{{Short description|Connecting wild territories for animals}} {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2017}} [[File:Corredor Florestal - Pontal do Paranapanema.jpg|thumb|right|A wildlife corridor in Brazil.|alt=A green forest corridor in Brazil]]
A '''wildlife corridor''', also known as a '''habitat corridor''' or '''green corridor,'''<ref>{{cite web |title=Planning Portal – Glossary: G|url=https://www.planningportal.gov.uk/england/professionals/en/1115310689250.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201180024/https://www.planningportal.gov.uk/england/professionals/en/1115310689250.html|archive-date=1 December 2008}}</ref> is an area that connects wildlife populations that have been separated by human activities or structures such as industrialization, expansion of agriculture, urbanization, road infrastructure, land clearings, and other development.<ref name=":62">{{Cite journal |last=Beier|first=Paul|date=2018-12-20|title=A rule of thumb for widths of conservation corridors|journal=Conservation Biology|volume=33|issue=4|pages=976–978|doi=10.1111/cobi.13256|pmid=30569451 |issn=0888-8892}}</ref> Corridors mitigate the impacts of habitat fragmentation,<ref>{{cite web |author=Bond, M.|date=2003|title=Principles of Wildlife Corridor Design. Center for Biological Diversity|url=http://www.biologicaldiversity.org/publications/papers/wild-corridors.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220606143617/https://biologicaldiversity.org/publications/papers/wild-corridors.pdf|archive-date=6 June 2022|access-date=2015-08-11|publisher=Biologivaldiversity.org}}</ref> meaning the division of habitat areas and restriction of movement, which has been caused by rapid urbanization and transport network expansion.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Peng|first1=Yuting|last2=Zhang|first2=Hongwei|last3=Zhu|first3=Gaoru|last4=Yang|first4=Xing|last5=Zhao|first5=Xueyan|last6=Liang|first6=Huaping|date=April 2026|title=Road and eco-corridor conflict mitigation through multi-species wildlife crossings around national park|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1361920926000283|journal=Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment|language=en|volume=153|article-number=105235|doi=10.1016/j.trd.2026.105235 |bibcode=2026TRPD..15305235P }}</ref> Habitat fragmentation from human development poses a significant threat to biodiversity, and wildlife corridors help to reduce the harmful effects of fragmentation and habitat degradation.<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal |last1=Lapin|first1=Katharina|last2=Hoffmann|first2=Johanna A.|last3=Braun|first3=Martin|last4=Oettel|first4=Janine|date=2024-06-14|title=Identification and prioritization of stepping stones for biodiversity conservation in forest ecosystems|journal=Conservation Science and Practice|volume=6|issue=7|article-number=e13161 |doi=10.1111/csp2.13161|bibcode=2024ConSP...6E3161L |issn=2578-4854}}</ref> By enabling the movement of individuals and populations, wildlife corridors help to prevent the negative effects of inbreeding and reduced genetic diversity that occur in isolated populations.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Barbosa|first1=S.|last2=Mestre|first2=F.|last3=White|first3=T. A.|last4=Paupério|first4=J.|last5=Alves|first5=P. C.|last6=Searle|first6=J. B.|date=2018|title=University of Michigan Dearborn Library Catalog - Database Authentication Screen|url=https://wizard.umd.umich.edu:443/wamvalidate?url=https%3A%2F%2F0-doi-org.wizard.umd.umich.edu%3A443%2F10.1111%2Fmec.14806|journal=Molecular Ecology|volume=27|issue=17|pages=3452–3465|bibcode=2018MolEc..27.3452B|doi=10.1111/mec.14806|pmid=30030869|url-access=subscription|access-date=2024-10-04}}</ref>''' Wildlife corridors also have effects on plant populations by increasing pollen and seed dispersal through animal movement between isolated habitat patches.<ref name=":4">{{cite journal |last1=Tewksbury |first1=Joshua |date=October 1, 2002 |title=Corridors affect plants, animals, and their interactions in fragmented landscapes |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=99 |issue=20 |pages=12923–6 |bibcode=2002PNAS...9912923T |doi=10.1073/pnas.202242699 |pmc=130561 |pmid=12239344 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Additionally, corridors can support wildlife population resilience in the context of climate change adaptation, by connecting areas of warmer habitat to cooler habitat.<ref name=":72">{{Cite journal |last1=Ranius|first1=Thomas|last2=Widenfalk|first2=Lina A.|last3=Seedre|first3=Meelis|last4=Lindman|first4=Ly|last5=Felton|first5=Adam|last6=Hämäläinen|first6=Aino|last7=Filyushkina|first7=Anna|last8=Öckinger|first8=Erik|date=2022-08-23|title=Protected area designation and management in a world of climate change: A review of recommendations|journal=Ambio|volume=52|issue=1|pages=68–80|doi=10.1007/s13280-022-01779-z|pmid=35997987 |pmc=9666604 |issn=0044-7447}}</ref> Human settlements by corridors can allow for human-wildlife conflicts to increase, which requires mitigation measures.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Matejcek|first1=Astrid|last2=Verne|first2=Julia|date=2021-08-01|title=Restoration-as-development? Contesting Aspirational Politics Regarding the Restoration of Wildlife Corridors in the Kilombero Valley, Tanzania|journal=The European Journal of Development Research|language=en|volume=33|issue=4|pages=1022–1043|doi=10.1057/s41287-021-00403-2|hdl=10419/287555|issn=1743-9728|doi-access=free|hdl-access=free}}</ref>
==Purpose== [[File:GreenCorridorEcologicalDesignLilleLMCU2010.JPG|thumb|An urban green corridor in Lille.]] Habitat corridors can be considered a management tool in areas where the destruction of natural habitats has impacted biodiversity.<ref name=":03">{{Cite journal |last=Krogman|first=William|date=2020-02-12|title=Corridor Ecology: Linking Landscapes for Biodiversity Conservation and Climate Adaptation (second edition). Jodi A. Hilty, Annika T. H. Keeley, William Z. Lidicker Jr., and Adina M. Merenlender. 2019. Island Press, Washington, D.C., USA. 350 pp. $40.00 paperback. {{text|ISBN}}: 9781610919517.|journal=The Journal of Wildlife Management|volume=84|issue=4|pages=829|doi=10.1002/jwmg.21836|bibcode=2020JWMan..84..829K |issn=0022-541X}}</ref> When land is fragmented, wildlife populations can become unstable or become isolated from larger populations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Beier|first1=Paul|last2=Majka|first2=Daniel R.|last3=Spencer|first3=Wayne D.|date=August 2008|title="Forks in the Road: Choices in Procedures for Designing Wildland Linkages"|url=https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2008.00942.x|journal=Conservation Biology|language=en|volume=22|issue=4|pages=836–851|bibcode=2008ConBi..22..836B|doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2008.00942.x|issn=0888-8892|pmid=18544090|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Habitat corridors as a management tool can be implemented by local communities and citizen's groups, ecologists, biologists, Indigenous groups, land managers, urban planners, and other stakeholders.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lynch|first=Amy J.|date=2018-09-27|title=Creating Effective Urban Greenways and Stepping-stones: Four Critical Gaps in Habitat Connectivity Planning Research|journal=Journal of Planning Literature|volume=34|issue=2|pages=131–155|doi=10.1177/0885412218798334|issn=0885-4122}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Parks Canada Agency|first=Government of Canada|date=2025-05-08|title=National Program for Ecological Corridors - Nature and science|url=https://parks.canada.ca/nature/science/conservation/corridors-ecologiques-ecological-corridors|access-date=2026-04-05|website=parks.canada.ca}}</ref> With climate change, corridors can also serve the purpose of connecting cooler areas of habitat with warmer areas of habitat, helping individuals and populations by facilitating movement as specie ranges shift with climate change.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Ranius|first1=Thomas|last2=Widenfalk|first2=Lina A.|last3=Seedre|first3=Meelis|last4=Lindman|first4=Ly|last5=Felton|first5=Adam|last6=Hämäläinen|first6=Aino|last7=Filyushkina|first7=Anna|last8=Öckinger|first8=Erik|date=2022-08-23|title=Protected area designation and management in a world of climate change: A review of recommendations|journal=Ambio|volume=52|issue=1|pages=68–80|doi=10.1007/s13280-022-01779-z|pmid=35997987 |pmc=9666604 |issn=0044-7447}}</ref> Corridors should be large enough to support minimum critical populations, reduce migration barriers, and maximize connectivity between populations.<ref name=":522">{{Cite journal |first1=Allison M.|last1=Fleury|first2=Robert D.|last2=Brown|year=1997|title=A framework for the design of wildlife conservation corridors With specific application to southwestern Ontario|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0169204697800023|journal=Landscape and Urban Planning|language=en|publisher=Elsevier|volume=37|issue=3–4|pages=163–186|doi=10.1016/S0169-2046(97)80002-3|bibcode=1997LUrbP..37..163F|access-date=2022-10-28|hdl-access=free|hdl=10214/4617|archive-date=28 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221028095343/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0169204697800023|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
Corridors help reconnect and stabilize fragmented populations by supporting '''key processes for biodiversity''':<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Barbosa|first1=Soraia|last2=Mestre|first2=Frederico|last3=White|first3=Thomas A.|last4=Paupério|first4=Joana|last5=Alves|first5=Paulo C.|last6=Searle|first6=Jeremy B.|date=September 2018|title="Integrative approaches to guide conservation decisions: Using genomics to define conservation units and functional corridors"|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/mec.14806|journal=Molecular Ecology|language=en|volume=27|issue=17|pages=3452–3465|bibcode=2018MolEc..27.3452B|doi=10.1111/mec.14806|issn=0962-1083|pmid=30030869|url-access=subscription}}</ref> * '''Colonization:''' Animals can move and occupy new areas when food sources or other natural resources are scarce in their primary habitat. * '''Migration:''' Species that relocate seasonally can do so more safely and effectively without interference from human development barriers. * '''Interbreeding:''' Animals can find new mates in neighbouring regions, increasing genetic diversity.
