Frogfish

{{Short description|Family of fishes}} {{other uses}} {{Automatic taxobox | fossil_range = {{fossil range|53|0|Early Eocene to present}} | image = Antennarius striatus (8492976355).jpg | image_caption = Striated frogfish, ''Antennarius striatus'' | taxon = Antennariidae | authority = Jarocki, 1822<ref name = VDLEF>{{cite journal | author1 = Richard van der Laan | author2 = William N. Eschmeyer | author3 = Ronald Fricke | name-list-style = amp |year=2014 | title = Family-group names of recent fishes | url = https://biotaxa.org/Zootaxa/article/view/zootaxa.3882.1.1/10480 | journal = Zootaxa | volume = 3882 | issue = 2 | pages = 1–230| doi = 10.11646/zootaxa.3882.1.1 | pmid = 25543675 | doi-access = free }}</ref> | subdivision_ranks = Genera | subdivision = see text }}

'''Frogfishes''' are any member of the anglerfish family '''Antennariidae''', of the order Lophiiformes. Antennariids are known as anglerfish in Australia, where the term "frogfish" refers to members of the unrelated family Batrachoididae. Frogfishes are found in almost all tropical and subtropical oceans and seas around the world, the primary exception being the Mediterranean Sea.

Frogfishes are small, short and stocky, and sometimes covered in spinules and other appendages to aid in camouflage. The camouflage aids in protection from predators and enables them to lure prey. Many species can change colour; some are covered with other organisms, such as algae or hydrozoa. In keeping with this camouflage, frogfishes typically move slowly, lying in wait for prey, and then striking extremely rapidly, in as little as 6 milliseconds.

Few traces of frogfishes remain in the fossil record, though ''Fowlerichthys monodi'' is known from the Miocene of Algeria, and a number of species are known from the Eocene of Italy.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Carnevale |first1=Giorgio |last2=Pietsch |first2=Theodore W. |date=2009 |title=An Eocene Frogfish from Monte Bolca, Italy: The Earliest Known Skeletal Record for the Family |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1475-4983.2009.00874.x |journal=Palaeontology |language=en |volume=52 |issue=4 |pages=745–752 |doi=10.1111/j.1475-4983.2009.00874.x |bibcode=2009Palgy..52..745C |issn=1475-4983|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

==Etymology== The frogfish family, Antennariidae, has its name derived from ''Antennarius'', its type genus. ''Antennarius'' suffixes ''-ius'' to antenna, an allusion to first dorsal spine being adapted into a tentacle on the snout used as a lure to attract prey.<ref name = ETYFish>{{cite web |url=https://etyfish.org/lophiiformes1/ |title=Order LOPHIIFORMES (part 1): Families LOPHIIDAE, ANTENNARIIDAE, TETRABRACHIIDAE, LOPHICHTHYIDAE, BRACHIONICHTHYIDAE, CHAUNACIDAE and OGCOCEPHALIDAE |author=Christopher Scharpf |date=14 November 2022 |access-date=23 March 2024 |work=The ETYFish Project Fish Name Etymology Database |publisher=Christopher Scharpf}}</ref>

