{{Short description|Extremely venomous snake native to Australia}} {{use dmy dates|date=November 2021}} {{Speciesbox | status = LC | status_system = IUCN3.1 | status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=Wilson, S. |author2=Dickman, C. |author3=Hobson, R. |author4=Sanderson, C. |date=2018 |title=''Oxyuranus scutellatus'' |volume=2018 |article-number=e.T42493150A42493160 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-1.RLTS.T42493150A42493160.en |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref> | image = Fierce Snake-Oxyuranus microlepidotus.jpg | image_caption = ''Oxyuranus microlepidotus'' at Australia Zoo | genus = Oxyuranus | species = microlepidotus | authority = (F. McCoy, 1879) | range_map = Fierce Snake Range.jpg | range_map_caption = General range of inland taipan (in red). The current, documented range of the species is more limited.<ref name="Animals of Queensland">Animals of Queensland. [http://www.qm.qld.gov.au/Find+out+about/Animals+of+Queensland/Reptiles/Snakes/Common+and+dangerous+species/Western+TaipanOpens a new window Western Taipan ''Oxyuranus microlepidotus'']. Queensland Museum. Retrieved 8 November 2013.</ref><ref name="Australian Reptile Online Database">Australian Reptile Online Database (28 March 2007). [http://www.arod.com.au/arod/reptilia/Squamata/Elapidae/Oxyuranus/microlepidotus?tab=distributionOpens a new window Inland taipan distribution]. arod.com.au. Retrieved 8 November 2013.</ref><ref name="Atlas of Living Australia 1">[http://bie.ala.org.au/species/Inland+TaipanOpens a new window ''Oxyuranus microlepidotus'' (McCoy, 1879) Western Taipan]. Atlas of Living Australia. Retrieved 8 November 2013.</ref> | synonyms = *''Diemenia microlepidota'' <small>F. McCoy, 1879</small> *''Diemenia ferox'' <small>Macleay, 1882</small> *''Pseudechis microlepidotus'' / ''Pseudechis ferox'' <small>— Boulenger, 1896</small> *''Parademansia microlepidota'' <small>— Kinghorn, 1955</small> *''Oxyuranus scutellatus microlepidotus'' <small>— Worrell, 1963</small> *''Oxyuranus microlepidotus'' <small>— Covacevich ''et al.'', 1981</small><ref name="Fohlman, J">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/0041-0101(79)90296-4 |title=Comparison of two highly toxic Australian snake venoms: The taipan (''Oxyuranus s. scutellatus'') and the fierce snake (''Parademansia microlepidotus'') |year=1979 |last1=Fohlman |first1=J. |journal=Toxicon |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=170–2 |pmid=442105 |bibcode=1979Txcn...17..170F }}</ref> }}
The '''inland taipan''' ('''''Oxyuranus microlepidotus'''''), also commonly known as the '''western taipan''', '''small-scaled snake''', or '''fierce snake''',<ref name="INCHEM">White, Julian (November 1991). [http://www.inchem.org/documents/pims/animal/taipan.htmOpens a new window ''Oxyuranus microlepidotus'']. "Neurotoxic paralysis usually takes 2–4 hours to become clinically detectable. Coagulopathy however may become well established within 30 minutes of a bite." International Programme on Chemical Safety. Retrieved 8 November 2013.</ref> is a species of extremely venomous snake in the family Elapidae. It is endemic to semiarid regions of central‑eastern Australia.<ref name="Animal Species: Inland Taipan">Cecilie Beatson (29 November 2011). [https://australian.museum/learn/animals/reptiles/inland-taipan/Opens a new window Animal Species: Inland Taipan]. Australian Museum. Retrieved 14 October 2013.</ref> Aboriginal Australians living in areas where Karnic languages are spoken refer to this species as ''dandarabilla''.<ref name="History & Discovery">Queensland Snakes. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090613091835/http://www.qm.qld.gov.au/features/snakes/taipan/discovery.aspOpens a new window History & Discovery]. (archived) Queensland Museum. Retrieved 15 November 2013.</ref><ref name="Pearn">{{cite journal |last1=Pearn |first1=John |last2=Winkel |first2=Kenneth D. |title=Toxinology in Australia's colonial era: A chronology and perspective of human envenomation in 19th century Australia |journal=Toxicon |date=December 2006 |volume=48 |issue=7 |pages=726–737 |doi=10.1016/j.toxicon.2006.07.027 |pmid=16996551 |bibcode=2006Txcn...48..726P |author1-link=John Hemsley Pearn }}</ref>
The species was formally described by Frederick McCoy in 1879 and William John Macleay in 1882, but for almost 90 years it remained poorly known to science: no additional specimens were collected and virtually nothing was added to knowledge of its biology until the species was rediscovered in 1972.<ref name="History & Discovery" /><ref name="Rediscovery">Rediscovery. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090613092123/http://www.qm.qld.gov.au/features/snakes/taipan/rediscovery.aspOpens a new window The rediscovery of the western taipan]. (archived) Queensland Museum. Retrieved 15 November 2013.</ref>
Based on the median lethal dose (LD<sub>50</sub>) of its venom in laboratory mice, the inland taipan is widely regarded as the most venomous snake in the world; its venom is substantially more toxic, ''drop for drop'', than that of any tested sea snake.<ref name="drop for drop"> * The Australian venom research unit (25 August 2007). [http://www.avru.org/compendium/biogs/A000084b.htm "Which snakes are the most venomous?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140626092020/http://www.avru.org/compendium/biogs/A000084b.htm |date=2014-06-26 |df=dmy-all}}. University of Melbourne. Retrieved 14 October 2013. * Venom Immunochemistry, Pharmacology and Emergency Response (VIPER) Institute. [http://viper.arizona.edu/faq/what-most-venomous-snake Frequently Asked Questions -What is the most venomous snake?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180715123400/http://viper.arizona.edu/faq/what-most-venomous-snake |date=2018-07-15 |df=dmy-all}}. "Many experts answer that it is the Inland Taipan of Australia, because its drop-by-drop concentration of venom has great potency when measured by its ability to kill rodents". University of Arizona. Retrieved 14 October 2013. * Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation. [http://ufwildlife.ifas.ufl.edu/venomous_snake_faqs.shtml Frequently Asked Questions About Venomous Snakes]. "A comparative study found that the snake venom that is most toxic to mice (of the species tested) is that of the Inland Taipan (''Oxyuranus microlepidotus''), found in Australia". University of Florida. Retrieved 5 November 2013. * {{cite journal|vauthors=Hodgson WC, Dal Belo CA, Rowan EG |pmid=17313963 |title=The neuromuscular activity of paradoxin: a presynaptic neurotoxin from the venom of the inland taipan (''Oxyuranus microlepidotus'')|quote=The inland taipan is the world's most venomous snake |year=2007 |volume=52 |issue=5 |pages=1229–36 |doi=10.1016/j.neuropharm.2007.01.002 |journal=Neuropharmacology|s2cid=19532337 }} * {{cite journal |doi=10.1016/S0041-0101(97)00060-3 |title=Some pharmacological studies of venom from the inland taipan (''Oxyuranus microlepidotus'') |quote=The Inland Taipan is believed to have the most toxic venom in the world (Sutherland, 1994) |year=1998 |last1=Bell |first1=Karen L |author2-link=Struan Sutherland |last2=Sutherland |first2=Struan K |last3=Hodgson |first3=Wayne C |journal=Toxicon |volume=36 |pages=63–74 |pmid=9604283 |issue=1|bibcode=1998Txcn...36...63B }} * {{cite journal |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=60-69 |date=1983 |url=http://sydney.edu.au/science/biology/shine/publications/reprints_legal/33taipanecology.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327014449/https://sydney.edu.au/science/biology/shine/publications/reprints_legal/33taipanecology.pdf |archive-date=2019-03-27 |doi=10.2307/1563782 |last1=Shine |first1=Richard |author-link1=Richard Shine |last2=Covacevich |first2=Jeanette |author-link2=Jeanette Covacevich |title=Ecology of Highly Venomous Snakes: the Australian Genus ''Oxyuranus'' (Elapidae) |quote=...the number of mouse LD<sub>50</sub> doses per bite is much higher for ''Oxyuranus microlepidotus'' (218,000)... than for any other snakes, including sea snakes, investigated to date (Broad, Sutherland and Coulter, 1979). |quote-page=60 |publisher=Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles |access-date=2025-09-28}}</ref> It is also considered to possess the most toxic venom of any reptile when tested on human heart cell cultures.