[[File:Camel underpass in Qatar.jpg|thumb|Sign on a highway in Qatar, indicating an underpass that allows camels to safely cross.]]
=== Definitions === Wildlife corridors have multiple definitions. They can be defined as any space that facilitates the movement of populations, individuals, and genetic exchange, as well as allow for the reproduction of plants.<ref name=":04">{{Cite journal |last=Krogman|first=William|date=2020-02-12|title=Corridor Ecology: Linking Landscapes for Biodiversity Conservation and Climate Adaptation (second edition). Jodi A. Hilty, Annika T. H. Keeley, William Z. Lidicker Jr., and Adina M. Merenlender. 2019. Island Press, Washington, D.C., USA. 350 pp. $40.00 paperback. {{text|ISBN}}: 9781610919517.|journal=The Journal of Wildlife Management|volume=84|issue=4|pages=829|doi=10.1002/jwmg.21836|bibcode=2020JWMan..84..829K |issn=0022-541X}}</ref> Other definitions include a linear landscape element (meaning an uninterrupted stretch of connected habitat); a pathway that animals with wide ranges can use to travel between different habitats, habitat where plants can propagate, or grow, and where genetic exchange can occur, where populations can move because of changes in their environment (i.e. due to wildfires, flooding, climate change), and where vulnerable species can have their populations be increased from other patches of habitat.<ref name=":04" />
Wildlife corridors improve habitat connectivity, which can be defined as the extent to which flora and fauna, or plants and animals, can move between patches of habitat.<ref name=":04" />
== Types of corridors ==
=== Size and continuity === Habitat corridors can be categorized based on their '''width''', with wider corridors generally supporting greater wildlife use.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=1993 |title=Wildlife, forest, and forestry. Principles of managing forests for biological diversity |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=63 |issue=3 |page=271 |doi=10.1016/0006-3207(93)90732-g |issn=0006-3207}}</ref> However, the overall effectiveness of a corridor depends on its design as well as its width.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |first1=Allison M.|last1=Fleury|first2= Robert D. |last2= Brown |year=1997 |title=A framework for the design of wildlife conservation corridors With specific application to southwestern Ontario |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0169204697800023 |journal=Landscape and Urban Planning |language=en |publisher=Elsevier |volume=37 |issue=3–4 |pages=163–186 |doi=10.1016/S0169-2046(97)80002-3 |bibcode= 1997LUrbP..37..163F |access-date=2022-10-28 |hdl-access=free |hdl=10214/4617 |archive-date=28 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221028095343/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0169204697800023 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref>
Habitat corridors can also be classified based on their '''continuity'''. '''Continuous corridors''' are uninterrupted strips of habitat, while "'''stepping stone'''" '''corridors''' consist of small, separate patches of suitable habitat.<ref name=":22" />
=== Aquatic corridors === Wildlife corridors also include aquatic habitats, or '''riparian''' zones'''.''' <ref>{{Cite web |last=Repayment" |first="Debt |date=2021-08-30 |title=The Riparian Ribbon |url=https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/537a6541676241b1979ad54dfcc65763 |access-date=2023-05-20 |website=ArcGIS StoryMaps |language=en-us |archive-date=20 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230520234641/https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/537a6541676241b1979ad54dfcc65763 |url-status=live }}</ref> Zones along rivers can act as wildlife corridors, facilitating movement of populations on land and in water.<ref name=":73">{{Cite journal |last1=Ranius|first1=Thomas|last2=Widenfalk|first2=Lina A.|last3=Seedre|first3=Meelis|last4=Lindman|first4=Ly|last5=Felton|first5=Adam|last6=Hämäläinen|first6=Aino|last7=Filyushkina|first7=Anna|last8=Öckinger|first8=Erik|date=2022-08-23|title=Protected area designation and management in a world of climate change: A review of recommendations|journal=Ambio|volume=52|issue=1|pages=68–80|doi=10.1007/s13280-022-01779-z|pmid=35997987 |pmc=9666604 |issn=0044-7447}}</ref> Removing in-stream barriers from aquatic habitat is a means of restoring aquatic connectivity within a river system, thereby increasing habitat extent for species.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Finn|first1=Riley J. R.|last2=Chalifour|first2=Lia|last3=Gergel|first3=Sarah E.|last4=Hinch|first4=Scott G.|last5=Scott|first5=David C.|last6=Martin|first6=Tara G.|date=2023-06-23|title=Using systematic conservation planning to inform restoration of freshwater habitat and connectivity for salmon|journal=Conservation Science and Practice|volume=5|issue=8|article-number=e12973 |doi=10.1111/csp2.12973|bibcode=2023ConSP...5E2973F |issn=2578-4854}}</ref>
=== Wildlife crossings === [[File:Wildlife overpass in Singapore.jpeg|thumb|Wildlife crossing overpass in Singapore|alt=Singapore highway]]Corridors can include wildlife crossings, such an underpasses or overpasses.<ref name=":44">{{Cite journal |last1=Spanowicz|first1=Ariel G.|last2=Teixeira|first2=Fernanda Zimmermann|last3=Jaeger|first3=Jochen A. G.|date=2020-06-12|title=An adaptive plan for prioritizing road sections for fencing to reduce animal mortality|journal=Conservation Biology|volume=34|issue=5|pages=1210–1220|doi=10.1111/cobi.13502|pmid=32227646 |bibcode=2020ConBi..34.1210S |issn=0888-8892}}</ref> These structures allow animals to cross human infrastructure (i.e. a highway, canal) which helps to reduce road mortality.<ref name=":44" /><ref name=":63">{{Cite journal |last=Beier|first=Paul|date=2018-12-20|title=A rule of thumb for widths of conservation corridors|journal=Conservation Biology|volume=33|issue=4|pages=976–978|doi=10.1111/cobi.13256|pmid=30569451 |issn=0888-8892}}</ref> Certain animals prefer the cover of an underpass, while others prefer an overpass.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Ng|first1=Sandra J.|last2=Dole|first2=Jim W.|last3=Sauvajot|first3=Raymond M.|last4=Riley|first4=Seth P.D|last5=Valone|first5=Thomas J.|date=2004|title=Use of highway undercrossings by wildlife in southern California|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320703001666|url-status=live|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=115|issue=3|pages=499–507|bibcode=2004BCons.115..499N|doi=10.1016/S0006-3207(03)00166-6|url-access=subscription|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221031100008/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320703001666|archive-date=31 October 2022|access-date=2022-10-31}}</ref>
Wildlife overpasses and underpasses are able to facilitate the movement of different kinds of species, because species exhibit preferences for different types of wildlife crossing infrastructure.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> For example, in Banff National Park, black bears and mountain lions have been observed to prefer wildlife underpasses, which provide a darker, visually protected way to cross the Trans-Canada Highway. Grizzly bears and large ungulates, such as elk, have been observed to prefer wildlife overpasses.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=As Banff's famed wildlife overpasses turn 20, the world looks to Canada for conservation inspiration|url=https://canadiangeographic.ca/articles/as-banffs-famed-wildlife-overpasses-turn-20-the-world-looks-to-canada-for-conservation-inspiration/|access-date=2026-04-05|website=canadiangeographic.ca|language=en-US}}</ref> Large ungulates and other carnivores exhibit stable, consistent use of the underpasses as well, while small ungulates were observed to have lower numbers in the underpasses between 2008-2018.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last2=Lebeuf-Taylor|first2=Eleonore|last3=Busana|first3=Michela|last4=Paczkowski|first4=John|date=2022-07-27|title=Road mitigation structures reduce the number of reported wildlife-vehicle collisions in the Bow Valley, Alberta, Canada|journal=Conservation Science and Practice|volume=4|issue=9|doi=10.1111/csp2.12778|last1=Edwards|first1=Hannah A.|article-number=e12778 |bibcode=2022ConSP...4E2778E |issn=2578-4854}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Edwards|first1=Hannah A.|last2=Lebeuf-Taylor|first2=Eleonore|last3=Busana|first3=Michela|last4=Paczkowski|first4=John|date=2022-07-27|title=Road mitigation structures reduce the number of reported wildlife-vehicle collisions in the Bow Valley, Alberta, Canada|journal=Conservation Science and Practice|volume=4|issue=9|article-number=e12778 |doi=10.1111/csp2.12778|bibcode=2022ConSP...4E2778E |issn=2578-4854}}</ref> Research in Banff National Park has shown that it may take a few years for wildlife to become habituated to using infrastructure such as overpasses and underpasses, but they do often become habituated.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Edwards |first1=Hannah A. |last2=Lebeuf-Taylor |first2=Eleonore |last3=Busana |first3=Michela |last4=Paczkowski |first4=John |date=2022-07-27 |title=Road mitigation structures reduce the number of reported wildlife-vehicle collisions in the Bow Valley, Alberta, Canada |journal=Conservation Science and Practice |volume=4 |issue=9 |article-number=e12778 |doi=10.1111/csp2.12778 |bibcode=2022ConSP...4E2778E |issn=2578-4854}}</ref>