==Taxonomy== Antennariidae was first proposed as a family in 1822 by the Polish zoologist Feliks Paweł Jarocki.<ref name = VDLEF/> The 5th edition of the ''Fishes of the World'' recognises 13 genera within the family but no subfamilies.<ref name = Nelson5>{{cite book |author1=Nelson, J.S. |author1-link=Joseph S. Nelson |author2=Grande, T.C. |author3=Wilson, M.V.H. |year=2016 |title=Fishes of the World |edition=5th |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |place=Hoboken, NJ |pages=508–518 |isbn=978-1-118-34233-6 |lccn=2015037522 |oclc=951899884 |ol=25909650M |doi=10.1002/9781119174844}}</ref> Other authorities recognise two subfamilies, the Antennariinae and the Histiophryninae,<ref name = AHP>{{cite journal |author=Arnold, R. J. |author2=R. G. Harcourt |author3=T. W. Pietsch |name-list-style=and |year=2014 |title=A new genus and species of the frogfish family Antennariidae (Teleostei: Lophiiformes: Antennarioidei) from New South Wales, Australia, with a diagnosis and key to the genera of the Histiophryninae |journal=Copeia |volume=2014 |issue=3 |pages=534–539 |doi=10.1643/CI-13-155}}</ref> while others treat these as two separate families.<ref name="CofF3">{{Cof family|family=Histiophrynidae|access-date=22 March 2024}}</ref> The Antennariidae is classified within the suborder Antennarioidei within the order Lophiiformes, the anglerfishes.<ref name = Nelson5/> The Antennariidae is regarded, with its sister taxon, the Tetrabrachiidae as the most derived clade within the suborder Antennarioidei.<ref name = Miya>{{cite journal|last=Miya|first=M.|author2=T. Pietsch|author-link2=Theodore Wells Pietsch III |author3=J. Orr |author4=R. Arnold |author5=T. Satoh |author6=A. Shedlock |author7=H. Ho |author8=M. Shimazaki |author9=M. Yabe |title=Evolutionary history of anglerfishes (Teleostei: Lophiiformes): a mitogenomic perspective|journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology|year=2010|volume=10|issue=1 |page=58|doi=10.1186/1471-2148-10-58|pmid=20178642|pmc=2836326 |bibcode=2010BMCEE..10...58M |doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Genera === [[File:Sympterichthys politus.jpg|thumb|Red handfish (''Thymichthys politus'')]] [[File:Tassled Angler Fish.jpg|thumb|''Rhycherus filamentosus'']] [[File:Histrio histrio Shimoda.jpg|thumb|Sargassumfish (''Histrio histrio'')]] The following classification is based on ''Eschmeyer's Catalog of Fishes'', based on Maile ''et al.'' (2025):<ref name="TotalEvidence">{{cite journal |last1=Maile |first1=Alex J. |last2=Smith |first2=W. Leo |last3=Davis |first3=Matthew P. |date=May 2, 2025 |title=A total-evidence phylogenetic approach to understanding the evolution, depth transitions, and body-shape changes in the anglerfishes and allies (Acanthuriformes: Lophioidei) |journal=PLOS |volume=20 |issue=5 |bibcode=2025PLoSO..2022369M |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0322369 |pmc=12047784 |pmid=40315280 |doi-access=free |article-number=e0322369}}</ref><ref name="CofF2">{{Cof family|family=Antennariidae|access-date=30 September 2025}}</ref>

{{Div col|colwidth=35em}} Subfamily Antennariinae Jarocki 1822 (Fibonacci frogfishes){{Clarify|reason=Why do they have this name? PS; according to iNat it comes from ECoF...which part of it?|date=October 2025}} * ''Abantennarius'' Schultz, 1957 * ''Antennarius'' Daudin, 1816 * ''Antennatus'' Schultz, 1957 * †''Eophryne'' Carnevale & Pietsch, 2009 (Early Eocene of Italy)<ref name=":0" /> * ''Histrio'' Fischer, 1813 * ''Nudiantennarius'' Schultz, 1957

Subfamily Brachionichthyinae Gill, 1863 (handfishes) * ''Brachionichthys'' Bleeker, 1854 * ''Brachiopsilus'' Last & Gledhill, 2009 * {{extinct}}''Histionotophorus'' Eastman, 1904 (Early Eocene of Italy)<ref name = pbdb>{{cite web |url=https://paleobiodb.org/classic/basicTaxonInfo?taxon_no=352295 |title=†''Histionotophorus'' Eastman 1904 (anglerfish) |access-date=13 March 2024 |publisher=Paleobiology Database}}</ref> * {{extinct}}''Orrichthys'' Carnevale & Pietsch, 2010 (Early Eocene of Italy)<ref name="academic.oup.com">{{Cite journal |last1=CARNEVALE |first1=GIORGIO |last2=PIETSCH |first2=THEODORE W. |date=2010-11-24 |title=Eocene handfishes from Monte Bolca, with description of a new genus and species, and a phylogeny of the family Brachionichthyidae (Teleostei: Lophiiformes) |url=https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article/160/4/621/2625580 |journal=Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society |language=en |volume=160 |issue=4 |pages=621–647 |doi=10.1111/j.1096-3642.2009.00623.x |issn=0024-4082 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220817133335/https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article/160/4/621/2625580 |archive-date=2022-08-17}}</ref> * ''Pezichthys'' Last & Gledhill, 2009 * ''Sympterichthys'' Gill, 1878 * ''Thymichthys'' Last & Gledhill, 2009