<ref>[http://www.sciencearchive.org.au/scientists/interviews/f/fry.htmlOpens a new window Fry, Bryan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140419012946/http://www.sciencearchive.org.au/scientists/interviews/f/fry.htmlOpens a new window |date=2014-04-19 |df=dmy-all}} (8 February 2005) [http://www.venomdoc.com/forums/viewtopic.php?t=1212&postdays=0&postorder=asc&highlight=inland+taipan&start=0Opens a new window Most Venomous] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017041923/http://www.venomdoc.com/forums/viewtopic.php?t=1212&postdays=0&postorder=asc&highlight=inland+taipan&start=0Opens a new window |date=2014-10-17 |df=dmy-all}}. "Q: I was wondering what snake's venom is the most potent to humans. A: Drop for drop it is the inland taipan (''Oxyuranus microlepidotus''), which has a venom more toxic than any other land snake or even the sea snakes." venomdoc.com forums. Retrieved 17 April 2014.</ref><ref>Seymour, Jamie, [https://geographyscout.com/animals/the-deadly-taipan/Opens a new window World's Worst Venom], (min 44:33) "Among the reptiles tested, the most toxic venom belongs to inland taipan, killing over 60% of heart cells in the first 10 minutes." National Geographic Channel. Retrieved 17 April 2014.</ref><ref>Seymour, Jamie, [https://web.archive.org/web/20110210070452/http://natgeotv.com/uk/australias-most-deadly/videos/venom-deathmatchOpens a new window Venom Death Match]. "They have the most toxic venom towards humans than any other snake in the world" (min 1:49). National Geographic Channel. Retrieved 17 April 2014.</ref> The inland taipan is a specialised predator of mammals, and its venom is particularly adapted to killing warm-blooded prey.<ref name="warm-blooded">{{Cite web |title=Inland Taipan Oxyuranus microlepidotus |url=http://www.venomsupplies.com/inland-taipan/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231209073513/http://www.venomsupplies.com/inland-taipan/ |archive-date=9 December 2023 |access-date=2025-08-07 |website=www.venomsupplies.com |language=en }}</ref> A single bite has been estimated to contain sufficient venom to kill more than 100 adult humans.<ref name="100 fully grown men">* Journal of Herpetology Vol.17 no.1 (1983) [https://scholar.google.com/scholar_url?url=https://www.academia.edu/download/81613306/1b02ad67f4b37b42354b9a71297e271a0b20.pdf&hl=en&sa=X&ei=BcXGZI6JHJLYygSro70Y&scisig=ABFrs3xdK6d9ReyEg6Pr-Dbmfgmz&oi=scholarr) Ecology of Highly Venoumous Snakes: the Australian Genus ''Oxyuranus'']. "..the number of mouse LD50 doses per bite is much higher for ''Oxyuranus microlepidotus'' (218,000 mice)...than for any other snakes, including sea snakes, investigated to date (Broad, Sutherland and Coulter, 1979)." (page 1) University of Sydney. Retrieved 8 November 2013. * [http://www.australiazoo.com.au/our-animals/amazing-animals/reptiles/?animal=fierce_snake&reptile=venomous_snakes "Reptiles – Fierce Snake"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227122800/http://www.australiazoo.com.au/our-animals/amazing-animals/reptiles/?reptile=venomous_snakes&animal=fierce_snake|date=2014-02-27|df=dmy-all}}. Australia Zoo. Retrieved 14 October 2013. * Martin, Stella (January 2004). [http://www.wettropics.gov.au/site/user-assets/docs/80VeryVenomousBut.pdf Newsletter No. 80]. "It has been calculated that there is enough venom in just one bite of an Inland taipan to kill more than 100 men of average size." Environmental Protection Agency (Queensland). Retrieved 18 October 2013. * News (28 September 2012) [http://taronga.org.au/news/2014-06-04/meet-worlds-deadliest-snake-safety Meet the world's deadliest snake in safety] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180715123207/http://taronga.org.au/news/2014-06-04/meet-worlds-deadliest-snake-safety|date=2018-07-15|df=dmy-all}}, Taronga Conservation Society. Retrieved 23 September 2014</ref>
Despite this extreme potency, the inland taipan is usually shy and reclusive, with a generally placid disposition,<ref name="placid disposition">* Cecilie Beatson (29 November 2011). [https://australian.museum/learn/animals/reptiles/inland-taipan/ Animal Species: Inland Taipan] "The venom of the Inland Taipan is extremely potent and is rated as the most toxic of all snake venoms in LD50 tests on mice". Australian Museum. Retrieved 14 October 2013. * South Australia Arid Lands Natural Resources Management Board. [http://www.saalnrm.sa.gov.au/Portals/8/Publications_Resources/Factsheets_Brochures/SAAL-Woma_Python_Inland_Taipan-FS-STD-122009.pdf Biodiversity studies, Student fact sheet] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120322103731/http://saalnrm.sa.gov.au/Portals/8/Publications_Resources/Factsheets_Brochures/SAAL-Woma_Python_Inland_Taipan-FS-STD-122009.pdf |date=2012-03-22 |df=dmy-all}}. Government of South Australia. Retrieved 15 October 2013. * Clinical Toxinology Resources. [http://www.toxinology.com/fusebox.cfm?fuseaction=main.snakes.display&id=SN0520 "''Oxyuranus microlepidotus'' -General Details, Taxonomy and Biology, Venom, Clinical Effects, Treatment, First Aid, Antivenoms"]. University of Adelaide. Retrieved 14 October 2013. * ABC News 24 (28 September 2012). [http://www.abc.net.au/news/2012-09-28/taipan-mystery/4285224 'Placid' taipan in safe hands]. (Quoting licensed reptile handler, [http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/resources/wildlifelicences/reptilehandlerlist.pdf Judith {Judy} Martin]). Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 13 November 2013.</ref> and it rarely comes into contact with people because it inhabits remote areas. By contrast, the coastal taipan (''Oxyuranus scutellatus'') is often considered the more dangerous species in practice, largely because of its behaviour when it encounters humans and its proximity to populated coastal regions.<ref name="Haji">{{cite web|last=Haji |first=R. |title=Venomous snakes and snake bites |url=http://www.zoocheck.com/Reportpdfs/Venomous%20snakes.pdf |work=Zoocheck Canada |access-date=25 October 2013 |date=2000|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425231856/http://www.zoocheck.com/Reportpdfs/Venomous%20snakes.pdf |archive-date=25 April 2012}}</ref><ref name="QM">{{cite web|title=Coastal Taipan|url=http://www.qm.qld.gov.au/Find+out+about/Animals+of+Queensland/Reptiles/Snakes/Common+and+dangerous+species/Coastal+Taipan|access-date=21 October 2013|archive-date=2 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210202030908/http://www.qm.qld.gov.au/Find+out+about/Animals+of+Queensland/Reptiles/Snakes/Common+and+dangerous+species/Coastal+Taipan|url-status=bot: unknown}}</ref> The word "fierce" in one of the inland taipan's common names refers to the strength of its venom rather than its temperament.<ref name="Fierce Snake - profile">Threatened species 10 October 2012. [http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/threatenedSpeciesApp/profile.aspx?id=20169 Fierce Snake – profile]. Office of Environment and Heritage (New South Wales). Retrieved 15 October 2013.</ref>
== Taxonomy ==
Among the Aboriginal people from the area now known as Goyder Lagoon in north‑eastern South Australia, the inland taipan was traditionally known as ''dandarabilla''.<ref name="History & Discovery" /><ref name="Pearn" />
The inland taipan was first described scientifically in 1879, when two specimens were collected at the junction of the Murray and Darling Rivers in north‑western Victoria. Frederick McCoy described these as ''Diemenia microlepidota'', the "small‑scaled brown snake".<ref name="History & Discovery" /><ref name="Rediscovery" /> In 1882 a third specimen was collected near Bourke, New South Wales, and William John Macleay described it as ''Diemenia ferox'', believing it to be a different species.<ref name="Kinghorn, J. Roy">Kinghorn, J. Roy (1 September 1955). [https://media.australian.museum/media/Uploads/Journals/17387/638_complete.pdf Herpetological notes. No. 5] (page 284). Australian Museum Scientific Publications. Retrieved 14 November 2013.</ref><ref name="Fohlman, J" /><ref name="Animal Species: Inland Taipan" /> No further material was collected until the 1970s.