=== Single small versus several large areas === Wildlife corridors can take multiple forms, including as an uninterrupted stretch of habitat or as a series of smaller patches of habitat. In conservation ecology, the '''SLOSS dilemma''' (whether to preserve single large [SL] areas of habitat or several small [SS] areas of habitat) has been discussed for decades.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last1=Fahrig|first1=Lenore|last2=Watling|first2=James|last3=Arnillas|first3=Carlos|last4=Arroyo-Rodríguez|first4=Víctor|last5=Jörger-Hickfang|first5=Theresa|last6=Müller|first6=Jörg|last7=Pereira|first7=Henrique|last8=Riva|first8=Federico|last9=Rösch|first9=Verena|date=2020-12-17|title=Resolving the SLOSS dilemma for biodiversity conservation: a research agenda|url=https://doi.org/10.22541/au.160821552.23263247/v1|access-date=2026-04-05|website=doi.org |doi=10.22541/au.160821552.23263247/v1 }}</ref> Large, contiguous areas of habitat, such as national parks, have often been the focus of conservation planning. However, in terms of the number of species preserved, numerous studies have found either that there is no difference between the two, or that providing linkages between many smaller areas of habitat, especially when connected to a large area of habitat, produces better conservation outcomes (i.e. supports more species).<ref name=":12" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gelmi-Candusso |first1=T. A. |last2=Chin |first2=A. T. M. |last3=Ruppert |first3=J. L. W. |last4=Fortin |first4=M.-J. |date=2025-02-14 |title=Urban planning for wildlife connectivity: A multispecies assessment of urban sprawl and SLOSS renaturalization strategies |journal=Journal of Applied Ecology |volume=62 |issue=4 |pages=1007–1023 |doi=10.1111/1365-2664.70007 |bibcode=2025JApEc..62.1007G |issn=0021-8901}}</ref>
In a wildlife corridor, preserving and connecting several small areas of habitat, otherwise known as '<nowiki/>'''stepping stones'''', can be beneficial for mitigating biodiversity loss and habitat fragmentation.<ref name=":23">{{Cite journal |last1=Lapin|first1=Katharina|last2=Hoffmann|first2=Johanna A.|last3=Braun|first3=Martin|last4=Oettel|first4=Janine|date=2024-06-14|title=Identification and prioritization of stepping stones for biodiversity conservation in forest ecosystems|journal=Conservation Science and Practice|volume=6|issue=7|article-number=e13161 |doi=10.1111/csp2.13161|bibcode=2024ConSP...6E3161L |issn=2578-4854}}</ref> As well, preserving and connecting many smaller patches of habitat can help with climate adaptation and genetic diversity.<ref name=":23" /> In forested areas, fragmentation can be mitigated by connecting good-quality 'stepping stone' habitats.<ref name=":23" /> To identify suitable small areas of habitat for a wildlife corridor, it is important to consider the distance to protected areas; existing habitat corridors in the area; determining which areas have many species; and which habitats are key biodiversity areas.<ref name=":23" />
=== Urban wildlife corridors === Wildlife corridors can also be created in urban areas, such as cities and towns.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Aziz|first1=H A|last2=Rasidi|first2=M H|date=2014-02-25|title=The role of green corridors for wildlife conservation in urban landscape: A literature review|journal=IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science|volume=18|issue=1 |article-number=012093|doi=10.1088/1755-1315/18/1/012093|bibcode=2014E&ES...18a2093A |issn=1755-1315}}</ref> Urban areas often coincide with areas of high biodiversity, and urbanization can impact biodiversity in numerous ways, including by changing wildlife behaviour, species richness, functional diversity, as well as genetic diversity.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal |last1=Knapp|first1=Sonja|last2=Aronson|first2=Myla F J|last3=Carpenter|first3=Ela|last4=Herrera-Montes|first4=Adriana|last5=Jung|first5=Kirsten|last6=Kotze|first6=D Johan|last7=La Sorte|first7=Frank A|last8=Lepczyk|first8=Christopher A|last9=MacGregor-Fors|first9=Ian|last10=MacIvor|first10=J Scott|last11=Moretti|first11=Marco|last12=Nilon|first12=Charles H|last13=Piana|first13=Max R|last14=Rega-Brodsky|first14=Christine C|last15=Salisbury|first15=Allyson|date=2021-03-01|title=A Research Agenda for Urban Biodiversity in the Global Extinction Crisis|url=https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/71/3/268/6009693|journal=BioScience|language=en|volume=71|issue=3|pages=268–279|doi=10.1093/biosci/biaa141|issn=0006-3568}}</ref> Urban areas generally have depleted biodiversity; however, many urban areas have high numbers of vascular plants.<ref name=":9" /> Corridors, whether they are linear, uninterrupted stretches of habitat, or whether they are 'stepping stones', can help to improve biodiversity in urban areas.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last=Lynch|first=Amy J.|date=2018-09-27|title=Creating Effective Urban Greenways and Stepping-stones: Four Critical Gaps in Habitat Connectivity Planning Research|journal=Journal of Planning Literature|volume=34|issue=2|pages=131–155|doi=10.1177/0885412218798334|issn=0885-4122}}</ref>
== Wildlife corridor usage ==
=== Corridor users === Most species can be categorized into one of two groups: '''passage users''' and '''corridor dwellers'''.<ref name=":62" />
'''Passage users''' occupy corridors for brief periods, meaning they can cross the corridor over a few hours.<ref name=":62" /> Passage user use corridors for such events as seasonal migration, juvenile dispersal or moving between different parts of a large home range. Large herbivores, medium to large carnivores, and migratory species are typical passage users.{{r|Beier & Loe 1992}}
'''Corridor dwellers''', on the other hand, can occupy a corridor for several years.<ref name=":62" /> Species such as plants, reptiles, amphibians, birds, insects, and small mammals may spend their entire lives in linear habitats. In such cases, the corridor must provide enough resources to support such species.{{r|Beier & Loe 1992}}
=== Monitoring wildlife use === thumb|An example of a mark-recapture survey on an amphibian. Data on each collected individual is marked and the organism is late released back into the rest of the population. In wildlife corridors, researchers can use mark-recapture techniques and '''hair snares''' to assess genetic flow and observe how wildlife utilizes corridors.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dixon |first1=Jeremy D. |last2=Oli |first2=Madan K. |last3=Wooten |first3=Michael C. |last4=Eason |first4=Thomas H. |last5=McCown |first5=J. Walter |last6=Paetkau |first6=David |date=2006 |title=Effectiveness of a Regional Corridor in Connecting Two Florida Black Bear Populations |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=155–162 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2005.00292.x |jstor=3591161 |pmid=16909668 |bibcode=2006ConBi..20..155D |s2cid=15106420 |issn=0888-8892 }}</ref> Marking and recapturing animals helps track individual movement.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Mech |first1=Stephen G. |last2=Hallett |first2=James G. |date=April 2001 |title=Evaluating the Effectiveness of Corridors: a Genetic Approach |url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1046/j.1523-1739.2001.015002467.x |journal=Conservation Biology |language=en |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=467–474 |doi=10.1046/j.1523-1739.2001.015002467.x |bibcode=2001ConBi..15..467M |s2cid=84520743 |issn=0888-8892 |access-date=4 April 2022 |archive-date=13 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230813182628/https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.1523-1739.2001.015002467.x |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref>