Subfamily Fowlerichthyinae Maile et al., 2025 (fanfin frogfishes) * ''Fowlerichthys'' Barbour, 1941 * {{extinct}}''Neilpeartia'' Carnevale ''et al.'', 2020<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Carnevale |first1=Giorgio |last2=Pietsch |first2=Theodore W. |last3=Bonde |first3=Niels |last4=Leal |first4=Maria E. C. |last5=Marramà |first5=Giuseppe |date=2020-03-03 |title=†Neilpeartia ceratoi, gen. et sp. nov., a new frogfish from the Eocene of Bolca, Italy |journal=Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology |volume=40 |issue=2 |article-number=e1778711 |doi=10.1080/02724634.2020.1778711 |bibcode=2020JVPal..40E8711C |issn=0272-4634}}</ref>

Subfamily Histiophryninae Arnold & Pietsch, 2012 (starfingered frogfishes) * ''Histiophryne'' Gill, 1863

Subfamily Lophichthyinae Boeseman, 1964 (lophichthyin frogfishes) * ''Lophichthys'' Boeseman, 1964 * ''Lophiocharon'' Whitley, 1933

Subfamily Rhycherinae Hart et al., 2022 (Balrog frogfishes) * ''Allenichthys'' Pietsch, 1984 * ''Echinophryne'' McCulloch & Waite, 1918 * ''Kuiterichthys'' Pietsch, 1984 * ''Phyllophryne'' Pietsch, 1984 * ''Porophryne'' Arnold, Harcourt & Pietsch, 2014 * ''Rhycherus'' Ogilby, 1907

Subfamily Tathicarpinae Hart et al., 2022 (longfin frogfishes) * ''Tathicarpus'' Ogilby, 1907

Subfamily Tetrabrachiinae Regan, 1912 (tetrabrachiin frogfishes) * ''Dibrachichthys'' Pietsch, J. W. Johnson & Arnold, 2009 * ''Tetrabrachium'' Günther, 1880 {{Div col end}}

{{extinct}} = Extinct

The division of the family into multiple subfamilies is a recent treatment, as previously the Brachionichthyinae, the Lophichthyinae, and the Tetrabrachiinae were treated as their own families. Histiophrynidae was described as its own family in 2012. In 2022, these four families were found to be paraphyletic with respect to the former treatment of Antennariidae, and due to this, Rhycherinae and Tathicarpinae (both previously placed in Antennariidae) were uplifted to their own families.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hart |first1=Pamela B. |last2=Arnold |first2=Rachel J. |last3=Alda |first3=Fernando |last4=Kenaley |first4=Christopher P. |last5=Pietsch |first5=Theodore W. |last6=Hutchinson |first6=Destinee |last7=Chakrabarty |first7=Prosanta |date=2022-06-01 |title=Evolutionary relationships of anglerfishes (Lophiiformes) reconstructed using ultraconserved elements |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1055790322000720 |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |volume=171 |article-number=107459 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2022.107459 |pmid=35351632 |bibcode=2022MolPE.17107459H |issn=1055-7903|url-access=subscription }}</ref> A 2025 phylogenetic study combining Ultra-Conserved Elements (UCE)s, mitochondrial DNA, and morphological data found even this treatment to be paraphyletic, with Fowlerichthyinae being recognized as a distinct clade. However, to avoid taxonomic oversplitting, it was described as a distinct subfamily instead, and the Brachionichthyidae, Histiophrynidae, Lophichthyidae, Rhycheridae, Tathicarpidae, and Tetrabrachiidae were downgraded to subfamilies within the Antennariidae.<ref name="TotalEvidence"/> The frogfishes were also treated as a single family under an interpretive classification of the Actinopterygii in 2024.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Near |first1=Thomas J. |last2=Thacker |first2=Christine E. |date=2024-04-18 |title=Phylogenetic Classification of Living and Fossil Ray-Finned Fishes (Actinopterygii) |url=https://bioone.org/journals/bulletin-of-the-peabody-museum-of-natural-history/volume-65/issue-1/014.065.0101/Phylogenetic-Classification-of-Living-and-Fossil-Ray-Finned-Fishes-Actinopterygii/10.3374/014.065.0101.full |journal=Bulletin of the Peabody Museum of Natural History |volume=65 |issue=1 |page=101 |doi=10.3374/014.065.0101 |bibcode=2024BPMNH..65..101N |issn=0079-032X|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

