Somatotype and constitutional psychology

{{Short description|Taxonomy to categorize human physiques}} {{hatnote group| {{redirect|Endomorph|the mathematical concept|Endomorphism}} {{redirect|Mesomorph|the state of matter|Mesophase}} }} {{Multiple issues| {{Undue weight|date=November 2023}} {{Too few opinions|date=November 2023}} }} '''Somatotype''' is a theory proposed in the 1940s by the American psychologist William Herbert Sheldon to categorize the human physique according to the relative contribution of three fundamental elements which he termed ''somatotypes'', classified by him as ''ectomorphic'', ''mesomorphic'', and ''endomorphic''. He created these terms borrowing from the three germ layers of embryonic development: The endoderm (which develops into the digestive tract), the mesoderm (which becomes muscle, heart, and blood vessels) and the ectoderm (which forms the skin and nervous system).<ref name=Hollin>{{cite book |last=Hollin |first=Clive R. |date=2012 |title=Psychology and Crime: An introduction to criminological psychology |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0415497039|page=59}}</ref> Later variations of these categories, developed by his original research assistant Barbara Heath, and later by Lindsay Carter and Rob Rempel, are used by academics today.<ref name= "Vertinsky2007"/><ref name="Roeckelein1998"/>

'''Constitutional psychology''' is a theory developed by Sheldon in the 1940s, which attempted to associate his somatotype classifications with human temperament types.<ref name="Rafter2008">{{cite journal |last=Rafter |first=N. |title= Somatotyping, antimodernism, and the production of criminological knowledge |journal= Criminology |volume= 45 |issue= 4 |year= 2008 |pages= 805–33 |doi= 10.1111/j.1745-9125.2007.00092.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title = The Penguin Dictionary of Psychology |chapter = Constitutional Theory |date = 2009 |publisher = Penguin Books |isbn = 9780141030241 |via=Credo Reference}}</ref> The foundation of these ideas originated with Francis Galton and eugenics.<ref name="Vertinsky2007">{{cite journal |last= Vertinsky |first= P. |year= 2007 |journal= Canadian Bulletin of Medical History |volume= 24 |issue= 2 |pages= 291–316 |title= Physique as destiny: William H. Sheldon, Barbara Honeyman Heath, and the struggle for hegemony in the science of somatotyping |pmid= 18447308 |doi= 10.3138/cbmh.24.2.291 |doi-access= free }}</ref> Sheldon and Earnest Hooton were seen as leaders of a school of thought, popular in anthropology at the time, which held that the size and shape of a person's body indicated intelligence, moral worth and future achievement.<ref name= "Vertinsky2007"/>

In his 1954 book, ''Atlas of Men'', Sheldon categorized all possible body types according to a scale ranging from 1 to 7 for each of the three ''somatotypes'', where the pure ''endomorph'' is 7–1–1, the pure ''mesomorph'' 1–7–1 and the pure ''ectomorph'' scores 1–1–7.<ref name=":0">{{cite magazine |last=Mull |first=Amanda |date=2018-11-06 |title=Americans can't escape long-disproven body stereotypes |magazine=The Atlantic |lang=en-US |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2018/11/body-stereotypes-personality-debunked-eugenics/575041/ |access-date=2018-12-31}}</ref><ref name="Sheldon1954">{{cite book |last= Sheldon |first= W.H. |author-link= William Herbert Sheldon |year= 1954 |title= Atlas of Men: A guide for somatotyping the adult male at all ages |location=New York |publisher= Harper}}</ref><ref name="Kamlesh2011">{{cite book |last= Kamlesh |first= M.L. |year= 2011 |title= Psychology in the Physical Education and Sport |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=up-Bc_E_w9UC&pg=PT508 |publisher= Pinnacle Technology |isbn= 9781618202482 |chapter= Ch. 15: Personality and sport § Sheldon's constitutional typology }}{{Dead link|date=March 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> From type number, an individual's mental characteristics could supposedly be predicted.<ref name="Sheldon1954"/> In a late version of a pseudoscientific thread within criminology in which criminality is claimed to be an innate characteristic that can be recognized through particular physiognomic markers (as in Cesare Lombroso's theory of phrenology), Sheldon contended that criminals tended to be 'mesomorphic'.<ref name="ArrigoBersot2014">{{cite book |last1=di Cristina |first1=Bruce |last2=Gottschalk |first2=Martin |last3=Mayzer |first3=Roni |editor1=Bruce Arrigo |editor2=Heather Bersot |year=2014 |title=The Routledge Handbook of International Crime and Justice Studies |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-86850-4 |pages=13–15 |chapter=Four currents of criminological thought |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8WptAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA15}}</ref> The system of somatotyping is still in use in the fields of physical education<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kathirgamam |first1=Vijayakumar |last2=Ambike |first2=Mandar |last3=Bokan |first3=Raju |last4=Bharambe |first4=Vaishaly |last5=Prasad |first5=Arun |date=2020-04-15 |title=Analyzing the effects of exercise prescribed based on health-related fitness assessment among different somatotypes |url=https://www.jhsci.ba/ojs/index.php/jhsci/article/view/876 |journal=Journal of Health Sciences |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=83–89 |doi=10.17532/jhsci.2020.876 |s2cid=218816659 |issn=1986-8049|doi-access=free }}</ref> and cosmetology.