In 1896 George Albert Boulenger transferred both taxa to the genus ''Pseudechis'' (black snakes), treating them as ''Pseudechis microlepidotus'' and ''P. ferox''.<ref name="Fohlman, J" /> In 1956, working solely from the published descriptions and notes, James Roy Kinghorn regarded ''ferox'' as a synonym of ''microlepidotus'' and proposed the new genus ''Parademansia'' for the species.<ref name="Kinghorn, J. Roy" />
In 1963 Eric Worrell considered ''Parademansia microlepidotus'' conspecific with ''Oxyuranus scutellatus'' (then commonly known simply as the "taipan").<ref name="Fohlman, J" /> However, in September 1972 an unclassified snake head collected by a grazier on a Channel Country station west of Windorah in south‑western Queensland was sent to the Queensland Museum. Herpetologists Jeanette Covacevich and Charles Tanner travelled to the site, located thirteen live specimens, and thereby rediscovered the long‑lost "western taipan" ''Parademansia microlepidotus''.<ref name="Rediscovery" />
In 1976 Covacevich and Wombey argued that ''Parademansia microlepidotus'' was sufficiently distinct to warrant generic recognition, a view shared by Harold Cogger.<ref name="Fohlman, J" /> Subsequently, Covacevich, McDowell, Tanner and Mengden (1981) compared anatomical characters, chromosomes and behaviour of the two then‑recognised species ''Oxyuranus scutellatus'' and ''Parademansia microlepidota'', and concluded that both belonged in a single genus. The older name ''Oxyuranus'' (erected in 1923) therefore had priority and was adopted for the combined genus.<ref name="Two Taipans">Two Taipans. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090615141619/http://www.qm.qld.gov.au/features/snakes/taipan/two.asp Two Taipans - Coastal and Western]. (archived) Queensland Museum. Retrieved 15 November 2013.</ref><ref name="Covacevich, J">Covacevich, J., McDowell, S.B., Tanner, C. & Mengdon, G. (Aust. Herp. Symposium, 1980). [http://www.kingsnake.com/aho/pdf/menu2/covacevich1981.pdf The relationship of the taipan (''Oxyuranus scutellatus'') and the small-scaled snake (''O. microlepidotus''), Serpentes: Elapidae] (page 32). kingsnake.com. Retrieved 15 November 2013.</ref>
The current binomial name of the inland taipan has therefore been ''Oxyuranus microlepidotus'' since the early 1980s.<ref name="Two Taipans" /><ref name="Covacevich, J" /> The generic name ''Oxyuranus'' derives from the Greek ''oxys'' ("sharp" or "needle‑like") and ''ouranos'' ("arch", specifically the arch of the palate), referring to the needle‑like anterior process on the palatal arch.<ref>Meagher, David (2012). "An etymology of the scientific names of Victorian snakes". ''The Victorian Naturalist''. 129 (1): 54–60.</ref> The specific epithet ''microlepidotus'' is from Latin and means "small‑scaled", referring to the small body scales, and is the origin of the common name "small‑scaled snake".<ref name="Welton, Ronelle Ellen">Welton, Ronelle Ellen (2005) PhD thesis. [http://eprints.jcu.edu.au/11938/4/02Chapters_1-3.pdf Proteomic and genomic characterisation of venom proteins from ''Oxyuranus'' species]. (microlepidotus). James Cook University. Retrieved 15 November 2013.</ref>
Once Covacevich ''et al.'' (1981) had shown that the fierce snake (formerly ''Parademansia microlepidota'') belonged to the genus ''Oxyuranus'', the name "taipan" (derived from the Aboriginal term ''dhayban'') was retained for ''O. scutellatus'', which became known as the coastal taipan (or "eastern taipan"), while ''O. microlepidotus'' came to be widely referred to as the "inland taipan" (also "western taipan").<ref name="Rediscovery" />
== Distribution and habitat ==
The inland taipan occurs on cracking‑clay plains in semi‑arid regions near the border of Queensland and South Australia.<ref name="Animal Species: Inland Taipan" /><ref>Threatened species (10 October 2012). [http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/threatenedSpeciesApp/profile.aspx?id=20169Opens a new window Fierce Snake – profile]. Office of Environment and Heritage (New South Wales). Retrieved 16 October 2013.</ref>
In Queensland the species has been recorded from the Channel Country bioregion,<ref name="Wildlife of Channel Country (CHC) bioregion">[http://wetlandinfo.ehp.qld.gov.au/wetlands/facts-maps/wildlife/?AreaID=bioregion-channel-country-chc Wildlife of Channel Country (CHC) bioregion]. (western taipan) Department of Environment and Heritage Protection (Queensland). Retrieved 10 November 2013.</ref> including Diamantina National Park, Durrie Station, Morney Plains Station<ref name="Desert Channels region">Desert Channels region Natural resource management. [http://www.dcq.org.au/sites/default/files/Biodiversity%20plan%20part2.pdf Desert Channels Queensland's Biodiversity Plan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131110065236/http://www.dcq.org.au/sites/default/files/Biodiversity%20plan%20part2.pdf |date=2013-11-10 |df=dmy-all}}. (Channel country, page 24 /special fauna areas) Government of Queensland. Retrieved 10 November 2013.</ref> and Astrebla Downs National Park.<ref name="Wildlife of Astrebla Downs National Park">[http://wetlandinfo.ehp.qld.gov.au/wetlands/facts-maps/wildlife/?AreaID=national-park-astrebla-downs Wildlife of Astrebla Downs National Park]. (western taipan) Department of Environment and Heritage Protection (Queensland). Retrieved 10 November 2013.</ref> In South Australia it has been observed in the Marree–Innamincka NRM district,<ref name="tracks of the Marree Innamincka District">South Australia arid lands natural resources management board. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120730203929/http://www.saalnrm.sa.gov.au/Portals/8/Publications_Resources/Factsheets_Brochures/saal_greattracks_062012.pdf Birdsville Strzelecki - Legendary tracks of the Marree Innamincka District]. (Archived) (map of district on second page) (Inland taipan page 7) Government of South Australia. Retrieved 10 November 2013.</ref><ref name="About the Marree–Innamincka District">South Australia arid lands natural resources management board. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120723014648/http://www.saalnrm.sa.gov.au/AboutUs/OurNRMDistrictGroups/MarreeInnamincka.aspx Marree – Innamincka Natural Resources Management Group] (Archived). Government of South Australia. Retrieved 10 November 2013.</ref> including Goyder Lagoon,<ref name="muscle relaxant effects of venom">Toxicon journal (January 1999) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/8077897_Novel_natriuretic_peptides_from_the_venom_of_the_inland_taipan_(Oxyuranus_microlepidotus)_isolation_chemical_and_biological_characterisation/file/d912f50d6fa548c2bf.pdf The smooth muscle relaxant effects of venom from the inland taipan (''Oxyuranus microlepidotus'')]. (page 1) ResearchGate. Retrieved 10 November 2013.</ref> the Tirari Desert, Sturt Stony Desert, Coongie Lakes, Innamincka Regional Reserve and near Oodnadatta.<ref name="SAAL Regional Species Conservation Assessment">(Last updated: 19 July 2013). [http://www.environment.sa.gov.au/files/fa467d92-1a9f-416d-a215-a1ff00fe3697/saal-regional-conservation-assessments-rep.pdf SAAL Regional Species Conservation Assessment Project] (PDF sheet download, pages 50, 67). Department of Environment, Water and Natural Resources (South Australia). Retrieved 8 November 2013.</ref> An isolated population is also known from near Coober Pedy, South Australia.<ref name="Animals of Queensland" /><ref name="Australian Reptile Online Database" /><ref name="saalnrm.sa.gov.au">South Australia arid lands natural resources management board. [http://www.saalnrm.sa.gov.au/Portals/8/Publications_Resources/Factsheets_Brochures/SAAL-Woma_Python_Inland_Taipan-FS-STD-122009.pdf Biodiversity studies, Student fact sheet] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120322103731/http://saalnrm.sa.gov.au/Portals/8/Publications_Resources/Factsheets_Brochures/SAAL-Woma_Python_Inland_Taipan-FS-STD-122009.pdf |date=2012-03-22 |df=dmy-all}}. Government of South Australia. Retrieved 15 October 2013.</ref>
Two historical records exist from further south‑east, at the junction of the Murray and Darling Rivers in north‑western Victoria (1879) and near Bourke, New South Wales (1882), but the species has not been recorded from either state since the late 19th century.<ref name="Animals of Queensland" /><ref name="Animal Species: Inland Taipan" />
=== Conservation status ===
Like all native snakes in Australia, the inland taipan is protected by law.<ref name="billabongsanctuary.com.au">Aussie Animals.[http://www.billabongsanctuary.com.au/aussie_animals/inland_taipan.html Inland Taipan (Oxyuranus microlepidotus)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019160203/http://www.billabongsanctuary.com.au/aussie_animals/inland_taipan.html|date=2013-10-19 |df=dmy-all}}. Billabong Sanctuary. Retrieved 18 October 2013.</ref> The species was assessed for the IUCN Red List for the first time in July 2017, and in 2018 it was listed as Least Concern. The assessment notes that the species is widespread within its range and is not thought to be in overall decline, although the potential impacts of threats require further investigation and may be locally significant.<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021" />
National and state‑level conservation listings differ because they reflect status within individual jurisdictions:<ref name="Threatened species criteria">Wildlife and ecosystems section. [http://www.ehp.qld.gov.au/wildlife/threatened-species/ Threatened species criteria]. Department of Environment and Heritage Protection (Queensland). Retrieved 8 November 2013.</ref>