Researchers can also use genetic testing to evaluate migration and mating patterns. By analyzing gene flow within a population, researchers can better understand the long-term role of wildlife corridors in migration and genetic diversity.<ref name=":1" />
Monitoring animal use of wildlife corridors can also be done using technologies that are accessible for citizen science. For monitoring bird populations, for example, using a combination of the applications eBird and i-Tree can be useful.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lerman|first1=Susannah B.|last2=Nislow|first2=Keith H.|last3=Nowak|first3=David J.|last4=DeStefano|first4=Stephen|last5=King|first5=David I.|last6=Jones-Farrand|first6=D. Todd|date=February 2014|title=Using urban forest assessment tools to model bird habitat potential|journal=Landscape and Urban Planning|volume=122|pages=29–40|doi=10.1016/j.landurbplan.2013.10.006|bibcode=2014LUrbP.122...29L |issn=0169-2046}}</ref>
As well, monitoring animal use can be done by evaluating data provided by camera traps.<ref name=":3" />
==Corridor planning==
=== Corridor design === Wildlife corridors are effective when designed with consideration of ecology, including factors such as seasonal movement, avoidance behaviour, dispersal patterns, and specific habitat requirements.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Newmark |first=William D. |date=1993 |title=The Role and Design of Wildlife Corridors with Examples from Tanzania |journal=Ambio |volume=22 |issue=8 |pages=500–504 |jstor=4314138 |issn=0044-7447 }}</ref>
Corridor design may improve biodiversity when it includes some degree of randomness or asymmetry and is oriented perpendicular to habitat patches.<ref>{{cite web |title=Designing wildlife corridors |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/10/081020135221.htm |access-date=4 August 2015 |publisher=Sciencedaily.com |archive-date=2 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221102042737/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/10/081020135221.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":5" /> However, this design may lead to edge effects, where habitat quality along the edge of a habitat fragment is often lower than in core habitat areas.<ref name=":62" />
Fencing is something to be considered in the design of wildlife corridor infrastructure, as a tool that often complements overpasses and underpasses along road corridors, thereby reducing road mortality.<ref name=":43">{{Cite journal |last1=Spanowicz |first1=Ariel G. |last2=Teixeira |first2=Fernanda Zimmermann |last3=Jaeger |first3=Jochen A. G. |date=2020-06-12 |title=An adaptive plan for prioritizing road sections for fencing to reduce animal mortality |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=34 |issue=5 |pages=1210–1220 |doi=10.1111/cobi.13502 |pmid=32227646 |bibcode=2020ConBi..34.1210S |issn=0888-8892}}</ref> Since fencing along a whole road is currently not always doable, it is important to add fencing to areas where there is high road mortality of animals.<ref name=":43" /> In wildlife fencing design, there are discussions on whether it is better to have many short or a few long fences.<ref name=":43" /> It may be less effective to have many short fences along a road corridor, as animals are able to move around the barriers more easily, thus increasing their chance of mortality.<ref name=":43" />
=== Corridor implementation === Wildlife corridors can be developed in tandem with numerous and diverse stakeholders, such as the public, local communities, water districts, recreation departments, non-governmental organizations, public agencies, landowners, etc.<ref name=":122">{{Cite journal |last1=Keeley|first1=Annika T. H.|last2=Basson|first2=Galli|last3=Cameron|first3=D. Richard|last4=Heller|first4=Nicole E.|last5=Huber|first5=Patrick R.|last6=Schloss|first6=Carrie A.|last7=Thorne|first7=James H.|last8=Merenlender|first8=Adina M.|date=2018-12-01|title=Making habitat connectivity a reality|url=https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cobi.13158|journal=Conservation Biology|language=en|volume=32|issue=6|pages=1221–1232|doi=10.1111/cobi.13158|pmid=29920775 |bibcode=2018ConBi..32.1221K |issn=0888-8892}}</ref><ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |last1=Tantipisanuh|first1=Naruemon|last2=Phakpian|first2=Somporn|last3=Tangtorwongsakul|first3=Pornpimon|last4=Vinitpornsawan|first4=Supagit|last5=Ngoprasert|first5=Dusit|date=2024-09-01|title=Identifying wildlife corridors to restore population connectivity: An integration approach involving multiple data sources|journal=Global Ecology and Conservation|volume=53|article-number=e03015|doi=10.1016/j.gecco.2024.e03015|bibcode=2024GEcoC..5303015T |issn=2351-9894}}</ref> In order to successfully implement wildlife corridors, a shared goal and vision between these stakeholders and partners is important.<ref name=":122" /> A clear set of rules and regulations governing the wildlife corridor, incentive programs for encouraging the private sector to support the corridor, in addition to research that outlines priority areas for corridors (including areas of high-quality habitat and areas near other corridors) is important for habitat connectivity implementation.<ref name=":122" /><ref name=":24">{{Cite journal |last1=Lapin|first1=Katharina|last2=Hoffmann|first2=Johanna A.|last3=Braun|first3=Martin|last4=Oettel|first4=Janine|date=2024-06-14|title=Identification and prioritization of stepping stones for biodiversity conservation in forest ecosystems|journal=Conservation Science and Practice|volume=6|issue=7|article-number=e13161 |doi=10.1111/csp2.13161|bibcode=2024ConSP...6E3161L |issn=2578-4854}}</ref>
== Indigenous knowledge == The expansion of development into natural areas impacts human and non-humans life.<ref name=":322">{{Cite journal |date=July 26, 2021|title=Biodiversity needs every tool in the box: use OECMs|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-02041-4|journal=Nature|volume=595|issue=7869|pages=646–649|doi=10.1038/d41586-021-02041-4|last1=Gurney|first1=Georgina G.|last2=Darling|first2=Emily S.|last3=Ahmadia|first3=Gabby N.|last4=Agostini|first4=Vera N.|last5=Ban|first5=Natalie C.|last6=Blythe|first6=Jessica|last7=Claudet|first7=Joachim|last8=Epstein|first8=Graham|last9=Estradivari|last10=Himes-Cornell|first10=Amber|last11=Jonas|first11=Harry D.|last12=Armitage|first12=Derek|last13=Campbell|first13=Stuart J.|last14=Cox|first14=Courtney|last15=Friedman|first15=Whitney R.|language=en|bibcode=2021Natur.595..646G|pmid=34312552}}</ref> Attempts to restore habitat over time require support from the local communities that surround the habitat that a restoration project is being completed in, including Indigenous communities.<ref name=":622">{{Cite journal |last2=Pieroni|first2=Andrea|last3=Bussmann|first3=Rainer W.|last4=Abd-ElGawad|first4=Ahmed M.|last5=El-Ansary|first5=Hosam O.|date=2023-08-10|title=Integrating traditional ecological knowledge into habitat restoration: implications for meeting forest restoration challenges|journal=Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine|volume=19|issue=1|doi=10.1186/s13002-023-00606-3|issn=1746-4269|last1=Haq|first1=Shiekh Marifatul|page=33|pmc=10413632|pmid=37559120|doi-access=free}}</ref>
