=Stockmann |first14=Hein B A C |last15=Boerma |first15=Djamila |date=June 2019 |title=Restrictive strategy versus usual care for cholecystectomy in patients with gallstones and abdominal pain (SECURE): a multicentre, randomised, parallel-arm, non-inferiority trial |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140673619309419 |journal=The Lancet |volume=393 |issue=10188 |pages=2322–2330 |doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(19)30941-9 |pmid=31036336 |issn=0140-6736|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Peterli |first1=Ralph |last2=Schuppisser |first2=Jean P. |last3=Herzog |first3=Urs |last4=Ackermann |first4=Christoph |last5=Tondelli |first5=Peter E. |date=October 2000 |title=Prevalence of Postcholecystectomy Symptoms: Long-term Outcome after Open versus Laparoscopic Cholecystectomy |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1007/s002680010243 |journal=World Journal of Surgery |language=en |volume=24 |issue=10 |pages=1232–1235 |doi=10.1007/s002680010243 |issn=0364-2313|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gui |first1=G. P. |last2=Cheruvu |first2=C. V. |last3=West |first3=N. |last4=Sivaniah |first4=K. |last5=Fiennes |first5=A. G. |date=January 1998 |title=Is cholecystectomy effective treatment for symptomatic gallstones? Clinical outcome after long-term follow-up. |journal=Annals of the Royal College of Surgeons of England |volume=80 |issue=1 |pages=25–32 |issn=0035-8843 |pmc=2502763 |pmid=9579123}}</ref>. There are two surgical options for cholecystectomy: * Open cholecystectomy is performed via an abdominal incision (laparotomy) below the lower right ribs. Recovery typically requires 3–5 days of hospitalization, with a return to normal diet a week after release and to normal activity several weeks after release.<ref name=NDDIC/> * Laparoscopic cholecystectomy, introduced in the 1980s, is performed via three to four small puncture holes for a camera and instruments. Post-operative care typically includes a same-day release or a one-night hospital stay, followed by a few days of home rest and pain medication.<ref name=NDDIC/> Perforation of the gall bladder is not uncommon—it has been reported in the range of 10% to 40%. Unretrieved gallstone spillage has been reported as 6% to 30%, but gallstones that are not retrieved rarely cause complications (0.08%–0.3%).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sathesh-Kumar |first1=T |last2=Saklani |first2=A P |last3=Vinayagam |first3=R |last4=Blackett |first4=R L |title=Spilled gall stones during laparoscopic cholecystectomy: a review of the literature |journal=Postgraduate Medical Journal |date=17 February 2004 |volume=80 |issue=940 |pages=77–79 |doi=10.1136/pmj.2003.006023 |pmid=14970293 |pmc=1742934 }}</ref> none|thumb|500x500px|Risks of cholecystectomy.<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Keus |first1=Frederik |last2=de Jong |first2=Jeroen |last3=Gooszen |first3=H G |last4=Laarhoven |first4=C Jhm |date=2006-10-18 |editor-last=Cochrane Hepato-Biliary Group |title=Laparoscopic versus open cholecystectomy for patients with symptomatic cholecystolithiasis |url=https://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/14651858.CD006231 |journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |issue=4 |article-number=CD006231 |language=en |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD006231|pmid=17054285 |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Farrugia |first1=Alexia |last2=Attard |first2=Joseph Anthony |last3=Khan |first3=Saboor |last4=Williams |first4=Nigel |last5=Arasaradnam |first5=Ramesh |date=2022-02-01 |title=Postcholecystectomy diarrhoea rate and predictive factors: a systematic review of the literature |url=https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/12/2/e046172 |journal=BMJ Open |language=en |volume=12 |issue=2 |article-number=e046172 |doi=10.1136/bmjopen-2020-046172 |doi-access=free|issn=2044-6055 |pmc=8860059 |pmid=35177439}}</ref> Obstruction of the common bile duct with gallstones can sometimes be relieved by endoscopic retrograde sphincterotomy (ERS) following endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP).<ref name=NHS/> none|thumb|500x500px|Risks of ERCP.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Vandervoort |first1=Jo |last2=Soetikno |first2=Roy M. |last3=Tham |first3=Tony C.K. |last4=Wong |first4=Richard C.K. |last5=Ferrari |first5=Angelo P. |last6=Montes |first6=Henry |last7=Roston |first7=Alfred D. |last8=Slivka |first8=Adam |last9=Lichtenstein |first9=David R. |last10=Ruymann |first10=Frederick W. |last11=Van Dam |first11=Jacques |last12=Hughes |first12=Mike |last13=Carr-Locke |first13=David L. |date=November 2002 |title=Risk factors for complications after performance of ERCP |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0016510702701120 |journal=Gastrointestinal Endoscopy |volume=56 |issue=5 |pages=652–656 |doi=10.1016/s0016-5107(02)70112-0 |pmid=12397271 |issn=0016-5107|url-access=subscription }}</ref>Surgery carries risks and some people continue to experience symptoms (including pain) afterwards, for reasons that remain unclear. An alternative option is to adopt a 'watch and wait' strategy before operating to see if symptoms resolve. A study compared the 2 approaches for uncomplicated gallstones and after 18 months, both approaches were associated with similar levels of pain. The watch and wait approach was also less costly (more than £1000 less per patient).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmed |first1=Irfan |last2=Hudson |first2=Jemma |last3=Innes |first3=Karen |last4=Hernández |first4=Rodolfo |last5=Gillies |first5=Katie |last6=Bruce |first6=Rebecca |last7=Bell |first7=Victoria |last8=Avenell |first8=Alison |last9=Blazeby |first9=Jane |last10=Brazzelli |first10=Miriam |last11=Cotton |first11=Seonaidh |last12=Croal |first12=Bernard |last13=Forrest |first13=Mark |last14=MacLennan |first14=Graeme |last15=Murchie |first15=Peter |date=2023-12-06 |title=Effectiveness of conservative management versus laparoscopic cholecystectomy in the prevention of recurrent symptoms and complications in adults with uncomplicated symptomatic gallstone disease (C-GALL trial): pragmatic, multicentre randomised controlled trial |url=https://www.bmj.com/content/383/bmj-2023-075383 |journal=BMJ |language=en |volume=383 |article-number=e075383 |doi=10.1136/bmj-2023-075383 |issn=1756-1833 |pmc=10698555 |pmid=38084426}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |date=31 October 2024 |title=Gallstones: surgery might not always be needed |url=https://evidence.nihr.ac.uk/alert/gallstones-surgery-might-not-always-be-needed/ |journal=NIHR Evidence}}</ref>