'''South Australia''': listed as "Least Concern" within the Outback region.<ref name="SAAL Regional Species Conservation Assessment" /> '''Queensland''': formerly listed as Rare, then as Near Threatened (May 2010 – December 2014), and currently (since December 2014) as "Least Concern".<ref>{{cite web |title=Table 2: Rare species requiring review that have been transferred to near threatened on 20 May 2010 |url=https://environment.des.qld.gov.au/wildlife/threatened-species/changes-additions-table2.htmlOpens a new window |website=Queensland Government – Department of Environment and Science |access-date=12 January 2019 |language=en-AU |date=18 June 2010 |archive-date=12 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190112150035/https://environment.des.qld.gov.au/wildlife/threatened-species/changes-additions-table2.htmlOpens a new window }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Changes made to wildlife categories on 12 December 2014 |url=https://environment.des.qld.gov.au/wildlife/threatened-species/changes-additions-december-2014.htmlOpens a new window |website=Queensland Government – Department of Environment and Science |access-date=12 January 2019 |language=en-AU |date=12 December 2014 |archive-date=12 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190112150054/https://environment.des.qld.gov.au/wildlife/threatened-species/changes-additions-december-2014.htmlOpens a new window }}</ref> '''New South Wales''': listed as presumed Extinct on the basis that it has not been recorded in suitable habitat despite targeted surveys conducted over an appropriate timeframe for the species’ life cycle.<ref name="Fierce Snake - profile" /><ref>{{cite web |title=Species listing categories |url=https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/topics/animals-and-plants/threatened-species/programs-legislation-and-framework/species-listing/species-listing-categoriesOpens a new window |website=NSW Environment & Heritage |access-date=12 January 2019 |language=en}}</ref> '''Victoria''': listed as Regionally Extinct, meaning that exhaustive surveys in all suitable habitats within Victoria have failed to locate the species, even though it still occurs elsewhere within its global range.<ref name="Threatened Vertebrate Fauna in Victoria">Conservation status (March 2013). [https://delwp-search-new.clients.squiz.net/s/redirect?collection=delwp-meta&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.environment.vic.gov.au%2F__data%2Fassets%2Fpdf_file%2F0014%2F50450%2FAdvisory-List-of-Threatened-Vertebrate-Fauna_FINAL-2013.pdf&index_url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.environment.vic.gov.au%2F__data%2Fassets%2Fpdf_file%2F0014%2F50450%2FAdvisory-List-of-Threatened-Vertebrate-Fauna_FINAL-2013.pdf&auth=MjttIvFlBaNzSIoZO0lgVw&profile=_default&rank=2&query=Oxyuranus+microlepidotus+Extinct Advisory List of Threatened Vertebrate Fauna in Victoria]. (Small-scaled Snake, page 14) Department of Sustainability and Environment. Retrieved 12 January 2019.</ref> The Australian Museum likewise lists the inland taipan as "presumed extinct" in Victoria.<ref name="Animal Species: Inland Taipan" /> === In captivity ===
Inland taipans are held in a number of zoological collections in Australia and overseas. In Australia they are maintained, and in some cases bred, at institutions including Adelaide Zoo and Taronga Zoo in Sydney. The species is also on public display at Australia Zoo,<ref name="Reptiles - Fierce Snake">[http://www.australiazoo.com.au/our-animals/amazing-animals/reptiles/?animal=fierce_snake&reptile=venomous_snakes "Reptiles – Fierce Snake"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227122800/http://www.australiazoo.com.au/our-animals/amazing-animals/reptiles/?reptile=venomous_snakes&animal=fierce_snake |date=2014-02-27 |df=dmy-all}}. Australia Zoo. Retrieved 14 October 2013.</ref> the Australian Reptile Park,<ref name="Australian Reptile Park Inland Taipan">Our Animals. [http://www.reptilepark.com.au/animals.asp?catID=16&ID=112 Fierce Snake (Inland Taipan)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090929220811/http://www.reptilepark.com.au/animals.asp?catID=16&ID=112 |date=2009-09-29 |df=dmy-all}}. Australian Reptile Park. Retrieved 11 November 2013.</ref> Billabong Sanctuary,<ref name="billabongsanctuary.com.au" /> Cairns Tropical Zoo,<ref>[http://www.cairnstropicalzoo.com.au/wildlife_displays.htmlOpens a new window Wildlife displays / The Reptile House]. Retrieved 11 November 2013.</ref> Lone Pine Koala Sanctuary<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ozanimals.com/travel/lone-pine-koala-sanctuary-brisbaneOpens a new window |title=Lone Pine Koala Sanctuary, Brisbane |date=28 June 2009 |website=Ozanimals Travel – Your guide to Australian Nature Experiences |access-date=29 September 2016 |archive-date=2 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161002062137/http://www.ozanimals.com/travel/lone-pine-koala-sanctuary-brisbane}}Opens a new window</ref> and Shoalhaven Zoo.<ref>{{cite web |title=Private Shoalhaven Zoo Experience from Sydney |url=http://www.lonelyplanet.com/australia/sydney/activities/nature-wildlife/private-shoalhaven-zoo-experience-sydneyOpens a new window |website=Lonely Planet |access-date=20 June 2016}}</ref>
Outside Australia, inland taipans are kept in several North American zoos, including Reptile Gardens in South Dakota,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://rapidcityjournal.com/news/local/reptile-gardens-deadliest-snake-gets-television-debut/article_3761d566-0f58-5577-9159-7961c766b3b2.htmlOpens a new window |title=Reptile Gardens' deadliest snake gets television debut |work=Rapid City Journal |date=14 December 2006 }}</ref> Kentucky Reptile Zoo<ref name="Adopt a Zoo Animal">Help support KRZ. [http://www.kyreptilezoo.org/?Help_Support_KRZ:Adopt_a_Zoo_Animal Adopt a Zoo Animal / Australian Inland Taipan]. Kentucky Reptile Zoo. Retrieved 11 November 2013.</ref> and Animal World & Snake Farm Zoo in Texas.<ref name="Fox San Antonio 1">News (10 October 2013).[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FdxHnZ50XUk Street's Corner: Houdini Heir Tries To Escape World's Deadliest Snake]. KABB. (KABB "Fox San Antonio" official YouTube Channel). Retrieved 11 November 2013.</ref><ref name="Seguin Gazette 1">Maloney, Ron (9 October 2013). [http://seguingazette.com/news/article_c442da88-3067-11e3-bf96-001a4bcf887a.html Houdini descendant to perform in Seguin]. Seguin Gazette. Retrieved 11 November 2013.</ref><ref name="Patoski, Joe Nick">Patoski, Joe Nick (14 July 2011). [https://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/15/us/15ttpatoski.html Snake Farm's Charms Still Casting Spells]. The New York Times. Retrieved 11 November 2013.</ref>
In Europe the species is held at the Stockholm Skansen Zoo and Gothenburg Universeum in Sweden,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.goteborgdaily.se/world-s-deadliest-snake-calls-gothenburg-homeOpens a new window |title=World's deadliest snake calls Gothenburg home |work=goteborgdaily.se |access-date=2015-07-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924023210/http://www.goteborgdaily.se/world-s-deadliest-snake-calls-gothenburg-homeOpens a new window |archive-date=2015-09-24}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title='Missing snake' note rattles Malmö residents |url=http://www.thelocal.se/20110404/32996Opens a new window |access-date=27 July 2015 |publisher=The Local Europe AB |date=4 April 2011}}</ref> at Moscow Zoo in Russia,<ref name="Births and Hatchings / Moscow">AEZA news (January–March, 2004). [http://www.eaza.net/News/EAZA_Magazine/EAZA%20NEWS%20Magazine/EN45.pdf Births and Hatchings / Moscow - Russian federation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140123200819/http://www.eaza.net/News/EAZA_Magazine/EAZA%20NEWS%20Magazine/EN45.pdf |date=2014-01-23 |df=dmy-all}}. (page 17) European Association of Zoos and Aquaria Magazine. Retrieved 11 November 2013.</ref> and at the London Zoo in the United Kingdom.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.zsl.org/wicked-reptilesOpens a new window |title=Wicked Reptiles |work=Zoological Society of London (ZSL)}}</ref> Various smaller facilities and private collections in continental Europe also maintain the species.<ref>{{cite web |title=Inland taipan (Fierce Snake) |url=http://www.zootierliste.de/en/?klasse=3&ordnung=305&familie=30524&art=3030607Opens a new window |website=Zootierliste |access-date=27 July 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://zooinstitutes.com/zoosrating/Animal.asp?name=1293Opens a new window |title=Animal.asp |work=zooinstitutes.com |access-date=28 July 2015 |archive-date=21 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160321103546/http://zooinstitutes.com/zoosrating/Animal.asp?name=1293}}Opens a new window</ref>
In Asia inland taipans are held at Singapore Zoo, where they have been the subject of detailed veterinary case reports.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Luz |first1=Sonja |last2=Dorrestein |first2=Gerry M. |last3=Zwart |first3=Peernel |last4=Hildebrandt |first4=Thomas |last5=Goeritz |first5=Frank |last6=Jan-Willem Van Koten |last7=Tarmizi |first7=Mohamed Reza |last8=Ahmad |first8=Anwar |last9=Oh |first9=Serena |last10=Oh |first10=Soon Hock |date=2009 |title=Management, diagnosis and treatment of an inland taipan (''Oxyuranus microlepidotus'') with a tumour‑like swelling in the heart region at Singapore Zoological Gardens |url=http://rgdoi.net/10.13140/RG.2.2.27466.67521Opens a new window |doi=10.13140/RG.2.2.27466.67521}}</ref>
==== Private ownership law ====
In the Australian state of New South Wales, private ownership of an inland taipan is legal only for keepers who hold the highest class of venomous reptile licence, reflecting the very high risk associated with the species.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Wildlife Team |date=2024-06-21 |title=Reptile keeper licences |url=https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/licences-and-permits/wildlife-licences/native-animals-as-pets/reptile-keeper-licencesOpens a new window |access-date=2024-10-06 |website=NSW Environment and Heritage |language=en}}</ref>
== Description == thumb|200px|right|Brown‑coloured (winter) thumb|200px|right|Olive‑coloured (summer)
The inland taipan is typically dark tan in overall colour, varying from a rich, dark brown to a brownish light green depending on season. The back, flanks and tail may show various shades of brown and grey. Many dorsal scales have broad blackish margins which, because the scales are arranged in diagonal rows, align to form broken chevron‑like markings that slope backwards and downwards. The lowermost lateral scales frequently have a yellowish anterior edge. The dorsal scales are smooth and lack keels.
The rounded snout, head and neck are usually noticeably darker than the body – glossy black in winter and dark brown in summer. This darker pigmentation is thought to assist thermoregulation by allowing the snake to absorb heat while exposing only a small portion of the body at the entrance of a burrow. The eyes are of moderate size with dark brown to blackish irises and without a distinct pale ring around the pupil.