The most basal member of the family is thought to be the Fowlerichthyinae.<ref name="TotalEvidence" />

=== Fossil record === [[File:Histionotophorus bossani.JPG|thumb|Fossil of ''Histionotophorus'']] Very few fossil remains of frogfishes have been found. The oldest known fossil evidence of frogfishes are isolated otoliths, named ''Antennarius euglyphus'' Stinton, 1966 from the Early Eocene-aged London Clay Formation of England.<ref name=":2"/> The highest diversity has been found in the northern Italian formation at Monte Bolca, formed from the sedimentation of the Tethys Ocean in the early Eocene (50-49 million years ago), which contains two handfish (''Histionotophorus'' and ''Orrichthys''),<ref name="academic.oup.com"/> a Fibonacci frogfish (''Eophryne''),<ref>{{cite journal |last1=CARNEVALE |first1=GIORGIO |last2=PIETSCH |first2=THEODORE W. |date=16 July 2009 |title=An Eocene Frogfish from Monte Bolca, Italy: The Earliest Known Skeletal Record for the Family |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/j.1475-4983.2009.00874.x |journal=Palaeontology |volume=52 |issue=4 |pages=745–752 |bibcode=2009Palgy..52..745C |doi=10.1111/j.1475-4983.2009.00874.x |url-access=subscription |access-date=21 February 2025}}</ref> and a fanfin frogfish related to ''Fowlerichthys'' (''Neilpeartia'').<ref name=":2"/> Another fossil is known from Late Miocene Algeria (7 to 5 million years ago), ''Fowlerichthys monodi'', believed to be most closely related to the extant Senegalese frogfish.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Carnevale |first1=G. |last2=Pietsch |first2=T. W. |title=Filling the gap: a fossil frogfish, genus Antennarius (Teleostei, Lophiiformes, Antennariidae), from the Miocene of Algeria |journal=Zoology |date=25 October 2006 |volume=270 |issue=3 |pages=448–457 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.2006.00163.x |url=https://zslpublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1469-7998.2006.00163.x |access-date=21 February 2025|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

==Range== Frogfishes live in the tropical and subtropical regions of the Atlantic and Pacific, as well as in the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea. Their habitat lies for the most part between the 20 °C isotherms, in areas where the surface level water usually has a temperature of {{convert|20|°C|°F|abbr=on}} or more. They extend beyond the 20 °C isotherms in the area of the Azores, Madeira and the Canary Islands, along the Atlantic coast of the United States, on the south coast of Australia and the northern tip of New Zealand, coastal Japan, around Durban, South Africa, and at Baja California, Mexico.<ref name="TOL">[http://tolweb.org/Antennariidae/21993 ''Antennariidae: Frogfishes''] Tree of Life Web Project</ref><ref>{{FishBase family| family = Antennariidae| date = February 2006}}</ref> The greatest diversity of species is in the Indo-Pacific region, with the highest concentration around Indonesia. In the small Lembeh Strait, north-east of Sulawesi, divers have found 9 different species. Frogfish live generally on the ocean floor around coral or rock reefs, at most to {{convert|100|m|ft|abbr=on}} deep.

A few exceptions to these general limits are known. The brackishwater frogfish is at home in ocean waters as well as brackish and fresh water around river mouths.<ref>{{FishBase | taxon = Antennariidae| species = biocellatus | month = Sep | year = 2009}}</ref> The sargassum fish lives in clumps of drifting sargassum, which often floats into the deeper ocean and has been known to take the sargassum fish as far north as Norway.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{FishBase | genus = Histrio | species = histrio | month = Sep | year = 2009}}</ref>