==The three types== thumb|Comparison of Sheldon's body types

Sheldon's "somatotypes" and their associated physical and psychological traits were characterized as follows:<ref name="Roeckelein1998">{{cite book |last=Roeckelein |first=Jon E. |year=1998 |chapter=Sheldon's type theory |title=Dictionary of Theories, Laws, and Concepts in Psychology |pages=427–428 |publisher=Greenwood |isbn=9780313304606 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6mu3DLkyGfUC&pg=PA427}}</ref><ref name="Kamlesh2011"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Timmermans |first1=Floyd |last2=Jansen |first2=Britt |last3=Mokken |first3=Sterre |last4=Heer |first4=Merel |last5=Veen |first5=Kevin |last6=Bouman |first6=Mark-Bram |last7=Mullender |first7=Margriet |last8=Grift |first8=Tim |date=2021-02-17 |title=The ideal location of the male nipple-areolar complex: A pinpointing algorithm |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/349394524|journal=International Journal of Transgender Health |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=403–411 |doi=10.1080/26895269.2021.1884926 |pmid=37818394 |s2cid=233928744|doi-access=free |pmc=10561627 |hdl=1765/135046 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" ! Somatotype ! Physical traits ! Psychological traits ! Notes |- style="vertical-align:top" | '''Ectomorphic''' | characterized as skinny, usually tall with low testosterone levels, and having difficulty gaining weight and muscle mass | described as intelligent, gentle and calm, but self-conscious, introverted and anxious | {{nowrap|<ref name="Roeckelein1998"/><ref name=":0"/><ref name="Kamlesh2011"/><ref> {{cite web |title=What is your body type? |date=2014-04-24 |language=en |url=https://www.bodybuilding.com/fun/becker3-results.html |access-date=2018-12-31 }} </ref>}} |- style="vertical-align:top" | '''Mesomorphic''' | characterized as naturally hard and strong, with even weight distribution, muscular, thick-skinned, and as having good posture with narrow waist | described as competitive, extroverted, and tough | {{nowrap| <ref name="Roeckelein1998"/><ref name=":0"/><ref name="Kamlesh2011"/> }} |- style="vertical-align:top" | '''Endomorphic''' | characterized as fat, usually short, and having difficulty losing weight | described as outgoing, friendly, happy and laid-back, but also lazy and selfish | {{nowrap| <ref name="Roeckelein1998"/><ref name=":0"/><ref name="Kamlesh2011"/> }} |}

===Stereotyping=== There may be some evidence that different physiques carry cultural stereotypes, as some cultures are more prone to certain physiques. According to one study endomorphs are likely to be perceived as slow, sloppy, and lazy. Mesomorphs, in contrast, are typically stereotyped as popular and hardworking, whereas ectomorphs are often viewed as intelligent yet fearful.<ref> {{cite journal |last1=Ryckman |first1=R. M. |last2=Robbins |first2=M. A. |last3=Kaczor |first3=L. M. |last4=Gold |first4=J. A. |year=1989 |title=Male and female raters' stereotyping of male and female physiques |journal=Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=244–251 |doi=10.1177/0146167289152011 |s2cid=145753602 }} </ref>