Widespread efforts that actively involve the input of a variety of groups are not always used in ecological restoration efforts.<ref name=":422">{{Cite journal |last=Brown|first=Nicholas Anthony|date=2022-03-04|title=Continental Land Back: Managing Mobilities and Enacting Relationalities in Indigenous Landscapes|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17450101.2021.2012503|journal=Mobilities|volume=17|issue=2|pages=252–268|doi=10.1080/17450101.2021.2012503|issn=1745-0101|url-access=subscription|via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref><ref name=":623">{{Cite journal |last1=Haq|first1=Shiekh Marifatul|last2=Pieroni|first2=Andrea|last3=Bussmann|first3=Rainer W.|last4=Abd-ElGawad|first4=Ahmed M.|last5=El-Ansary|first5=Hosam O.|date=2023-08-10|title=Integrating traditional ecological knowledge into habitat restoration: implications for meeting forest restoration challenges|journal=Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine|volume=19|issue=1|page=33|doi=10.1186/s13002-023-00606-3|issn=1746-4269|pmc=10413632|pmid=37559120|doi-access=free}}</ref> Indigenous knowledge of the natural world is often substituted with settler ideas of landscape ecology when developing wildlife corridor plans, including in large-scale landscape conservation.<ref name=":422" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gordon (Iñupiaq)|first1=Heather Sauyaq Jean|last2=Ross|first2=J. Ashleigh|last3=Cheryl Bauer-Armstrong|last4=Moreno|first4=Maria|last5=Byington (Choctaw)|first5=Rachel|last6=Bowman (Lunaape/Mohican)|first6=Nicole|date=2023-02-01|title=Integrating Indigenous Traditional Ecological Knowledge of land into land management through Indigenous-academic partnerships|journal=Land Use Policy|volume=125|article-number=106469|bibcode=2023LUPol.12506469G|doi=10.1016/j.landusepol.2022.106469|issn=0264-8377|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":323">{{Cite journal |last1=Gurney|first1=Georgina G.|last2=Darling|first2=Emily S.|last3=Ahmadia|first3=Gabby N.|last4=Agostini|first4=Vera N.|last5=Ban|first5=Natalie C.|last6=Blythe|first6=Jessica|last7=Claudet|first7=Joachim|last8=Epstein|first8=Graham|last9=Estradivari|last10=Himes-Cornell|first10=Amber|last11=Jonas|first11=Harry D.|last12=Armitage|first12=Derek|last13=Campbell|first13=Stuart J.|last14=Cox|first14=Courtney|last15=Friedman|first15=Whitney R.|date=July 26, 2021|title=Biodiversity needs every tool in the box: use OECMs|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-02041-4|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=595|issue=7869|pages=646–649|bibcode=2021Natur.595..646G|doi=10.1038/d41586-021-02041-4|pmid=34312552}}</ref> This can lead to differences in determining where wildlife populations are found, species composition, as well as seasonal patterns and changes.<ref name=":623" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Klein|first1=Julia A.|last2=Hopping|first2=Kelly A.|last3=Yeh|first3=Emily T.|last4=Nyima|first4=Yonten|last5=Boone|first5=Randall B.|last6=Galvin|first6=Kathleen A.|date=September 2014|title=Unexpected climate impacts on the Tibetan Plateau: Local and scientific knowledge in findings of delayed summer|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0959378014000557|journal=Global Environmental Change|language=en|volume=28|pages=141–152|bibcode=2014GEC....28..141K|doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2014.03.007|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Indigenous ideas of mobility hold that being able to make decisions around movement helps produce Indigenous relationality.<ref name=":422" /> Indigenous ideas of relationality, or "expansive Indigenous modes of relationship", can offer insight for future developments in large-scale landscape conservation and connectivity.<ref name=":422" /> For example, rhetoric around the Yellowstone to Yukon Conservation Initiative has described the initiative as a new paradigm, when large-scale landscape conservation is already practiced by Indigenous people (i.e. the Flathead Nation's stewardship of bison across wide ranges, cultivating "expansive relationality").<ref name=":422" /> Concerns over connectivity rhetoric being settler-oriented are a feature of the Land Back movement.<ref name=":422" />
Managing terrestrial and aquatic lands can have a positive impact on Indigenous groups that rely on wildlife populations for cultural practices, such as fishing and hunting.<ref name=":324">{{Cite journal |last1=Gurney|first1=Georgina G.|last2=Darling|first2=Emily S.|last3=Ahmadia|first3=Gabby N.|last4=Agostini|first4=Vera N.|last5=Ban|first5=Natalie C.|last6=Blythe|first6=Jessica|last7=Claudet|first7=Joachim|last8=Epstein|first8=Graham|last9=Estradivari|last10=Himes-Cornell|first10=Amber|last11=Jonas|first11=Harry D.|last12=Armitage|first12=Derek|last13=Campbell|first13=Stuart J.|last14=Cox|first14=Courtney|last15=Friedman|first15=Whitney R.|date=July 26, 2021|title=Biodiversity needs every tool in the box: use OECMs|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-02041-4|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=595|issue=7869|pages=646–649|bibcode=2021Natur.595..646G|doi=10.1038/d41586-021-02041-4|pmid=34312552}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=May 2023|title=The Economic, Socio-Cultural, and Ecological Benefits of Indigenous Protected and Conserved Areas in British Columbia|url=https://y2y.net/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/Y2Y-Issue_Sheet-IPCA-2023-v2.pdf|access-date=December 9, 2024|website=Yellowstone to Yukon Conservation Initiative}}</ref> Many Indigenous groups manage wildlife populations, yet can have limited finances to manage large swathes of habitat.<ref name=":022">{{Cite news |last=Fallon|first=Cait|date=Aug 23, 2021|title="Tribal Wildlife Corridors Act Bolsters Wildlife Conservation on Tribal Lands"|url=https://www.nwf.org/Latest-News/Press-Releases/2021/8-23-21-Tribal-Wildlife-Corridors|access-date=October 26, 2024|work=National Wildlife Federation}}</ref> In Canada, in 2025, the national parks organization, Parks Canada, and the province of British Columbia, announced $8 million in funding for wildlife corridors and Indigenous stewardship.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Canada|first=Parks|date=2025-07-09|title=Parks Canada and British Columbia invest more than $8 M to improve ecological connectivity|url=https://www.canada.ca/en/parks-canada/news/2025/07/parks-canada-and-british-columbia-invest-more-than-8-m-to-improve-ecological-connectivity.html|access-date=2026-04-07|website=www.canada.ca}}</ref> Also in Canada, a Mi'kmaw organization in Nova Scotia received $491,000 from Parks Canada's National Program for Ecological Corridors, in order to steward wildlife corridors on the landscape.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Mi'kmaw organization receives $491K to help create ecological corridors across Cape Breton {{!}} CBC News |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/nova-scotia/ecological-corridors-biocultural-connectivity-unama-ki-institute-of-natural-resources-parks-canada-9.7102928 |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20260224043353/https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/nova-scotia/ecological-corridors-biocultural-connectivity-unama-ki-institute-of-natural-resources-parks-canada-9.7102928 |archive-date=2026-02-24 |access-date=2026-04-07 |work=CBC |language=en-US}}</ref>
== Human-wildlife conflict == Corridors can coincide with areas of human settlements, which can produce conflict between wildlife and people.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal |last1=Badola|first1=Ruchi|last2=Ahmed|first2=Tanveer|last3=Gill|first3=Amanat Kaur|last4=Dobriyal|first4=Pariva|last5=Das|first5=Goura Chandra|last6=Badola|first6=Srishti|last7=Hussain|first7=Syed Ainul|date=2021-03-04|title=An incentive-based mitigation strategy to encourage coexistence of large mammals and humans along the foothills of Indian Western Himalayas|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=11|issue=1|article-number=5235 |doi=10.1038/s41598-021-84119-7|pmid=33664314 |pmc=7933403 |bibcode=2021NatSR..11.5235B |issn=2045-2322}}</ref> Human-wildlife conflict, caused by the degradation of wildlife habitat and resource competition, can take the form of road mortality, crop raiding, livestock predation, as well as human injury and death.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":132">{{Cite journal |last1=Tantipisanuh|first1=Naruemon|last2=Phakpian|first2=Somporn|last3=Tangtorwongsakul|first3=Pornpimon|last4=Vinitpornsawan|first4=Supagit|last5=Ngoprasert|first5=Dusit|date=2024-09-01|title=Identifying wildlife corridors to restore population connectivity: An integration approach involving multiple data sources|journal=Global Ecology and Conservation|volume=53|article-number=e03015|doi=10.1016/j.gecco.2024.e03015|bibcode=2024GEcoC..5303015T |issn=2351-9894}}</ref> In India, for example, many corridors connecting larger patches of habitat also overlap with human settlements, including rural communities. Local citizens respond to this conflict in numerous ways, including through poisoning animals, trapping them, or otherwise killing or harming them.<ref name=":10" /> This behaviour can undermine conservation gains.<ref name=":10" />