==Description== [[File:Antennarius striatus2.JPG|thumb|left|A striated frogfish, with upturned mouth, very distinct spinules, and esca in the form of a white worm]] [[File:Frogfish at Mactan Cebu.jpg|thumb|left|A frogfish in Mactan, Philippines]] Frogfishes have a stocky appearance, atypical of fish. Ranging from {{convert|2.5|–|38|cm|in|abbr=on}} long, their plump, high-backed, unstreamlined body is scaleless and bare, often covered with bumpy, bifurcated spinules.<ref name=fishes>{{cite web |last1=Bray |first1=Dianne |title=Family ANTENNARIIDAE |url=http://www.fishesofaustralia.net.au/home/family/343 |website=Fishes of Australia |access-date=6 October 2014 |archive-date=19 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140419013407/http://www.fishesofaustralia.net.au/home/family/343 }}</ref> Their short bodies have between 18 and 23 vertebrae and their mouths are upward-pointed with palatal teeth. They are often brightly coloured, white, yellow, red, green, or black or spotted in several colours to blend in with their coral surroundings.<ref name="TOL"/> Coloration can also vary within one species, making it difficult to differentiate between them.

Antennarioidei fishes are characterised by the first dorsal fin being made up of three separate spines on the head, the first being the illicium with the second sometimes being short, although this spine is not ever embedded within the skin. The pterygiophores of the first dorsal spine and the third dorsal spine have highly compressed dorsal expansions. The interhyal has a central backwards directed process that touches the preoperculum.<ref name="Nelson52">{{cite book |author1=Nelson, J.S. |author1-link=Joseph S. Nelson |title=Fishes of the World |author2=Grande, T.C. |author3=Wilson, M.V.H. |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-118-34233-6 |edition=5th |place=Hoboken, NJ |pages=508–518 |doi=10.1002/9781119174844 |lccn=2015037522 |oclc=951899884 |ol=25909650M}}</ref>

Rather than typical dorsal fins, the front-most of the three fins is called the illicium or "rod" and is topped with the esca or "lure". The illicium often has striped markings, while the esca takes a different form in each species. Because of the variety of colours even within a single species, the esca and illicium are useful tools to differentiate among different varieties.<ref name="Diving">[http://www.dive-the-world.com/creatures-frogfish.php Diving with Frogfish] Dive the World 2009</ref> Some of them resemble fish, some shrimp, some polychaetes, some tubeworms, and some simply a formless lump; one genus, ''Echinophryne'', has no esca at all. Despite very specific mimicry in the esca, examinations of stomach contents do not reveal any specialized predation {{nowrap|patterns{{px2}}{{mdash}}{{px2}}}}‌for example, only worm-eating fish consumed by frogfishes with worm-mimicking esca. If lost, the esca can be regenerated. In many species, the illicium and esca can be withdrawn into a depression between the second and third dorsal fins for protection when they are not needed.<ref name="Shedd">[http://www.sheddaquarium.org/SEa/fact_sheets.cfm?id=57 ''Frogfish Factsheet''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011204008/http://www.sheddaquarium.org/sea/fact_sheets.cfm?id=57 |date=2007-10-11 }} Shedd Aquarium Explore by Animal 2009</ref>

Frogfish have small, round gill openings behind their pectoral fins. With the exception of Butler's frogfish and the rough anglerfish, frogfish use a gas bladder to control their buoyancy.{{Citation needed|date=November 2019}}

===Mimicry and camouflage=== thumb|upright|A frogfish disguised as an algae-covered stone The unusual appearance of the frogfish functions to conceal it from predators and sometimes to mimic a potential meal to lure it in. In the study of animal behavior, this is known as aggressive mimicry. Their unusual shape, colour, and skin textures disguise frogfish. Some resemble stones or coral, while others imitate sponges or sea squirts with dark splotches instead of holes. In 2005, a species was discovered, the striated frogfish, that mimics a sea urchin, while the sargassumfish is coloured to blend in with the surrounding sargassum.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Some frogfish are covered with algae or hydrozoa. Their camouflage can be so perfect that sea slugs have been known to crawl over the fish without recognizing them.{{Citation needed|date=November 2019}}

For the scaleless and unprotected frogfish, camouflage is an important defense against predators. Some species can also inflate themselves, like pufferfish, by sucking in water in a threat display.<ref>Lloyd, Robin [https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna29372056 Crawling fish accepted as new species] NBC News</ref> In aquaria and in nature, frogfish have been observed, when flushed from their hiding spots and clearly visible, to be attacked by clownfish, damselfish, and wrasses, and in aquaria, to be killed.