The species has 23 rows of dorsal scales at mid‑body, 55–70 divided subcaudal scales, and a single anal scale. The average total length is about {{convert|1.8|m|ft|abbr=on}}, although larger individuals can attain {{convert|2.5|m|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.reptilepark.com.au/animals.asp?catID=16&ID=112Opens a new window |title=Fierce Snake (Inland Taipan) |publisher=Australian Reptile Park |access-date=2009-11-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090929220811/http://www.reptilepark.com.au/animals.asp?catID=16&ID=112Opens a new window |archive-date=2009-09-29 }}</ref> The fangs measure approximately 3.5–6.2 mm, somewhat shorter than those of the coastal taipan.<ref name="billabongsanctuary.com.au" />
=== Seasonal adaptation ===
Inland taipans exhibit seasonal colour change, a form of physiological adaptation that assists thermoregulation. Individuals tend to become darker in winter and paler in summer. Darker pigmentation in cooler months increases absorption of solar radiation and thus facilitates warming, whereas lighter tones in summer may reduce heat load.<ref name="Animal Species: Inland Taipan" />
== Breeding ==
Inland taipans are oviparous, producing clutches of approximately 10–24 eggs. Eggs are usually laid in abandoned mammal burrows, deep rock crevices or similar sheltered sites. Incubation lasts about two months, though the duration is influenced by temperature and humidity. Reproductive output appears to depend in part on food availability; in years when prey is scarce, females may not breed or may lay smaller clutches.<ref name="Animal Species: Inland Taipan" />
In captivity inland taipans generally live for around 10–15 years, although longer lifespans have been recorded. An individual at Australia Zoo reportedly lived for more than 20 years.<ref name="billabongsanctuary.com.au" />
== Feeding ==
In the wild the inland taipan is a dietary specialist that feeds almost exclusively on small to medium‑sized mammals,<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090615141619/http://www.qm.qld.gov.au/features/snakes/taipan/two.aspOpens a new window Two Taipans] (archived). Queensland Museum. Retrieved 26 May 2015.</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Western Taipan |url=http://www.mtq.qm.qld.gov.au/Find+out+about/Animals+of+Queensland/Reptiles/Snakes/Common+and+dangerous+species/Western+Taipan#.WSmhdrduvMIOpens a new window |website=Museum of Tropical Queensland |access-date=27 May 2017}}</ref> particularly rodents such as the long-haired rat (''Rattus villosissimus''), plains rat (''Pseudomys australis''), the introduced house mouse (''Mus musculus''), and various dasyurid marsupials. In captivity the species will also take day‑old chicks.<ref name="Animal Species: Inland Taipan" />
Unlike many other highly venomous snakes, which often strike once and then retreat while the prey succumbs, the inland taipan typically employs a rapid, close‑quarters attack. It may deliver up to eight envenoming bites in a single attack,<ref name="Animal Species: Inland Taipan" /><ref name="Fierce Snake - profile" /> frequently snapping its jaws several times to inflict multiple puncture wounds.<ref name="same attack">Seymour, Jamie, [https://web.archive.org/web/20110210070452/http://natgeotv.com/uk/australias-most-deadly/videos/venom-deathmatch Venom deathmatch] The snake demonstrates striking multiple times (min 1:49) National Geographic Channel, Retrieved 17 April 2014.</ref><ref name="Animal Species: Inland Taipan" /> During this attack the snake commonly maintains physical contact with the prey, using its body to restrain the animal while repeatedly biting. This strategy injects large quantities of extremely toxic venom deeply into the tissues, causing almost immediate incapacitation and leaving the prey little opportunity to struggle or inflict injury on the snake.<ref name="biting it repeatedly">* Martin, Stella (January 2004). [http://www.wettropics.gov.au/site/user-assets/docs/80VeryVenomousBut.pdf Newsletter No. 80]. Environmental Protection Agency (Queensland). Retrieved 18 October 2013. * Clinical Toxinology Resources. [http://www.toxinology.com/fusebox.cfm?fuseaction=main.snakes.display&id=SN0520 "''Oxyuranus microlepidotus'' -General Details, Taxonomy and Biology, Venom, Clinical Effects, Treatment, First Aid, Antivenoms"]. University of Adelaide. Retrieved 14 October 2013. * Aussie Animals.[http://www.billabongsanctuary.com.au/aussie_animals/inland_taipan.html Inland Taipan (Oxyuranus microlepidotus)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019160203/http://www.billabongsanctuary.com.au/aussie_animals/inland_taipan.html|date=2013-10-19|df=dmy-all}}. Billabong Sanctuary. Retrieved 18 October 2013.</ref>
== Natural threats ==
The inland taipan has few natural predators as an adult, but juveniles are vulnerable. The mulga snake (''Pseudechis australis'') is resistant to the venom of many Australian snakes and has been documented preying on young inland taipans.<ref name="Animal Weapons: Episode 1">[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OzIzeFPCFWI&t=5m25s Animal Weapons: Episode 1 – Chemical Warfare / Inland Taipan (5m25s)]. Absolutely Wild Visuals Youtube channel, ([http://www.focalint.org/footage-and-content-gallery/directory/member/1104/absolutely-wild-visuals AWV stock footage library] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150701165556/http://www.focalint.org/footage-and-content-gallery/directory/member/1104/absolutely-wild-visuals |date=1 July 2015 }} / FOCAL International). Retrieved 18 October 2013.</ref> The large monitor lizard perentie (''Varanus giganteus'') shares much of the inland taipan's habitat and, once large enough, readily preys on venomous snakes, including taipans.<ref>Our Animals / Reptiles / Monitors. [http://www.reptilepark.com.au/animalprofile.asp?id=90Opens a new window Perentie – ''Varanus giganteus''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131121180620/http://www.reptilepark.com.au/animalprofile.asp?id=90Opens a new window |date=21 November 2013 }}. Australian Reptile Park. Retrieved 19 October 2013.</ref>
== Interaction with humans ==
Many experienced reptile keepers consider the inland taipan to be comparatively placid to handle, at least in controlled conditions,<ref name="Animal Species: Inland Taipan" /> although its potential to inflict a rapidly fatal bite means that extreme caution is always required.
In the wild, inland taipans are seldom encountered by the general public because of their remote distribution and their tendency to remain underground for much of the day. If a person approaches quietly without causing strong vibrations or noise, the snake may not perceive them as a threat and may remain motionless or attempt to retreat.<ref name="human presence">* South Australia arid lands natural resources management board. [http://www.saalnrm.sa.gov.au/Portals/8/Publications_Resources/Factsheets_Brochures/SAAL-Woma_Python_Inland_Taipan-FS-STD-122009.pdf Biodiversity studies, Student fact sheet] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120322103731/http://saalnrm.sa.gov.au/Portals/8/Publications_Resources/Factsheets_Brochures/SAAL-Woma_Python_Inland_Taipan-FS-STD-122009.pdf |date=2012-03-22 |df=dmy-all}}. Government of South Australia. Retrieved 15 October 2013. * Clinical Toxinology Resources. [http://www.toxinology.com/fusebox.cfm?fuseaction=main.snakes.display&id=SN0520 "''Oxyuranus microlepidotus'' -General Details, Taxonomy and Biology, Venom, Clinical Effects, Treatment, First Aid, Antivenoms"]. University of Adelaide. Retrieved 14 October 2013.</ref><ref>The Ten Deadliest Snakes in the World with Steve Irwin, ITV (1998) film clip. {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20080928051547/http://www.wildfilmhistory.org/film/310/clip/447/Lick+of+death.htmlOpens a new window "Lick of death"]}}. wildfilmhistory.org. Retrieved 15 October 2013.</ref><ref>Steve Backshall talks about his rare encounter with an inland taipan (19 May 2013) film clip. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=py4USk-Nd1gOpens a new window "YouTube Exclusive Steve Backshall on world's deadliest snake – Deadly 60 in Australia"]. BBC Earth (official YouTube channel). Retrieved 28 October 2013.</ref> Nevertheless, a safe distance must always be maintained because any bite is a medical emergency.