==Heath–Carter formula== Sheldon's physical taxonomy is still in use, particularly the Heath–Carter variant of the methodology.<ref>{{cite book |title= Anthropometrica: A Textbook of Body Measurement for Sports and Health Courses |first1= Kevin |last1= Norton |first2= Tim |last2= Olds |publisher= Australian Sports Commission; UNSW Press |year= 1996 |isbn= 978-0868402239}}</ref> This formulaic approach utilises an individual's body mass (kg), height (cm), upper arm circumference (cm), maximal calf circumference (cm), femur breadth (cm), humerus breadth (cm), triceps skinfold (mm), subscapular skinfold (mm), supraspinal skinfold (mm), and medial calf skinfold (mm), and remains popular in anthropometric research, according to Rempel: "with modifications by Parnell in the late 1950s, and by Heath and Carter in the mid 1960s somatotype has continued to be the best single qualifier of total body shape".<ref>{{cite book |title= A Modified Somatotype Assessment Methodology |last= Rempel |first= R. |year= 1994 |publisher= Simon Fraser University |isbn= 978-0-612-06785-1}}</ref>

This variant utilizes the following series of equations to assess a subject's traits against each of the three somatotypes, each assessed on a seven-point scale, with 0 indicating no correlation and 7 indicating a very strong correlation: <math display="block"> \text{Endomorphy} = -0.7182 + 0.145x - 0.00068x^2 + 0.0000014x^3, </math> where <math>x = (\text{tricep skinfold [mm]} + \text{subscapular skinfold [mm]} + \text{supraspinal skinfold [mm]}) \times \frac{170.18}{\text{height [cm]}}.</math>

<math display="block">\begin{align} \text{Mesomorphy} &= 0.858 \times \text{humerus breadth [cm]} \\ &+ 0.601 \times \text{femur breadth [cm]} \\ &+ 0.188 \times \text{upper arm girth [cm]} \\ &+ 0.161 \times \text{max calf girth [cm]} \\ &- 0.131 \times \text{height [cm]} \\ &+ 4.5 \end{align} </math>

''Ectomorphy'': calculate the subject's ponderal index <math>\text{PI} = \frac{\text{height [cm]}}{(\text{mass [kg]})^{1/3}}.</math> * If <math>PI > 40.74</math>, <math>\text{Ectomorphy} = 0.732 PI - 28.58.</math> * If <math>39.65 < PI < 40.74</math>, <math>\text{Ectomorphy} = 0.463 PI - 17.615.</math> * If <math>PI < 39.65</math>, <math>\text{Ectomorphy} = 0.5.</math>