===Medical=== The medications ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) and chenodeoxycholic acid (CDCA) have been used in treatment to dissolve gallstones.<ref name="pmid4580472">{{cite journal | vauthors = Thistle JL, Hofmann AF | title = Efficacy and specificity of chenodeoxycholic acid therapy for dissolving gallstones | journal = The New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 289 | issue = 13 | pages = 655–9 | date = September 1973 | pmid = 4580472 | doi = 10.1056/NEJM197309272891303 }}</ref><ref name="PMID2672842">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hofmann AF | title = Medical dissolution of gallstones by oral bile acid therapy | journal = American Journal of Surgery | volume = 158 | issue = 3 | pages = 198–204 | date = September 1989 | pmid = 2672842 | doi = 10.1016/0002-9610(89)90252-3 }}</ref> A 2013 meta-analysis concluded that UDCA or higher dietary fat content appeared to prevent formation of gallstones during weight loss.<ref name=stokes/> Medical therapy with oral bile acids has been used to treat small cholesterol stones, and for larger cholesterol gallstones when surgery is either not possible or unwanted. CDCA treatment can cause diarrhea, mild reversible hepatic injury, and a small increase in the plasma cholesterol level.<ref name="PMID2672842"/> UDCA may need to be taken for years.<ref name=NHS/>

==Use in alternative medicine== Gallstones can be a valued by-product of animals butchered for meat because of their use as an antipyretic and antidote in the traditional medicine of some cultures, particularly traditional Chinese medicine. The most highly prized gallstones tend to be sourced from old dairy cows, termed calculus bovis or ''niu-huang'' (yellow thing of cattle) in Chinese. Some slaughterhouses carefully scrutinize workers for gallstone theft.<ref name=Wise/>

== See also == * Mirizzi's syndrome * Porcelain gallbladder

== References == {{reflist|30em|refs=

<ref name=Channa2007>{{cite journal | vauthors = Channa NA, Khand FD, Khand TU, Leghari MH, Memon AN |title=Analysis of human gallstones by Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) |journal=Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=546–50 |year=2007 |url=http://pjms.com.pk/issues/julsep07/article/article15.html |access-date=2010-11-06 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110824133936/http://pjms.com.pk/issues/julsep07/article/article15.html |archive-date=2011-08-24 }}</ref>

<ref name=Kim2003>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kim IS, Myung SJ, Lee SS, Lee SK, Kim MH | title = Classification and nomenclature of gallstones revisited | journal = Yonsei Medical Journal | volume = 44 | issue = 4 | pages = 561–70 | date = August 2003 | pmid = 12950109 | doi = 10.3349/ymj.2003.44.4.561 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

<ref name=Koppisetti2008>{{cite journal | vauthors = Koppisetti S, Jenigiri B, Terron MP, Tengattini S, Tamura H, Flores LJ, Tan DX, Reiter RJ | title = Reactive oxygen species and the hypomotility of the gall bladder as targets for the treatment of gallstones with melatonin: a review | journal = Digestive Diseases and Sciences | volume = 53 | issue = 10 | pages = 2592–603 | date = October 2008 | pmid = 18338264 | doi = 10.1007/s10620-007-0195-5 | s2cid = 22785223 }}</ref>

<ref name=Merck2006>''Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders: Cutaneous Porphyrias'', pp. 63–220 in Beers, Porter and Jones (2006)</ref>