Different strategies have been introduced to mitigate human-wildlife conflict.<ref name=":10" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last2=Jamaludin|first2=Johanness|last3=Gautam|first3=Ambika P.|last4=Schmidt-Vogt|first4=Dietrich|date=2025-08-25|title=Balancing act: navigating increasing human-wildlife conflict amidst megafauna recovery in the tropical lowlands of Nepal|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=15|issue=1|doi=10.1038/s41598-025-16707-w|last1=Neupane|first1=Bijaya|issn=2045-2322|last5=Hogarth|first5=Nicholas J.|last6=Webb|first6=Edward L. |article-number=31201 |pmid=40855168 |pmc=12378417 |bibcode=2025NatSR..1531201N }}</ref> For example, in India, fencing off areas, translocating animals, and sterilizing wildlife has been attempted.<ref name=":10" /> These practices are often expensive and physically demanding.<ref name=":10" />
Incentives for improving attitudes towards wildlife corridors are another means of mitigating human-wildlife conflict.<ref name=":10" /> These include direct payments for ecosystem services (PES), which is a financial incentive that encourages landholders, farmers, etc. to adopt practices that reduce human-wildlife conflict.<ref name=":10" />
Other techniques for minimizing human-wildlife conflict include exist. In parts of Africa and Asia, strategic communal guarding systems, whereby farmers make teams and alert one another to the presence of an animal, i.e. an elephant, allows community members to make noise to encourage the animal to leave the area.<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal |last1=Gross|first1=Eva M.|last2=Lahkar|first2=Bibhuti P.|last3=Subedi|first3=Naresh|last4=Nyirenda|first4=Vincent R.|last5=Lichtenfeld|first5=Laly L.|last6=Jakoby|first6=Oliver|date=2019-08-01|title=Does traditional and advanced guarding reduce crop losses due to wildlife? A comparative analysis from Africa and Asia|journal=Journal for Nature Conservation|volume=50|article-number=125712|doi=10.1016/j.jnc.2019.125712|bibcode=2019JNatC..5025712G |issn=1617-1381}}</ref> This systemic approach can help to decrease crop damage.<ref name=":11" />
== Examples ==
The network of wildlife overpasses and underpasses in Banff National Park in Alberta, Canada, was launched in the 1980s to minimize wildlife collisions along the Trans-Canada Highway.<ref name=":142">{{Cite web |title=As Banff's famed wildlife overpasses turn 20, the world looks to Canada for conservation inspiration|url=https://canadiangeographic.ca/articles/as-banffs-famed-wildlife-overpasses-turn-20-the-world-looks-to-canada-for-conservation-inspiration/|access-date=2026-04-05|website=canadiangeographic.ca|language=en-US}}</ref> The network includes six overpasses and 38 underpasses.<ref name=":6" /> Created by Parks Canada, the project spans over 180 kilometres along the Trans-Canada Highway, and has reduced wildlife collisions by 80%.<ref name=":142" /> The overpasses and underpasses have been observed to be used more than 200,000 times by a wide variety of species, including the red fox, hoary marmot, snakes, and boreal toads.<ref name=":142" /> Road mortality in large carnivores is between 50-100% lower than before the creating of the corridor infrastructure, and the road mortality rate for ungulates such as elk are close to 0%.<ref name=":142" /> The overpasses are planted with trees and native grasses, with fences on either side to help guide animals and prevent them from crossing the highway itself.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dickie |first=Gloria |author-link=Gloria Dickie |date=2022-07-22 |title=As Banff's famed wildlife overpasses turn 20, the world looks to Canada for conservation inspiration |url=https://canadiangeographic.ca/articles/as-banffs-famed-wildlife-overpasses-turn-20-the-world-looks-to-canada-for-conservation-inspiration/ |access-date=2024-02-26 |website=Canadian Geographic |language=en-US}}</ref>
In 2001, a wolf corridor was restored through a golf course in Jasper National Park, Alberta, which showed frequent use by the wolf population.<ref>{{Cite journal|author1=Shepherd, B|author2=J. Whittington |date=2006|title=Response of wolves to corridor restoration and human use management|journal=Ecology and Society |volume=11 |issue=2|article-number=art1 |doi=10.5751/ES-01813-110201 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2006EcSoc..11Tar.1S }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|first1=Daniel K.|last1=Rosenberg|first2=Barry R. |last2=Noon |first3=E. Charles |last3=Meslow|title=Biological Corridors: Form, Function, and Efficacy|journal=BioScience|volume=47|issue=10 |date=November 1997|pages=677–687|jstor=1313208|doi=10.2307/1313208|doi-access=free}}</ref>
The wildlife corridor along the Delhi-Mumbai Expressway, near the Ranthambore Tiger Reserve, contains a 3.5 kilometre wildlife overpass network, with each segment about 500 metres long. The project, constructed by the National Highway Authority of India (NHAI) also consists of a 1.2 kilometre underpass. As of 2026 it was partially completed.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2026-03-29 |title=India's longest wildlife overpass opens on Ranthambore stretch of Delhi–Mumbai Expressway |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/jaipur/at-11-5-kms-indias-longest-animal-crossing-coming-up-near-rbore/articleshow/129871816.cms |access-date=2026-04-06 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-07-24 |title=NHAI builds India's longest wildlife overpass on Delhi-Mumbai Expressway |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/travel/news/nhai-builds-indias-longest-wildlife-overpass-on-delhi-mumbai-expressway/articleshow/122806864.cms |access-date=2026-04-06 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>[[File:Bear underpass écoducOurs.jpg|thumb|Florida|alt=Florida highway]]
=== Corridors as existing infrastructure === In Southern California, 15 underpasses and drainage culverts were observed to see how many animals used them as corridors.<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal |last1=Ng|first1=Sandra J.|last2=Dole|first2=Jim W.|last3=Sauvajot|first3=Raymond M.|last4=Riley|first4=Seth P.D|last5=Valone|first5=Thomas J.|date=2004|title=Use of highway undercrossings by wildlife in southern California|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320703001666|url-status=live|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=115|issue=3|pages=499–507|bibcode=2004BCons.115..499N|doi=10.1016/S0006-3207(03)00166-6|url-access=subscription|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221031100008/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320703001666|archive-date=31 October 2022|access-date=2022-10-31}}</ref> They were effective on carnivores, mule deer, small mammals, and reptiles, even though the corridors were not intended specifically for animals. Researchers learned that factors such as surrounding habitat, underpass dimensions, and human activity played a role in the frequency of usage of existing human infrastructure.<ref name=":032">{{Cite journal |last1=Ng|first1=Sandra J|last2=Dole|first2=Jim W|last3=Sauvajot|first3=Raymond M|last4=Riley|first4=Seth P.D|last5=Valone|first5=Thomas J|date=2003-03-20|title=Use of highway undercrossings by wildlife in southern California|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0006320703001666|journal=Biological Conservation|language=en|volume=115|issue=3|pages=499–507|doi=10.1016/S0006-3207(03)00166-6|bibcode=2004BCons.115..499N|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