This numerical approach has gone on to be incorporated in the current sports science and physical education curriculums of numerous institutions, ranging from the UK's secondary level GCSE curriculums (14- to 16-year-olds), the Indian UPSC Civil Service exams, to MSc programs worldwide, and has been utilized in numerous academic papers, including: * Rowing athletes<ref>{{cite journal| title= Olympic Lightweight and Open Rowers possess distinctive physical and proportionality characteristics for selecting elite athletes| last1= Kerr |first1= D| last2= Ross |first2= WD| last3= Norton |first3= K| last4= Hume |first4= P| last5= Kagawa| first5= Masaharu| year= 2007| journal= Journal of Sports Sciences |volume= 25| number= 1 |pages= 43–53 | doi=10.1080/02640410600812179| pmid= 17127580 | s2cid= 19851908 | url= https://eprints.qut.edu.au/12753/1/12753.pdf }}</ref> * Tennis athletes<ref>{{cite journal| title= Anthropometric characteristics, body composition and somatotype of elite junior tennis players| last1= Sánchez-Muñoz |first1= C| last2= Sanz |first2= D| last3= Mikel Zabala |first3= M| journal= Br J Sports Med| date= November 2007| volume= 41| number= 11| pages= 793–799| doi= 10.1136/bjsm.2007.037119| pmc= 2465306 | pmid=17957016}}</ref> * Judo athletes<ref>{{cite journal| title= Somatotype Variables Related to Muscle Torque and Power in Judoists| last1= Lewandowska | first1= J| last2= Buśko | first2=K| last3= Pastuszak | first3= A| last4= Boguszewska | first4= K |journal= Journal of Human Kinetics |volume= 30| year= 2011| issue= 2011 | pages= 21–28| doi=10.2478/v10078-011-0069-y| doi-broken-date= 1 July 2025 | pmc= 3588646 | pmid=23487284}}</ref> * Volleyball athletes<ref>{{cite journal| title= Anthropometric characteristics and body composition of Greek elite women volleyball players| last1= Papadopoulou | first1= S| journal= Kinanthropometry VII| edition= 7| publisher= Pochefstroom University for CHE| editor-first1= H. | editor-last1= de Ridder | editor-first2= T. | editor-last2= Olds| pages= 93–110 | date= January 2003}}</ref> * Gymnasts<ref>{{cite journal| title= Somatotype of Top-Level Serbian Rhythmic Gymnasts | last1= Purenović-Ivanović | first1= T | last2= Popović | first2= R| journal= Journal of Human Kinetics| volume= 40| number= 1| pages= 181–187| issn= 1899-7562| doi= 10.2478/hukin-2014-0020| date= April 2014| doi-broken-date= 1 July 2025 | pmc= 4096098 | pmid=25031686}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal| title= Height, weight, somatotype and body composition in elite Spanish gymnasts from childhood to adulthood| first= Alfredo | last=Irurtia Amigó| journal= Apunts Med Esport| year= 2009| volume= 61| pages= 18–28}}</ref> * Soccer athletes<ref>{{cite journal| title= Anthropometric, morphological and somatotype characteristics of athletes of the Brazilian Men's volleyball team: an 11-year descriptive study| last= Petroski | year= 2013| journal= Brazilian Journal of Kineanthropometry & Human Performance| volume= 15| number= 2| page = 184}}</ref> * Triathletes<ref>{{cite journal| title= Comparison of body composition and somatotype of trained female triathletes| first1= Christopher N.| last1= Leake| last2= Carter |first2= JE |year= 1991| journal= Journal of Sports Sciences| volume= 9| number= 2| pages= 125–135| doi=10.1080/02640419108729874| pmid= 1895351}}</ref> * Han people<ref>{{cite journal| title= Study on the adult physique with the Heath-Carter anthropometric somatotype in the Han of Xi'an, China| first1= LT |last1= Yang| year= 2015| pmid= 25940679| doi=10.1007/s12565-015-0283-0| volume=91| issue= 2 | journal=Anat Sci Int| pages=180–7| s2cid= 29933361 }}</ref> * Persons with diabetes<ref>{{cite journal| title= Somatotype characteristics of female patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus| first= AG | last= Baltadjiev| year= 2013| pmid= 23905489| volume=55| issue= 1 | journal=Folia Med (Plovdiv)| pages=64–9| doi=10.2478/folmed-2013-0007| doi-broken-date= 1 July 2025 | s2cid= 45784636 | doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal| title= Somatotype characteristics of male patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus| first= AG| last= Baltadjiev| year= 2012| pmid= 23101284| volume=54| issue= 2| journal=Folia Med (Plovdiv)| pages=40–5| doi=10.2478/v10153-011-0087-5| doi-broken-date= 1 July 2025| s2cid= 3618307| doi-access= }}</ref> * Taekwondo athletes<ref>{{cite journal| title= Somatotype analysis of elite Taekwondo athletes compared to non-athletes for sports health sciences |last1= Noh |display-authors=etal |journal= Toxicology and Environmental Health Sciences |year= 2013 |volume= 5 |number=4 |pages= 189–196 |doi=10.1007/s13530-013-0178-1|bibcode= 2013TxEHS...5..189N |s2cid= 16963270 }}</ref> *Persons with eating disorders<ref>{{cite journal |title= Somatotype: a more sophisticated approach to body image work with eating disorder sufferers| last1= Stewarta |display-authors=etal |journal= Advances in Eating Disorders: Theory, Research and Practice |volume= 2 |number= 2 |year= 2014 |doi= 10.1080/21662630.2013.874665 |pages=125–135| s2cid= 145547027 }}</ref> * Dragon boat participants<ref>{{cite journal |title= The Relationship between Posture and Somatotype and Certain Biomechanical Parameters of Iran Women's National Dragon Boat Team |last1= Pourbehzadi |display-authors=etal |journal= Annals of Biological Research |year= 2012 |volume= 3 |number=7 |pages= 3657–3662}}</ref>

==Criticism== "The Varieties of Human Physique" by Sheldon et al (1940) classified body types into three categories using data processes that would not be accepted by researchers today.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The BMI as a somatotypic measure of physique:A rejoinder to Jeremy E.C. Genovese|doi=10.1016/j.soscij.2009.04.006|journal=The Social Science Journal|year=2009 |last1=Maddan |first1=Sean |last2=Walker |first2=Jeffery T. |last3=Miller |first3=J. Mitchell |volume=46 |issue=2 |pages=394–401 |s2cid=144994945 }}</ref> Sheldon's ideas that body type was an indicator of temperament, moral character or potential – while popular in an atmosphere accepting of the theories of eugenics – were later disputed.<ref name= "Vertinsky2007"/><ref>{{cite book |last=Vertinsky |year=2007 |chapter=Body type |editor1-last=Reynolds |editor1-first=Cecil R. |editor2-last=Fletcher-Janzen |editor2-first=Elaine |title=Encyclopedia of Special Education: A reference for the education of children, adolescents, and adults with disabilities and other exceptional individuals |edition=3rd |place=Hoboken, N.J. |publisher=Wiley |isbn=9780471678021 |chapter-url=https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/wileyse/body_type/0 |via=Credo Reference |access-date=2014-11-20 |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofsp0003unse |url-access=registration}}</ref>