When threatened the inland taipan will usually attempt escape, but if it is cornered, provoked,<ref name="strike if provoked">* News (10 October 2013). [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FdxHnZ50XUk Street's Corner: Houdini Heir Tries To Escape World's Deadliest Snake]. KABB. (KABB "Fox San Antonio" official YouTube Channel). Retrieved 11 November 2013. * Steve Backshall (19 May 2013) film clip. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7N-ZlwETll0 The most venomous snake on earth! - Deadly 60 - BBC]. BBC Earth (official YouTube channel). Retrieved 14 November 2013.</ref> mishandled<ref name="mishandled"> * ABC News 24 (28 September 2012). [http://www.abc.net.au/news/2012-09-28/taipan-mystery/4285224 'Placid' taipan in safe hands]. (Quoting licensed reptile handler, [http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/resources/wildlifelicences/reptilehandlerlist.pdf Judith {Judy} Martin]). Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 13 November 2013. * (29 November 2011). [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o_jBFcFVQZk Snake Bite], Raymond Hoser (Official YouTube channel). Retrieved 31 March 2014.</ref> or prevented from fleeing,<ref name="CrocodileHunter">{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B-svkiOeZXo&t=458s |title=The Ten Deadliest Snakes in the World |date=30 August 2001 |last=Irwin |first=Steve |type=Television production |publisher=Discovery Channel}}</ref> it will adopt a characteristic threat posture in which the anterior body is raised in a tight, low S‑shaped curve with the head oriented towards the source of danger. If the warning is ignored it may strike with great speed and precision, and it envenoms in the vast majority of bites.<ref name="Animal Species: Inland Taipan" /><ref name="CrocodileHunter" /><ref name="toxinology.com">Clinical Toxinology Resources. [http://www.toxinology.com/fusebox.cfm?fuseaction=main.snakes.display&id=SN0520 "''Oxyuranus microlepidotus'' -General Details, Taxonomy and Biology, Venom, Clinical Effects, Treatment, First Aid, Antivenoms"]. University of Adelaide. Retrieved 14 October 2013.</ref><ref name="Dr Geoff Isbister">ABC News 24 (27 September 2012). [http://www.abc.net.au/news/2012-09-27/hunter-teen-bitten-by-deadly-snake/4282944 Teen hospitalised after bite from deadly Taipan]. (Quoting toxicologist, [https://research.calvarymater.org.au/meet-our-researchers/geoff-isbister.html Dr Geoff Isbister] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201026215408/https://research.calvarymater.org.au/meet-our-researchers/geoff-isbister.html |date=26 October 2020 }}). Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 13 November 2013.</ref>
Clinical toxicologist, venom researcher and herpetologist Scott A. Weinstein and colleagues have noted that only a small number of inland taipan bites have been documented in the medical literature. In an analysis published in ''Toxicon'' they reported 11 well‑documented cases of envenoming, only two of which were inflicted by wild snakes. They emphasised that, when indicated, early administration of adequate antivenom, combined with rapid pressure‑immobilisation first aid and efficient retrieval of victims from remote locations (preferably by well‑equipped aircraft), is central to achieving favourable outcomes.<ref name="Weinstein 15–18">{{Cite journal |last1=Weinstein |first1=Scott A. |last2=Everest |first2=Evan |last3=Purdell-Lewis |first3=Jeremy |last4=Harrison |first4=Michael |last5=Tavender |first5=Fiona |last6=Alfred |first6=Sam |last7=Marrack |first7=Liz |last8=Davenport-Klunder |first8=Chris |last9=Wearn |first9=Neralie |last10=White |first10=Julian |date=2017-10-01 |title=Neurotoxicity with persistent unilateral ophthalmoplegia from envenoming by a wild inland taipan (Oxyuranus microlepidotus, Elapidae) in remote outback South Australia |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0041010117302118 |journal=Toxicon |language=en |volume=137 |pages=15–18 |doi=10.1016/j.toxicon.2017.07.006 |pmid=28694006 |bibcode=2017Txcn..137...15W |issn=0041-0101|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
=== Snakebite victims ===
Most confirmed inland taipan bites have involved herpetologists, professional snake handlers, venom extractors or zoo keepers. Since the introduction of specific taipan antivenom, no deaths have been conclusively attributed to inland taipan bites, although recovery can be prolonged and complications may be severe.<ref name="INCHEM" /><ref name="billabongsanctuary.com.au" /><ref name="Barrett2003">{{cite journal |doi=10.1046/j.1442-2026.2003.00509.x |author1=Barrett, Robyn |author2=Little, Mark |date=October–December 2003 |title=Five years of snake envenoming in far north Queensland |journal=Emergency Medicine |volume=15 |issue=5–6 |pages=500–510|pmid=14992068}}</ref>
A notable early case of survival without antivenom was recorded in 1967. On 15 September a tour guide was bitten while attempting to capture a snake for a tour group in the Channel Country. He was transported to Broken Hill Hospital and subsequently to Queen Elizabeth Hospital in Adelaide. Because he reported a severe allergy to horse serum and believed he had been bitten by a brown snake, antivenom was not administered. He was hospitalised for four weeks with a clinical picture likened to severe myasthenia gravis. The snake itself was initially identified by Eric Worrell as a coastal taipan,<ref name="Trinca1969">{{cite journal |last1=Trinca |first1=John C. |title=Report of recovery from taipan bite |journal=Medical Journal of Australia |date=1969 |volume=1 |issue=10 |pages=514–516 |doi=10.5694/j.1326-5377.1969.tb92255.x|pmid=4888073|s2cid=222040045 }}</ref> but following the species’ rediscovery it was recognised as an inland taipan.<ref name="Rediscovery" />
In 1984 Australian toxicologist Peter Mirtschin was bitten by a three‑week‑old inland taipan and became the first recorded patient to receive taipan antivenom for this species.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mirtschin |first1=Peter J. |last2=Crowe |first2=George R. |last3=Thomas |first3=Martyn W. |date=December 1984 |title=Envenomation by the inland taipan, ''Oxyuranus microlepidotus'' |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.5694/j.1326-5377.1984.tb132968.xOpens a new window |journal=Medical Journal of Australia |language=en |volume=141 |issue=12–13 |pages=850–851 |doi=10.5694/j.1326-5377.1984.tb132968.x |pmid=6503793 |s2cid=38785243 |issn=0025-729X |url-access=subscription }}</ref>
In September 2012 a teenage boy in Kurri Kurri, New South Wales, more than {{convert|1000|km}} from the species’ natural range, was bitten on the finger by an inland taipan being kept illegally in captivity. The victim applied a compression bandage promptly and was treated with polyvalent antivenom at the local hospital, surviving without major sequelae.<ref name="youtube.com">Breakfast News Program (27 September 2012 [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jNt7qmkVKpM A teenage boy has survived being bitten by the world's most venomous snake.]. Sunrise (Australian TV program) (official Youtube channel). Retrieved 16 October 2013.</ref><ref>Proudman, Dan (26 September 2012). [https://www.newcastleherald.com.au/story/361747/video-detectives-investigate-after-teen-bitten-by-deadly-taipan/Opens a new window VIDEO: Detectives investigate after teen bitten by deadly taipan]. ''The Newcastle Herald''. Retrieved 16 October 2013.</ref><ref>Petersen, Freya (27 September 2012). [http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/science/wildlife-news/120926/australia-sydney-snake-bite-worlds-deadliest-snake-inland-taipan-neurotoxin-antivenomOpens a new window Australia: Sydney teenager survives bite by world's deadliest snake, the inland taipan]. ''GlobalPost''. Retrieved 16 October 2013.</ref>
In December 2013 reptile handler Scott Grant was bitten while demonstrating an inland taipan at a public event in Portland, Victoria. He applied a bandage and sought urgent medical care. He experienced convulsions and was airlifted in a serious condition to Royal Melbourne Hospital, where he was stabilised and ultimately recovered. Only a small amount of venom appears to have been injected, and some of his early symptoms were attributed to an allergic reaction, likely related to his history of multiple previous snake bites.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.theage.com.au/victoria/picnicker-in-serious-condition-after-bite-by-rare-toxic-taipan-20131202-2ym4m.htmlOpens a new window |title=Picnicker in serious condition after bite by rare toxic taipan |work=The Age |date=2 December 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.spec.com.au/blog/2013/12/04/taipan-handler-bitten-during-display/Opens a new window |title=Taipan handler bitten during display |access-date=31 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131212045427/http://www.spec.com.au/blog/2013/12/04/taipan-handler-bitten-during-display/Opens a new window |archive-date=12 December 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.standard.net.au/story/1952220/snake-handler-at-heightened-risk/?cs=73Opens a new window |title=Snake handler at heightened risk |author=Everard Himmelreich |date=4 December 2013 |work=The Standard}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.standard.net.au/story/1949091/no-hard-feelings-for-taipan-bite-survivor/?cs=383Opens a new window |title=No hard feelings for Taipan bite survivor |author=Everard Himmelreich |date=3 December 2013 |work=The Standard}}</ref>
Weinstein ''et al.'' (2017) described a case in which a field herpetologist was bitten while attempting to photograph an approximately {{convert|1.5|m|ft}} inland taipan in remote outback South Australia. The victim developed drowsiness, blurred vision progressing to ptosis, followed by dysphagia and dysarthria. He received one vial of polyvalent antivenom followed by two vials of monovalent taipan antivenom, required intubation and three days of intensive care, and experienced a unilateral ophthalmoplegia that persisted for about one week before resolving.<ref name="Weinstein 15–18" />
Wildlife presenter Rob Bredl has reported that his father, Joe Bredl, was bitten by an inland taipan in a remote area of South Australia and barely survived, and that a colleague, John Robinson, suffered significant muscle and cardiac damage after a bite sustained while cleaning a captive inland taipan's enclosure on the Sunshine Coast, Queensland, although both survived, in Robinson’s case reportedly without antivenom.<ref name="Rob Bredl">Rob Bredl website. [https://web.archive.org/web/20071216111605/http://www.barefootbushman.com/ptaipan.htm The Taipans]. (archived) barefootbushman.com. Retrieved 15 November 2013.</ref>
== Venom ==
The average venom yield per bite of an adult inland taipan has been estimated at about 44 mg, with a recorded maximum of 110 mg. For comparison, typical yields for the Indian cobra (''Naja naja'') are around 169 mg (maximum 610 mg), and for the North American eastern diamondback rattlesnake (''Crotalus adamanteus'') about 410 mg (maximum 848 mg).<ref name="avru.org">The Australian venom research unit (25 August 2007). [https://web.archive.org/web/20150111055930/http://www.avru.org/?q=general%2Fgeneral_mostvenom.html "Which snakes are the most venomous?"] (Archived). University of Melbourne. Retrieved 14 October 2013.</ref>
The median lethal dose (LD<sub>50</sub>) of inland taipan venom in mice, administered subcutaneously – the route most relevant to typical snake bites – is approximately 0.025 mg/kg,<ref name="INCHEM" /><ref name="avru.org" /> or as low as 0.01 mg/kg when dissolved in bovine serum albumin.<ref name="INCHEM" /><ref name="Hodgson et al 2007">{{cite journal|vauthors=Hodgson WC, Dal Belo CA, Rowan EG |pmid=17313963 |title=The neuromuscular activity of paradoxin: a presynaptic neurotoxin from the venom of the inland taipan (''Oxyuranus microlepidotus'')|quote=The inland taipan is the world's most venomous snake |year=2007 |volume=52 |issue=5 |pages=1229–36 |doi=10.1016/j.neuropharm.2007.01.002 |journal=Neuropharmacology|s2cid=19532337 }}</ref> This is markedly lower (i.e. more toxic) than values reported for many other dangerously venomous snakes, including the beaked sea snake (''Enhydrina schistosa''; 0.164 mg/kg), Indian cobra (0.565 mg/kg) and eastern diamondback rattlesnake (11.4 mg/kg).<ref name="avru.org" /> Although the inland taipan’s total venom yield is smaller than that of the coastal taipan, its venom is almost four times as toxic on a weight‑for‑weight basis.<ref name="World's Deadliest Snakes">* Venomous Snakes. [http://www.reptilegardens.com/reptiles/snakes/venomous/worlds-deadliest-snakes.php World's Deadliest Snakes – Ranking scale] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170508080325/http://www.reptilegardens.com/reptiles/snakes/venomous/worlds-deadliest-snakes.php |date=8 May 2017 }}. Reptile Gardens. Retrieved 18 October 2013. * Walls, Jerry G. [http://www.reptilesmagazine.com/Snakes/Wild-Snakes/The-Worlds-Deadliest-Snakes/ Deadly Snakes: What are the world's most deadly venomous snakes?]. Reptiles (magazine). Retrieved 5 November 2013. * National Geographic Channel, (Dangerous Encounters with Brady Barr), video clip. [http://www.reptilegardens.com/about-us/media-attention.php#movie-clips Deadliest Snakes / Inland Taipan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170412033339/http://www.reptilegardens.com/about-us/media-attention.php#movie-clips |date=12 April 2017 }} "in Deadliest Snakes, Brady approaches seven of the world's most dangerous and venomous snakes to determine which snake is the deadliest. He will scientifically investigate each species of snake by grading them on five basic criteria: size, volume and toxicity of venom, personality, and number of human deaths." Reptile Gardens (video host). Retrieved 6 November 2013.</ref><ref name="Newsletter No.80">Martin, Stella (January 2004). [http://www.wettropics.gov.au/site/user-assets/docs/80VeryVenomousBut.pdf Newsletter No. 80]. Environmental Protection Agency (Queensland). Retrieved 18 October 2013.</ref> A single bite is estimated to contain enough venom to kill at least 100 adult humans.