=== Corridor experiments === In a corridor ecology experiment in South Carolina, in the United States, five remnant areas of land were monitored for butterfly movement and plant reproduction. The areas consisted of a central area, four habitat patches around the central area, and a wildlife corridor between the central area and one of the habitat patches.<ref name=":222">{{Cite web |last=Susan Milius|date=2002-10-22|title=Insects, pollen, seeds travel wildlife corridors|url=https://www.sciencenews.org/article/insects-pollen-seeds-travel-wildlife-corridors|archive-date=4 November 2022|website=Science News|access-date=4 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221104061201/https://www.sciencenews.org/article/insects-pollen-seeds-travel-wildlife-corridors|url-status=live}}</ref> Butterflies that were placed in the central habitat area were two to four times more likely to move to the patch connected by the wildlife corridor than to the disconnected habitat patches. Male holly plants were also placed in the central habitat area, and female holly plants in the connected patch had 70% higher seed production compared to female holly plants plants in the habitat patches not connected by a wildlife corridor.<ref name=":222" /> Plant seed dispersal through bird droppings was noted to be the dispersal method with the largest increase within the corridor-connected patch of land.<ref name=":222" />
=== Legislating corridors === In the United States, the Florida Wildlife Corridor act was passed in June 2021, securing a network of nearly 18 million acres of connected ecosystems.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Realm|first=Visual|title=About The Corridor|url=https://floridawildlifecorridor.org/about/about-the-corridor/|access-date=2024-11-13|website=Florida Wildlife Corridor Foundation|language=en-US}}</ref> Starting from the Alabama border, through the Florida panhandle to the Florida Keys, the corridor contains state parks, national forests, wildlife management areas, agricultural land, and ranches.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Florida Wildlife Corridor Foundation {{!}} Connecting to Keep Florida Wild |url=https://floridawildlifecorridor.org/ |access-date=2026-04-07 |website=floridawildlifecorridor.org}}</ref>
=== Urban corridors === The Darlington Ecological Corridor in Montreal, Canada is an example of an urban ecological corridor. The corridor connects Mount Royal, a park in the centre of the city, to a railway corridor, via the Côte-des-Neiges-Notre-Dame-de-Grâce borough. The corridor began development in 2014, as an initiative between Université de Montréal researchers, the borough, and other stakeholders such as Éco-Pivot, a local group that supports urban greening.<ref name=":16">{{Cite web |title=Corridor écologique Darlington {{!}} Montréal|url=https://en.corridorecologiquedarlington.org/|access-date=2026-04-06|website=Darlington|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=How Montreal turned an asphalt sprawl into a biodiversity highway|url=https://canadiangeographic.ca/articles/how-montreal-turned-an-asphalt-sprawl-into-a-biodiversity-highway/|access-date=2026-04-06|website=canadiangeographic.ca|language=en-US}}</ref> The corridor was conceived as a project to support the fox population on Mount Royal, but expanded to include multiple stakeholders and perspectives. The corridor includes community food gardens, roadside pollinator gardens, and natural stormwater management through rain gardens.<ref name=":16" /><ref name=":15">{{Cite web |title=How Montreal turned an asphalt sprawl into a biodiversity highway|url=https://canadiangeographic.ca/articles/how-montreal-turned-an-asphalt-sprawl-into-a-biodiversity-highway/|access-date=2026-04-05|website=canadiangeographic.ca|language=en-US}}</ref> The project seeks to help restore biodiversity in Montreal and also to improve food security.<ref name=":15" />
The Mont Boullé Ecological Corridor in Jean Drapeau Park on Île-Ste-Hélène in Montreal, Canada is another example of an urban ecological corridor. In 2023, the Park began the project of creating a dense forest on the island, with over 27,000 plants (including small plants, shrubs, and trees).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Development of Mont Boullé's ecological corridor|url=https://www.parcjeandrapeau.com/en/development-projects-work/development-of-mont-boulle-ecological-corridor-sector-components-phases-state-budget/|access-date=2026-04-06|website=Parc Jean-Drapeau|language=en}}</ref> The project includes the elimination of invasive species, constructing walkways to protect new vegetation, improving rainwater filtration by creating a 334 square-metre plant-filled valley with optimal conditions for water infiltration; restoring historic stoneworks and trails; adding infrastructure for human use, such as water fountains; and protecting nearby archeological sites.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Development of Mont Boullé's ecological corridor|url=https://www.parcjeandrapeau.com/en/development-projects-work/development-of-mont-boulle-ecological-corridor-sector-components-phases-state-budget/|access-date=2026-04-06|website=Parc Jean-Drapeau|language=en}}</ref>
===Other wildlife corridors===
* Paséo Pantera (also known as the Mesoamerican Biological Corridor or Paséo del Jaguar), terminated in 2018 due to financing limitations<ref>{{Cite web |title=Paseo Pantera Project|url=http://www.afn.org/~wcsfl/pp.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221109084435/http://www.afn.org/~wcsfl/pp.htm|archive-date=9 November 2022|access-date=2022-11-09|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cristina Carrillo Hernández|first1=Ana|last2=Ortega-Argueta|first2=Alejandro|last3=María Gama Campillo|first3=Lilia|last4=Bello-Baltazar|first4=Eduardo|last5=Rioja Nieto|first5=Rodolfo|date=2022-10-01|title=Effectiveness of management of the Mesoamerican Biological Corridor in Mexico|journal=Landscape and Urban Planning|volume=226|article-number=104504|doi=10.1016/j.landurbplan.2022.104504|bibcode=2022LUrbP.22604504C |issn=0169-2046}}</ref> * European Green Belt<ref>{{Cite web |title=European Green Belt Initiative|url=https://www.europeangreenbelt.org/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221111100540/https://www.europeangreenbelt.org/|archive-date=11 November 2022|access-date=2022-11-09|language=en}}</ref>
* Yukon to Yellowstone Conservation Initiative in the Americas<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chester|first=Charles C.|date=2015-05-01|title=Yellowstone to Yukon: Transborder conservation across a vast international landscape|journal=Environmental Science & Policy|volume=49|pages=75–84|doi=10.1016/j.envsci.2014.08.009|bibcode=2015ESPol..49...75C |issn=1462-9011}}</ref> * National Ecological Network is a network of corridors and habitats created for wildlife in the Netherlands<ref>Ecologische Hoofdstructuur</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Klimaat|first=Ministerie van Economische Zaken en|date=2014-03-20|title=National Ecological Network (NEN) - Nature and biodiversity - Government.nl|url=https://www.government.nl/topics/nature-and-biodiversity/national-ecological-network-nen|access-date=2026-04-06|website=www.government.nl|language=en-GB}}</ref> * Kanha-Pench corridor by the NH 44 in India<ref>{{Cite news |last=Gandhi|first=Divya|date=2019-09-07|title=A wild, wild road|url=https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-and-environment/a-wild-wild-road/article29360610.ece|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221109084439/https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-and-environment/a-wild-wild-road/article29360610.ece|archive-date=9 November 2022|access-date=2020-09-17|work=The Hindu|language=en-IN|issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Pandey|first=Kundan|date=2026-03-12|title=A recovering tiger population powered by forest corridors|url=https://india.mongabay.com/2026/03/a-recovering-tiger-population-powered-by-forest-corridors/|access-date=2026-04-06|website=Mongabay-India|language=en-US}}</ref> * Terai Arc Landscapes, in the Lower Himalayan Region<ref>{{Cite web |last=Chauhan|first=Priya|date=2021-04-01|title=26 Important Wildlife Corridors Providing Safe Passage to Species|url=https://www.planetcustodian.com/important-wildlife-corridors-world/12788/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210423070609/https://www.planetcustodian.com/important-wildlife-corridors-world/12788/|archive-date=23 April 2021|access-date=2021-04-23|work=Planet Custodian|language=en-IN}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Terai Arc Landscape│ Forest and Landscape Restoration Mechanism FLRM │ FAO|url=https://www.fao.org/in-action/forest-landscape-restoration-mechanism/un-decade/world-restoration-flagships/terai-arc-landscape/en|access-date=2026-04-06|website=FLRM|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Yadav|first1=Pramod K.