Many frogfishes can change their colour.<ref name="TOL"/> The light colours are generally yellows or yellow-browns, while the darker are green, black, or dark red. They usually appear with the lighter color, but the change can last from a few days to several weeks. What triggers the change is unknown.<ref name="TOL"/>

===Movement=== thumb|Longlure frogfish realigning its jaw Frogfishes generally do not move very much, preferring to lie on the sea floor and wait for prey to approach. Once the prey is spotted, they can approach slowly using their pectoral and pelvic fins to walk along the floor.<ref name="Shedd"/><ref name=EoF>{{cite book |editor=Paxton, J.R. |editor2=Eschmeyer, W.N. |author1=Bertelsen, E. |author2=Pietsch, T.W. |year=1998 |title=Encyclopedia of Fishes |publisher= Academic Press |location=San Diego |pages= 138–139 |isbn= 0-12-547665-5}}</ref> They rarely swim, preferring to clamber over the sea bottom with their fins in one of two "gaits".<ref name=fishes /> In the first, they alternately move their pectoral fins forward, propelling themselves somewhat like a two-legged tetrapod, leaving the pelvic fins out. Alternately, they can move in something like a slow gallop, whereby they move their pectoral fins simultaneously forward and back, transferring their weight to the pelvic fins while moving the pectorals forward. With either gait, they can cover only short stretches.

In open water, frogfishes can swim with strokes of the caudal fin. They also use jet propulsion, often used by younger frogfish. It is achieved by rhythmically gulping water and forcing it out through their gill openings, also called opercular openings, which lie behind their pectoral fins.<ref name="EoF"/>

The sargassum frogfish has adapted fins which can grab strands of sargassum, enabling it to "climb" through the seaweed.<ref name="TOL"/>

===Hunting=== Frogfishes eat crustaceans, other fish, and even each other. When potential prey is first spotted, the frogfish follows it with its eyes. Then, when it approaches within roughly seven body-lengths, the frogfish begins to move its illicium in such a way that the esca mimics the motions of the animal it resembles. As the prey approaches, the frogfish slowly moves to prepare for its attack; sometimes this involves approaching the prey or "stalking", while sometimes it is simply adjusting its mouth angle. The catch itself is made by the sudden opening of the jaws, which enlarges the volume of the mouth cavity up to 12-fold, pulling the prey into the mouth along with water.<ref name="Shedd"/> The attack can be as fast as 6 milliseconds.<ref>[https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/discover-fish/species-profiles/antennarius-striatus/ ''Striated Frogfish''] Florida Museum of Natural History</ref> The water flows out through the gills, while the prey is swallowed and the esophagus closed with a special muscle to keep the victim from escaping. In addition to expanding their mouths, frogfish can also expand their stomachs to swallow animals up to twice their size.<ref name="Shedd"/>

Slow-motion filming has shown that the frogfish sucks in its prey in just six milliseconds, so fast that other animals cannot see it happen.<ref name="Shedd"/>

===Reproduction=== {{multiple image | align = right | direction = vertical | width = 240 | image1 = Striped anglerfish ( Antennarius striatus ).jpg | alt1 = | caption1 = The female striated frogfish does not tolerate the smaller male after fertilization, and may eat him if he stays close.<ref name="Frogfishes">Pietsch TW and Grobecker DT (1987) [https://books.google.com/books?id=weOeAAAAIAAJ&q=%22Frogfishes+of+the+world%22 ''Frogfishes of the world''] Stanford University Press,{{ISBN|9780804712637}}.</ref> ---- 16px [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mPGpuHQ1mx8 Striated frogfish mating] - YouTube | image2 = | caption2 = }}

The reproductive behavior of the normally solitary frogfish is still not fully researched. Few observations in aquaria and even fewer from the wild have been made. Most species are free-spawning, with females laying the eggs in the water and males coming in behind to fertilize them. From eight hours to several days before the egg-laying, the abdomen of the female starts to swell as up to 180,000 eggs absorb water.<ref name="Diving"/> The male begins to approach the female around two days before the spawning. Whether the spawn is predetermined by some external factor, such as the phase of the moon, or if the male is attracted to a smell or signal released by the female, is unknown. In all hitherto observed breeding pairs, one partner was noticeably larger than the other, sometimes as much as 10 times. When the sex could be determined, the larger partner was always the female.