Intravenous, intraperitoneal and intramuscular LD<sub>50</sub> values for inland taipan venom have not been systematically determined in the published literature.<ref name="Fry, Bryan, Deputy Director, Australian Venom Research Unit, University of Melbourne">Fry, Bryan, Deputy Director, Australian Venom Research Unit, University of Melbourne (9 March 2002). [https://web.archive.org/web/20120413182323/http://www.venomdoc.com/LD50/LD50men.html "Snakes Venom LD<sub>50</sub> – list of the available data and sorted by route of injection "]. venomdoc.com. (archived). Retrieved 14 October 2013.</ref>
For many years Belcher's sea snake (''Hydrophis belcheri'') was popularly but erroneously described as the most venomous snake, largely because toxicity data from different modes of administration were conflated in a widely read book, ''Snakes in Question: The Smithsonian Answer Book'' (1996). Venom researcher Bryan Grieg Fry has pointed out that LD<sub>50</sub> values can only be meaningfully compared when determined using the same route of administration; otherwise comparisons are invalid.<ref name="Dr. Bryan Grieg Fry - Interview">Inland Taipan Venom vs. Sea Snakes Venom (most notable Belcher's sea snake) * Oakley, Cecily (2011). [http://science.org.au/scientists/interviews/f/fry.html Interview with Associate Professor Bryan Fry Biochemist and molecular biologist] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022215756/http://science.org.au/scientists/interviews/f/fry.html |date=2013-10-22 |df=dmy-all}}. "...For my PhD, I worked on the inland taipan, which is the world's most venomous snake...". Australian Academy of Science. Retrieved 14 October 2013. * Fry, Brian site admin (10 April 2005) [http://www.venomdoc.com/forums/viewtopic.php?t=1212&postdays=0&postorder=asc&highlight=inland+taipan&start=0 Most Venomous] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017041923/http://www.venomdoc.com/forums/viewtopic.php?t=1212&postdays=0&postorder=asc&highlight=inland+taipan&start=0 |date=2014-10-17 |df=dmy-all}}, Question: " ...I was talking to another herpatolagist and he said the hook nosed sea snake was the most venomous of all" Fry Answers: "The hook nosed myth was due to a fundamental error in a book called 'Snakes in question'. In there, all the toxicity testing results were lumped in together, regardless of the mode of testing (e.g. subcutaneous vs. intramuscular vs intravenous vs intraperitoneal). As the mode can influence the relative number, venoms can only be compared within a mode. Otherwise, its apples and rocks." Venomdoc forums. Retrieved 25 February 2015. * kingsnake.com September Guest Chatter (16 September 2006).[http://www.connectedbypets.com/articles/BGF.html Q&A with Dr. Bryan Grieg Fry, Deputy Director, Australian Venom Research Unit, University of Melbourne] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121015165718/http://www.connectedbypets.com/articles/BGF.html |date=2012-10-15 |df=dmy-all}}. "Q: In retrospect to the LD50 charts, what do you personally feel is the hottest snake, in regards to potency, defensiveness, means of injection, etc.? A: It is the inland taipan (''Oxyuranus microlepidotus''). Not, as is popularised, any of the sea snakes." connectedbypets.com. Retrieved 14 October 2013. * Garden of Eden Exotics (2 May 2012) [http://nyexotics.blogspot.co.il/2012/05/dr-bryan-grieg-fry-venom-useless-pickup.html Dr. Bryan Grieg Fry – Interview] "...The inland taipan (''Oxyuranus microlepidotus'') is far and away the most toxic, much more so than even sea snakes." nyexotics.blogspot.com. Retrieved 14 October 2013.</ref> Belcher's sea snake venom, tested intramuscularly, has reported LD<sub>50</sub> values of 0.24 mg/kg<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=4818649 |year=1974 |last1=Tamiya |first1=N |last2=Puffer |first2=H |title=Lethality of sea snake venoms |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=85–7 |journal=Toxicon |doi=10.1016/0041-0101(74)90104-4 |bibcode=1974Txcn...12...85T }}</ref> and 0.155 mg/kg,<ref name="Fry, Bryan, Deputy Director, Australian Venom Research Unit, University of Melbourne" /> less toxic than several other sea snake venoms, including that of the olive sea snake (''Aipysurus laevis''; 0.09 mg/kg) and especially the black‑banded robust sea snake (''Hydrophis melanosoma''; 0.082 mg/kg intramuscularly). The latter species has also been tested subcutaneously (0.111 mg/kg), a value comparable to that of the coastal taipan and still more than four times less toxic than inland taipan venom. Based on subcutaneous LD<sub>50</sub> values, Dubois' sea snake (''Aipysurus duboisii'') currently ranks as the most toxic of the sea snakes (0.044 mg/kg), yet its venom remains almost half as lethal as that of the inland taipan.<ref name="Fry, Bryan, Deputy Director, Australian Venom Research Unit, University of Melbourne" />
Experimental work indicates that the venoms of juvenile and adult inland taipans are similar in composition and toxicity; juvenile venom is not significantly weaker than adult venom.<ref name="Animal Weapons: Episode 1" /><ref>{{cite journal |pmid=8470140 |year=1993 |last1=Tan |first1=NH |last2=Ponnudurai |first2=G |last3=Mirtschin |first3=PJ |title=A comparative study of the biological properties of venoms from juvenile and adult inland taipan (''Oxyuranus microlepidotus'') snake venoms |volume=31 |issue=3 |pages=363–7 |journal=Toxicon |doi=10.1016/0041-0101(93)90155-C |bibcode=1993Txcn...31..363T }}</ref>
The venom of the inland taipan contains a complex mixture of toxins, including:<ref name="toxinology.com" />
potent neurotoxins: ** Presynaptic beta‑neurotoxins such as paradoxin (PDX),<ref name="Hodgson et al 2007" /> ** Postsynaptic neurotoxins such as oxylepitoxin-1,<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.peptides.2006.06.003 |title=Oxylepitoxin‑1, a reversible neurotoxin from the venom of the inland taipan (''Oxyuranus microlepidotus'') |year=2006 |last1=Clarke |first1=Carol |last2=Kuruppu |first2=Sanjaya |last3=Reeve |first3=Shane |last4=Smith |first4=A. Ian |last5=Hodgson |first5=Wayne C. |journal=Peptides |volume=27 |issue=11 |pages=2655–2660 |pmid=16879898 |s2cid=44544394 }}</ref> alpha-oxytoxin 1 and alpha-scutoxin 1,<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.neuro.2009.12.009 |title=Variations in the pharmacological profile of post‑synaptic neurotoxins isolated from the venoms of the Papuan (''Oxyuranus scutellatus canni'') and coastal (''Oxyuranus scutellatus scutellatus'') taipans |year=2010 |last1=Kornhauser |first1=Rachelle |last2=Hart |first2=Andrew J. |last3=Reeve |first3=Shane |last4=Smith |first4=A. Ian |last5=Fry |first5=Bryan G. |last6=Hodgson |first6=Wayne C. |journal=NeuroToxicology |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=239–243 |pmid=20036687 |bibcode=2010NeuTx..31..239K }}</ref> Hemotoxins with strong procoagulant activity, affecting blood clotting; Myotoxins that damage muscle tissue; possibly nephrotoxins, affecting the kidneys; possibly haemorrhagins, which damage the vascular endothelium;<ref>Clinical Toxinology Resources. [http://www.toxinology.com/fusebox.cfm?staticaction=snakes/ns-venmed43.htmOpens a new window Haemorrhagins]. University of Adelaide. Retrieved 18 October 2013.</ref> the enzyme hyaluronidase, which facilitates rapid spread of venom through tissues.<ref name="Animal Species: Inland Taipan" /> Paradoxin (PDX) is considered to be among the most potent beta‑neurotoxins yet described; it interferes with the release of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine from nerve endings, leading to neuromuscular blockade.<ref name="Hodgson et al 2007" />
Ronelle Welton of James Cook University has noted that, despite their medical importance, the venoms of ''Oxyuranus'' species remain relatively understudied at the molecular level. As of 2005 the amino‑acid sequences of only seven inland taipan venom proteins had been deposited in the SWISS‑PROT database.<ref name="Welton, Ronelle Ellen" />
=== Clinical effects ===
Untreated inland taipan bites have a very high mortality rate:<ref name="australianprescriber.com">Geoffrey K Isbister (2006). {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20061103065249/http://www.australianprescriber.com/magazine/29/5/125/9/ "Snake bite: a current approach to management"]}}. Australian Prescriber. Retrieved 14 October 2013.</ref>