|last2=Brownlee|first2=Matthew T. J.|last3=Kapoor|first3=Mohnish|date=2022-11-01|title=A systematic scoping review of tiger conservation in the Terai Arc Landscape and Himalayas|journal=Oryx|volume=56|issue=6|pages=888–896|doi=10.1017/s0030605322001156|issn=0030-6053}}</ref> * Banff National Park network of wildlife corridors, in Canada<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |title=As Banff's famed wildlife overpasses turn 20, the world looks to Canada for conservation inspiration|url=https://canadiangeographic.ca/articles/as-banffs-famed-wildlife-overpasses-turn-20-the-world-looks-to-canada-for-conservation-inspiration/|access-date=2026-04-05|website=canadiangeographic.ca|language=en-US}}</ref>
==See also== {{Portal|Environment|Ecology|Earth sciences|Biology}}
* Colored walls or corridors ** Aquatic organism passage ** Emerald network ** Wildlife crossing, green crossing
* Area and links ** Biolink zones ** Linear park ** Marine Protected Area ** The Pollinator Pathway ** Landscape connectivity
* Habitat ** Habitat conservation ** Habitat destruction *Road ecology
==Further reading == *{{Cite journal |date=December 1998 |title= Do Habitat Corridors Provide Connectivity? |journal= Conservation Biology |volume=12 |issue=6 |pages= 1241–1252 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.1998.98036.x|bibcode=1998ConBi..12.1241B |s2cid=16770640 |last1= Beier |first1= Paul |last2= Noss |first2= Reed F. }} *Bennett, A.F. 1999. Linkages in the Landscape: The Role of Corridors and Connectivity in Wildlife Conservation. The World Conservation Union, Gland, Switzerland. *De Chant, T. 2007. A Future of Conservation. Northfield Habitat Corridors Community Plan, Northfield, Minnesota.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.de-chant.com/tim/nhc/index.html |title=Northfield Habitat Corridors |publisher=De-chant.com |access-date=2015-08-11 |archive-date=3 August 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070803055449/http://www.de-chant.com/tim/nhc/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref> *Department of Environment and Conservation (DEC). 2004. Wildlife Corridors. DEC, New South Wales. *Dole, J.W., Ng, S.J., Sauvajot, R.M. 2003. Use of Highway Undercrossings by Wildlife in Southern California. Biology Conservation, 115 (3):499-507.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Ng |first1=Sandra J |last2=Dole |first2=Jim W |last3=Sauvajot |first3=Raymond M |last4=Riley |first4=Seth P.D |last5=Valone |first5=Thomas J |date=2003-03-20 |title=Use of highway undercrossings by wildlife in southern California |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0006320703001666 |journal=Biological Conservation |language=en |volume=115 |issue=3 |pages=499–507 |doi=10.1016/S0006-3207(03)00166-6|bibcode=2004BCons.115..499N |url-access=subscription }}</ref> *Foreman, Dave. Rewilding North America: a Vision for Conservation in the 21st Century. Washington: Island, 2004. *{{cite journal | last1 = Fleury | first1 = A.M. | last2 = Brown | first2 = R.D. | year = 1997 | title = A Framework for the Design of Wildlife Conservation Corridors with Specific Application to Southwestern Ontario | journal = Landscape and Urban Planning | volume = 37 | issue = 8| pages = 163–186 | doi = 10.1016/S0169-2046(97)80002-3 | bibcode = 1997LUrbP..37..163F | hdl = 10214/4617 | hdl-access = free }} *M., S. 2002. Ecology: Insects, Pollen, Seeds, Travel Wildlife Corridors. Science News, 162 (10):269. *{{cite journal | last1 = Mech | first1 = S.G. | last2 = Hallett | first2 = J.G. | year = 2001 | title = Evaluating the Effectiveness of Corridors: a Genetic Approach | journal = Conservation Biology | volume = 15 | issue = 2| pages = 467–474 | doi = 10.1046/j.1523-1739.2001.015002467.x | bibcode = 2001ConBi..15..467M | s2cid = 84520743 }} *Roach, J. 2006. First Evidence that Wildlife Corridors Boost Biodiversity, Study Says. National Geographic Society, Washington, D.C.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/09/060901-plant-corridors.html |title=First Evidence That Wildlife Corridors Boost Biodiversity, Study Says |publisher=News.nationalgeographic.com |date=2010-10-28 |access-date=2015-08-11 |archive-date=21 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221040127/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/09/060901-plant-corridors.html }}</ref> *{{cite journal | last1 = Rosenberg | first1 = D.K. | last2 = Noon | first2 = B.R. | last3 = Meslow | first3 = E.C. | year = 1997 | title = Biological Corridors: Form, Function, and Efficacy | journal = BioScience | volume = 47 | issue = 10| pages = 667–687 | doi = 10.2307/1313208 | jstor = 1313208 | doi-access = free }} *{{cite journal | last1 = Simberloff | first1 = D. | last2 = Farr | first2 = J.A. | last3 = Cox | first3 = J. | last4 = Mehlman | first4 = D.W. | year = 1992 | title = Movement Corridors: Conservation Bargains or Poor Investments? | journal = Conservation Biology | volume = 6 | issue = 4| pages = 492–504 | doi = 10.1046/j.1523-1739.1992.06040493.x | bibcode = 1992ConBi...6..493S }} *{{cite journal | last1 = Sutcliffe | first1 = O.L. | last2 = Thomas | first2 = C.D. | year = 1996 | title = Open Corridors Appear to Facilitate Dispersal by Ringlet Butterflies (Aphantopus hyperantus) between Woodland Clearings | journal = Conservation Biology | volume = 10 | issue = 5| pages = 1359–1365 | doi = 10.1046/j.1523-1739.1996.10051359.x | bibcode = 1996ConBi..10.1359S }} *{{cite journal | last1 = Tewksbury | first1 = J.J. | last2 = Levey | first2 = D.J. | last3 = Haddad | first3 = N.M. | last4 = Sargent | first4 = S. | last5 = Orrock | first5 = J.L. | last6 = Weldon | first6 = A. | last7 = Danielson | first7 = B.J. | last8 = Brinkerhoff | first8 = J. | last9 = Damschen | first9 = E.I. | last10 = Townsend | first10 = P. | year = 2002 | title = Corridors Affect Plants, Animals, and Their Interactions in Fragmented Landscapes | journal = PNAS | volume = 99 | issue = 20| pages = 12923–12926 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.202242699 | pmid = 12239344 | pmc = 130561 | bibcode = 2002PNAS...9912923T | doi-access = free }}
== References == {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="Beier & Loe 1992">{{Cite journal|author1=Beier, P. |author2=Loe, S. |year= 1992 |title= In My Experience: A Checklist for Evaluating Impacts to Wildlife Movement Corridors |journal= Wildlife Society Bulletin |volume=20 |number= 4 |pages= 434–440 }}</ref> }}
==External links== {{Commons category}} *[http://www.mma.es/portal/secciones/biodiversidad/desarrollo_rural_paisaje/fragmentacion_rural/pdf/2_Desfragmentacion_Belgica.pdf Defragmentation in Belgium (Flanders) - Connecting nature, connecting people. Accessed: 22 January 2009] *[https://regeneration.org/nexus/wildlife-corridors Wildlife Corridors] Project Regeneration *[http://www.mma.es/portal/secciones/biodiversidad/desarrollo_rural_paisaje/fragmentacion_rural/pdf/1_Desfragmentacion_Holanda.pdf Wildlife passages - De-Fragmentation in the Netherlands - How to evaluate their effectiveness? Accessed: 22 January 2009] *[http://corridordesign.org CorridorDesign.org - GIS tools for designing wildlife corridors Accessed: 9 March 2010] *[http://www.conservationcorridor.org/ ConservationCorridor.org - information, tools and links to connect the science of landscape corridors to conservation in practice. Accessed: 14 September 2012]
{{Authority control}} {{Conservation of species}}
Category:Conservation biology Category:Conservation projects Category:Ecological connectivity Category:Ecological restoration Category:Environmental conservation Category:Habitat Category:Habitats Category:Systems ecology Category:Urban studies and planning terminology Category:Wildlife conservation Category:Animal migration