<ref name=Misciagna1996>{{cite journal | vauthors = Misciagna G, Leoci C, Guerra V, Chiloiro M, Elba S, Petruzzi J, Mossa A, Noviello MR, Coviello A, Minutolo MC, Mangini V, Messa C, Cavallini A, De Michele G, Giorgio I | title = Epidemiology of cholelithiasis in southern Italy. Part II: Risk factors | journal = European Journal of Gastroenterology & Hepatology | volume = 8 | issue = 6 | pages = 585–93 | date = June 1996 | pmid = 8823575 | doi = 10.1097/00042737-199606000-00017 | s2cid = 11355563 }}</ref>

<ref name=NDDIC>{{cite web|author=National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases|author-link=National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases|title=Gallstones|year=2007|publisher=National Digestive Diseases Information Clearinghouse, National Institutes of Health, United States Department of Health and Human Services|location=Bethesda, Maryland|url=http://digestive.niddk.nih.gov/ddiseases/pubs/gallstones/Gallstones.pdf|access-date=2010-11-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101205101957/http://digestive.niddk.nih.gov/ddiseases/pubs/gallstones/Gallstones.pdf|archive-date=2010-12-05}}</ref>

<ref name=NHS>{{cite web|author=National Health Service|author-link=National Health Service (England)|title=Gallstones — Treatment|year=2010|publisher=National Health Service|location=London|work=NHS Choices: Health A-Z—Conditions and treatments|url=http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/gallstones/pages/treatment.aspx|access-date=2010-11-06|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101114084152/http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Gallstones/Pages/Treatment.aspx|archive-date=2010-11-14}}</ref>

<ref name=Ortega1997>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ortega RM, Fernández-Azuela M, Encinas-Sotillos A, Andrés P, López-Sobaler AM | title = Differences in diet and food habits between patients with gallstones and controls | journal = Journal of the American College of Nutrition | volume = 16 | issue = 1 | pages = 88–95 | date = February 1997 | pmid = 9013440 | doi = 10.1080/07315724.1997.10718655 | url = http://www.jacn.org/cgi/content/abstract/16/1/88 | access-date = 2010-11-06 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080720125626/http://www.jacn.org/cgi/content/abstract/16/1/88 | archive-date = 2008-07-20 | url-access = subscription }}</ref>

<ref name=pmid7410545>{{cite journal | vauthors = Trotman BW, Bernstein SE, Bove KE, Wirt GD | title = Studies on the pathogenesis of pigment gallstones in hemolytic anemia: description and characteristics of a mouse model | journal = The Journal of Clinical Investigation | volume = 65 | issue = 6 | pages = 1301–8 | date = June 1980 | pmid = 7410545 | pmc = 371467 | doi = 10.1172/JCI109793 }}</ref>

<ref name=Roizen2005>{{cite book | vauthors = Roizen MF, Oz MC | title = Gut Feelings: Your Digestive System | pages = 175–206 | date = 2005 |publisher=HarperCollins e-books |location=Pymble, NSW |isbn=978-0-06-198079-4}}</ref>

<ref name=Thunell2008>{{cite web|vauthors=Thunell S|title=Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders: Cutaneous Porphyrias|year=2008|publisher=Merck Sharp & Dohme Corporation|location=Whitehouse Station, New Jersey|url=http://www.merck.com/mmpe/sec12/ch155/ch155c.html?qt=Erythropoietic%20Protoporphyria&alt=sh#sec12-ch155-ch155c-635|access-date=2010-11-07|archive-date=2020-03-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200312142747/http://www.merck.com/mmpe/sec12/ch155/ch155c.html?qt=Erythropoietic%20Protoporphyria&alt=sh#sec12-ch155-ch155c-635}}</ref>

<ref name=eMedicine>{{cite web|author=Jensen|title=Postcholecystectomy syndrome|year=2010|publisher=Medscape (WebMD)|location=Omaha, Nebraska|url=http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/192761-overview|access-date=2011-01-20|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101223003851/http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/192761-overview|archive-date=2010-12-23}}</ref>

<ref name=Wise>{{cite web |title=Interview with Darren Wise. Transcrip |publisher=Medscape (WebMD) |location=Omaha, Nebraska |url=http://sgp1.paddington.ninemsn.com.au/sunday/cover_stories/transcript_785.asp |access-date=2010-11-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101121121630/http://sgp1.paddington.ninemsn.com.au/sunday/cover_stories/transcript_785.asp |archive-date=2010-11-21 }}</ref> }}

== External links == {{Commons category|Gallstones}} * {{cite web | url = https://medlineplus.gov/gallstones.html | publisher = U.S. National Library of Medicine | department = MedlinePlus | title = Gallstones }}

{{Medical resources | ICD10 = {{ICD10|K|80||k|80}} | ICD9 = {{ICD9|574}} | ICDO = | OMIM = 600803 | MedlinePlus = 000273 | eMedicineSubj = emerg | eMedicineTopic = 97 | DiseasesDB = 2533 | MeshID = D042882 | SNOMED CT = 235919008 }} {{Gastroenterology}} {{Authority control}}

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