During the free-spawning courtship ritual, the male swims beside and somewhat behind the female, nudges her with his mouth, then remains near her cloaca. Just before the spawning, the female begins to swim above the ocean floor toward the surface. At the highest point of their swim, they release the eggs and sperm before descending. Sometimes, the male pulls the eggs out of the female with his mouth. After mating, the partners depart quickly as otherwise the smaller male would likely be eaten. A few species are substrate-spawners, notably the genera ''Lophiocharon'', ''Phyllophryne'', and ''Rhycherus'', which lay their eggs on a solid surface, such as a plant or rock. Some species guard their eggs, a duty assigned to the male in almost all species, while most others do not.<ref name="Diving"/><ref name="Shedd"/> Several species practice brood carrying, for example the three-spot frogfish, whose eggs are attached to the male, and those in the genus ''Histiophryne'', whose brood are carried in the pectoral fins.

The eggs are {{convert|0.5|–|1|mm|in|abbr=on}} in diameter and cohere in a gelatinous mass or long ribbon, which in sargassumfish are up to a metre (3.3 ft) long and {{convert|16|cm|in|round=0.5|abbr=on}} wide. These egg masses can include up to 180,000 eggs.<ref name="Diving"/><ref>''[http://www.sealife.co.uk/local/whatsnew.php?id=375&page=1 Frogfish spawn on Valentine's Day]{{Dead link|date=April 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}'' National Sea Life Center, Birmingham</ref> For most species, the eggs drift on the surface. After two to five days, the fish hatch and the newly hatched alevin are between {{convert|0.8|and|1.6|mm|in|abbr=on}} long. For the first few days, they live on the yolk sac while their digestive systems continue to develop. The young have long fin filaments and can resemble tiny, tentacled jellyfish. For one to two months, they live planktonically. After this stage, at a length between {{convert|15|and|28|mm|in|abbr=on}}, they have the form of adult frogfish and begin their lives on the sea floor. Young frogfish often mimic the coloration of poisonous sea slugs or flatworms.

<!--unencyclopedic, how-to ==In aquaria== {{uncited section|date=February 2013}} Many public aquaria around the world keep frogfishes. Although prized for their unique appearance, they are not easy to keep for a number of reasons. They often refuse food or become very fat when they do accept it. Also, they must usually be kept alone, as they will eat anything up to twice their size, including other frogfish including potential mates. Also, as they can change their coloration, many lose the bright patterns they have initially, especially when kept in empty or more dull-colored tanks as opposed to the bright coral environments that they are used to.

Though frogfish have been observed to spawn in captivity, captive breeding is difficult. It is currently not known how to sex most species without dissection so keeping an appropriate pair together raises problems. Furthermore, even if they do spawn, raising fry through the planktonic phase is very difficult because the larval fish require extremely tiny live food and must be protected from other predatory fish. --> <gallery> File:Commerson's Frogfish, Kona, Hawaii.jpg|Commerson's frogfish, Kona, Hawaii, ''Antennarius commerson'' File:Oscellated Frogfish.jpg|Ocellated frogfish, Bonaire, Netherlands Antilles, ''A. ocellatus'' File:Red oscellated frogfish.jpg|Red ocellated frogfish, St. Kitts, F''. ocellatus'' File:6903 aquaimages.jpg|Longlure frogfish, Bonaire, ''A. multiocellatus'' File:Scarlet frogfish-Antennarius coccineus BK.jpg|Scarlet frogfish, ''A. coccineus'' File:Antennarius pictus.JPG|Painted frogfish, ''A. pictus'' File:Clown frogfish.jpg|Warty frogfish, ''A. maculatus'' File:HanaOZ.jpg|Sargassum fish, ''Histrio histrio'' </gallery>

==References== {{Reflist}}

==External links== {{wiktionary}}{{Wikispecies|Antennariidae}}{{Commons category|Antennariidae}} * [http://www.tolweb.org/Antennariidae/21993 Tree of Life - Antennariidae] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20030527120911/http://filaman.uni-kiel.de/Summary/FamilySummary.cfm?ID=192 Frogfishes in Fishbase] * [http://www.frogfish.ch/ Website only about Frogfishes (Anglerfishes)]

Category:Antennariidae Category:Taxa named by Theodore Gill Category:Antennarioidei