severe envenoming is likely after a significant bite; the rate of systemic envenoming is estimated at more than 80%; the untreated case fatality rate is also thought to exceed 80%.<ref name="toxinology.com" /> Clinically, envenoming can produce a complex, multi‑system picture in which neurotoxic effects usually dominate but may be accompanied by coagulopathy, rhabdomyolysis and acute kidney injury.<ref name="ReferenceA">Clinical Toxinology Resources. [http://toxicology.ucsd.edu/Snakebite%20Protocols/Oxyura~1.htm Snakebite Protocols – ''Oxyuranus microlepidotus''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810222306/http://toxicology.ucsd.edu/Snakebite%20Protocols/Oxyura~1.htm |date=10 August 2018 }}. University of Adelaide. Retrieved 18 October 2013.</ref> Early local symptoms include pain at the bite site, often followed by nonspecific systemic features such as headache, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhoea, dizziness, collapse or convulsions. Major complications then develop, including progressive neurotoxicity, coagulopathy, muscle breakdown and renal impairment, which without treatment can culminate in death.<ref name="toxinology.com" /><ref name="australianprescriber.com" />
Presynaptic neurotoxins in the venom cause paralysis by disrupting neurotransmitter release at the nerve terminal. Their effects are slow in onset, can take days to resolve and are not readily reversed even with antivenom. Postsynaptic neurotoxins, by contrast, act more rapidly by competitively blocking acetylcholine receptors at the neuromuscular junction, and their effects are generally more amenable to reversal by timely antivenom administration.<ref name="Clinical Toxinology Resources 2013">Clinical Toxinology Resources. [http://www.toxinology.com/about/taipan_snake_snakebite.html Australian Taipan Snakes – Venom of Taipan snakes]. University of Adelaide. Retrieved 16 October 2013.</ref> Clinically, patients often develop a descending flaccid paralysis: early ptosis is followed by facial weakness (dysarthria), bulbar involvement, dyspnoea and ultimately respiratory paralysis and peripheral weakness.<ref name="Welton, Ronelle Ellen" /><ref name="australianprescriber.com" />
Because neurotoxic effects may progress rapidly, severe envenoming can be fatal within about 45 minutes in extreme cases, although survival times are usually longer and depend on multiple factors including venom dose, site of bite and availability of treatment.<ref name="smh.com.au">Gardiner, Stephanie (27 September 2012). [http://www.smh.com.au/nsw/mystery-over-boy-bitten-by-worlds-most-venomous-snake-20120927-26may.html "Mystery over boy bitten by world's most venomous snake"]. (Quoting Julie Mendezona, Head keeper of Reptiles and Spiders, Australian Reptile Park) The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 14 October 2013.</ref><ref name="theaustralian.com.au">AFP (27 September 2012). [http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/nation/teenager-bitten-by-inland-taipan-in-hunter-valley/story-e6frg6nf-1226482315063 "Teenager bitten by inland taipan in Hunter Valley"]. ''The Australian''. Retrieved 14 October 2013.</ref> Once advanced general or respiratory paralysis has developed it may be difficult to reverse even with large doses of antivenom; prolonged intubation and mechanical ventilation—sometimes for a week or more—may be required. Early recognition of neurotoxic signs and prompt administration of adequate antivenom are therefore critical.<ref name="ReferenceA" />
Coagulopathy is caused by powerful procoagulant toxins that activate prothrombin, consuming major clotting factors including fibrinogen and resulting in defibrination and non‑clottable blood. Patients are thereby at increased risk of significant external bleeding from the bite site and potentially life‑threatening internal haemorrhage, particularly intracranial bleeding. Normalisation of coagulation parameters may take many hours even after circulating venom has been neutralised.<ref name="australianprescriber.com" /> Taipan procoagulants are among the most potent known from any snake venom,<ref name="Clinical Toxinology Resources 2013" /> although some cases of inland taipan envenoming have demonstrated only mild coagulopathy.<ref name="Welton, Ronelle Ellen" />
No specific nephrotoxins have yet been isolated from inland taipan venom, but acute kidney injury is a recognised complication, often secondary to severe rhabdomyolysis. Myotoxins in the venom cause extensive muscle breakdown (myolysis), releasing myoglobin into the bloodstream; this pigment is excreted in the urine (myoglobinuria), which may appear reddish‑brown, and can severely damage renal tubules.<ref name="Clinical Toxinology Resources 2013" /><ref name="abc.net.au">Shorter, Damon. [http://www.abc.net.au/science/slab/shorter/story.htm Great Australian bites – Three of the worst]. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 16 October 2013.</ref>
Common proximate causes of death in untreated or inadequately treated bites include:<ref name="INCHEM" />
primary or secondary paralysis (e.g. respiratory failure, sometimes complicated by pneumonia), coagulopathy and haemorrhage (e.g. cerebral haemorrhage), kidney failure and associated complications such as sepsis, anaphylaxis in previously sensitised individuals, cardiac complications, which are usually secondary to other systemic effects. === Antivenom ===
Until 1955 the only snake antivenom widely available in Australia was monovalent tiger snake (''Notechis'') antivenom, which provided partial cross‑protection against bites from several other species. Subsequently additional specific antivenoms were developed, including one for the coastal taipan, followed by a polyvalent antivenom intended for use when the biting species is unknown.
The coastal taipan antivenom, commonly referred to simply as "taipan antivenom",<ref name="venomsupplies.com">[http://www.venomsupplies.com/inland-taipan/ Inland Taipan ''Oxyuranus microlepidotus''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180708151834/http://www.venomsupplies.com/inland-taipan/ |date=8 July 2018 }}. venomsupplies.com. Retrieved 18 October 2013.</ref> is also effective against inland taipan venom, although some evidence suggests that it may be somewhat less effective in inland taipan cases than in bites from coastal taipans, possibly because of differences in venom composition.<ref name="Welton, Ronelle Ellen" />
Taipan antivenom used in Australia is produced through a long‑running antivenom programme involving the Australian Reptile Park, whose staff collect venom from captive snakes, and Commonwealth Serum Laboratories in Melbourne, which purifies and manufactures the equine‑derived antivenom for clinical use.<ref>Anti‑Venom Program. [http://www.reptilepark.com.au/about-us/history/park-founder-eric-worrel/antivenom-program/Opens a new window Involvement with the Anti‑Venom Program] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131121180324/http://www.reptilepark.com.au/about-us/history/park-founder-eric-worrel/antivenom-program/Opens a new window |date=21 November 2013 }}. Australian Reptile Park. Retrieved 18 October 2013.</ref>
== References == {{Reflist}}
== Further reading == * Boulenger GA (1896). ''Catalogue of the Snakes in the British Museum (Natural History). Volume III., Containing the Colubridæ (Opisthoglyphæ and Proteroglyphæ),...'' London: Trustees of the British Museum (Taylor and Francis, printers). xiv + 727 pp. + Plates I–XXV. (''Pseudechis microlepidotus'' and ''P. ferox'', p. 332). * McCoy F (1879). ''Natural History of Victoria. Prodromus of the Zoology of Victoria; or, Figures and Descriptions of the Living Species of All Classes of the Victorian Indigenous Animals. Decade III.'' London: G. Robertson (J. Ferres, government printer, Melbourne). 50 pp. + Plates 21–30. (''Diemenia microlepidota'', new species, pp. 12–13 + Plate 23, figures 2–3).
== External links == {{Wikispecies-inline|Oxyuranus microlepidotus|''Oxyuranus microlepidotus''}} {{Commons category-inline|Oxyuranus microlepidotus|''Oxyuranus microlepidotus''}} * [http://www.inchem.org/documents/pims/animal/taipan.htmOpens a new window International Programme on Chemical Safety, ''Oxyuranus microlepidotus'': extended review] * [https://researchonline.jcu.edu.au/11938/4/02Chapters_1-3.pdfOpens a new window James Cook University, ''Proteomic and genomic characterisation of venom proteins from Oxyuranus species'' (extended review)] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090929220811/http://www.reptilepark.com.au/animals.asp?catID=16&ID=112Opens a new window Australian Reptile Park, fierce snake fact file] * [http://www.australiazoo.com.au/our-animals/reptiles/venomous-snakes/fierce-snake/Opens a new window Australia Zoo, fierce snake fact file] * {{YouTube|OzIzeFPCFWI|Animal Weapons: Episode 1 – Chemical Warfare}} (ContentMint; source: [http://www.focalint.org/footage-and-content-gallery/directory/member/1104/absolutely-wild-visualsOpens a new window Absolutely Wild Visuals] stock footage library)
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Category:Oxyuranus Category:Reptiles of Queensland Category:Reptiles described in 1879 Category:Reptiles of South Australia Category:Snakes of Australia