A key criticism of Sheldon's constitutional theory is that it was not a theory at all but a general assumption of continuity between structure and behavior and a set of descriptive concepts to measure physique and behavior in a scaled manner.<ref name="Roeckelein1998"/> His use of thousands of photographs of naked Ivy League undergraduates, obtained without explicit consent from a pre-existing program evaluating student posture, has been strongly criticized.<ref name= "Vertinsky2007"/><ref name="nyt-rosenbaum"/>

While popular in the 1950s,<ref name="nyt-rosenbaum">{{cite news |first=Ron |last=Rosenbaum |date=15 January 1995 |title=The great ivy league nude posture photo scandal |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/01/15/magazine/the-great-ivy-league-nude-posture-photo-scandal.html |access-date=2 December 2011}}</ref> Sheldon's claims have since been dismissed as "quackery".<ref name="Roeckelein1998"/><ref name="Rafter2008"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Zentner |first1=Marcel |last2=Shiner |first2=Rebecca L. |year=2012 |title=Handbook of Tempermaent |publisher=Guilford Press |isbn=9781462506514 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bxHlV2UeXwYC&pg=PA6 6] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bxHlV2UeXwYC |via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Ryckman |first=Richard M. |year=2007 |title=Theories of Personality |edition=9th |publisher=Cengage Learning |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_1mQhvUfYFwC&pg=PA260 260]–261 |isbn=9780495099086 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_1mQhvUfYFwC |via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Nude photos are sealed at Smithsonian |date=21 January 1995 |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/01/21/us/nude-photos-are-sealed-at-smithsonian.html |access-date=1 December 2011}}</ref> Barbara Honeyman Heath, who was Sheldon's main assistant in compiling ''Atlas of Men'', accused him of falsifying the data he used in writing the book.<ref name= "Vertinsky2007"/>

==References== {{reflist}}

==Sources== * {{cite book |last1=Gerrig |first1=Richard |last2=Zimbardo |first2=Phillip G. |title=Psychology and Life |location=Boston |publisher=Allyn and Bacon |year=2002 |edition=16th |isbn=0-205-33511-X }} * {{cite book |last1=Hartl |first1=Emil M. |last2=Monnelly |first2=Edward P. |last3=Elderkin |first3=Roland D. |title=Physique and Delinquent Behavior (A Thirty-year Follow-up of William H. Sheldon's Varieties of Delinquent Youth) |location=New York |publisher=Academic Press |year=1982 |isbn=0-12-328480-5 }}

==Further reading== *{{cite book |first= William H. |last= Sheldon |year= 1942 |title= The Varieties of Temperament |publisher= Harper & Brothers |location= New York; London |url= http://library.du.ac.in/dspace/handle/1/1336 |via= University of Delhi |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120224062839/http://library.du.ac.in/dspace/handle/1/1336 |archive-date= 2012-02-24 }} *{{cite book |first1= J.E. Lindsay |last1= Carter |first2= Barbara Honeyman |last2= Heath |title= Somatotyping-development and Applications |publisher= Cambridge University Press |year= 1990|isbn= 0521351170}} *{{cite book |last1= Arraj |first1= Tyra |last2= Arraj |first2= James |title= Tracking the Elusive Human |volume= I |chapter= Ch. 4:William Sheldon's Body and Temperament Types |chapter-url= https://www.innerexplorations.com/catpsy/t1c4.htm |isbn= 0914073168 |via= innerexplorations.com |publisher= Inner Growth |location= Midland, OR|date= January 1988 }} *{{cite news |last= Coughlan |first= Robert |date= June 25, 1951 |title= What manner of morph are you? |magazine= Life |pages= 65–79 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=dVEEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA65 |volume= 30 |issue= 26 |via= Google Books}}

==External links== *{{cite encyclopedia |url= https://www.britannica.com/science/somatotype |title= Somatotype |encyclopedia= Encyclopædia Britannica Online}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Somatotype And Constitutional Psychology}} Category:Anthropometry Category:Body shape Category:Biological anthropology Category:Criminology Category:Pseudoscience Category:Psychological theories Category:Racism