{{short description|Works that re-shape the earth's surface}} {{more citations needed|date=March 2015}} [[File:CAT-D10N-at-work-01.jpg|thumb|300px|Caterpillar D10 bulldozer at work]] '''Earthworks''' are engineering works created through the processing of parts of the earth's surface involving quantities of soil or unformed rock.
==Shoring structures== An incomplete list of possible temporary or permanent geotechnical shoring structures that may be designed and utilised as part of earthworks: {{div col|colwidth=23em}} *Mechanically stabilized earth *Earth anchor *Cliff stabilization *Grout curtain *Retaining wall *Slurry wall *Soil nailing *Tieback (geotechnical) *Trench shoring *Caisson *Dam *Gabion *Ground freezing {{div col end}}
===Gallery=== <gallery mode="packed" heights="140px"> File:Mechanically stabilized earth diagram.gif|Mechanically stabilized earth File:GroutCurtain.gif|Grout curtain File:Retaining Wall Type Function.jpg|Retaining wall types File:Soil Nail.jpg|Soil nailing File:FEMA - 6044 - Photograph by Larry Lerner taken on 03-15-2002 in New York.jpg|Tieback File:Sbh s600.JPG|Trench shoring File:Caisson Schematic.svg|Caisson File:Vyrnwy dam.JPG|Dam File:Gabion 040.jpg|Gabions File:Cross section of a ground freezing pipe as used in the big dig.gif|Ground freezing </gallery>
==Excavation== {{Main|Digging}} thumb|300px|Earth moving equipment ({{circa|1922}}) [[File:Construction site near Yass site cleared and bull dozed cleared steam roller in background.JPG|thumb|Flattened and leveled construction site. Road roller in the background.]] '''Excavation''' may be classified by type of material:<ref name=Merritt>Frederick S. Merritt, M. Kent Loftin, Jonathan T. Ricketts, ''Standard Handbook for Civil Engineers, Fourth Edition'', McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1995.</ref>{{rp|13.1}} * Topsoil excavation * Earth excavation * Rock excavation * Muck excavation – this usually contains excess water and unsuitable soil * Unclassified excavation – this is any combination of material types Excavation may be classified by the purpose:<ref name=Merritt/>{{rp|13.1, 13.2}} {{div col|colwidth=23em}} * Stripping * Roadway excavation * Drainage or structure excavation * Bridge excavation * Channel excavation * Footing excavation * Borrow excavation * Dredge excavation * Underground excavation {{div col end}}
==Civil engineering use== Typical earthworks include road construction, railway beds, causeways, dams, levees, canals, and berms. Other common earthworks are land grading to reconfigure the topography of a site, or to stabilize slopes.
[[File:Geofoam bridge overpass.jpg|thumb|250px|Geofoam is a new lightweight earthworks technique used to build a bridge overpass on weak soil near Montreal.]]
==Military use== thumb|Earthworks ditch and rampart in Germany - age prehistorical prior to 300 BC In military engineering, earthworks are, more specifically, types of fortifications constructed from soil. Although soil is not very strong, it is cheap enough that huge quantities can be used, generating formidable structures. Examples of older earthwork fortifications include moats, sod walls, motte-and-bailey castles, and hill forts. Modern examples include trenches and berms.
==Equipment== Heavy construction equipment is usually used due to the amounts of material to be moved — up to millions of cubic metres. Earthwork construction was revolutionized by the development of the (Fresno) scraper and other earth-moving machines such as the loader, the dump truck, the grader, the bulldozer, the backhoe, and the dragline excavator.
==Mass haul planning== thumb|Excavation of over 76 million cubic metres (23 million cubic metres of which was additional to the planned amount due to landslides) for the Culebra Cut, Panama canal construction photo taken {{circa|1907}} Engineers need to concern themselves with issues of geotechnical engineering (such as soil density and strength) and with quantity estimation to ensure that soil volumes in the cuts match those of the fills, while minimizing the distance of movement. In the past, these calculations were done by hand using a slide rule and with methods such as Simpson's rule. Earthworks cost is a function of hauled amount x hauled distance. The goal of mass haul planning is to determine these amounts and the goal of mass haul optimization is to minimize either or both.<ref>{{cite web|title=Earthworks cost optimization through mass haul planning|url=http://topconplanning.com/kb/article/125/earthworks-cost-optimization-through-mass-haul-planning|publisher=www.topconplanning.com|access-date=7 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402130857/http://topconplanning.com/kb/article/125/earthworks-cost-optimization-through-mass-haul-planning|archive-date=2 April 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Now they can be performed with a computer and specialized software, including optimisation on haul cost and not haul distance (as haul cost is not proportional to haul distance).
==See also== {{div col}} *{{annotated link|Contour trenching}} *{{annotated link|Cut and fill}} *{{annotated link|Engineering vehicle|Earth movers}}, construction/engineering vehicles used for earthworks civil engineering *{{annotated link|Earth structure}} *{{annotated link|Earthworks (archaeology)}} *{{annotated link|Gabion}} *{{annotated link|Keyline design}} *{{annotated link|Land restoration}} *{{annotated link|Grading (earthworks)}} *{{annotated link|Spoil tip}} * {{annotated link|Subgrade}} *{{annotated link|Terrace (earthworks)}} {{div col end}}
==Calculation software== thumb|350x350px|Earthworks cut and fill map and estimation summary produced by Kubla Cubed Earthwork software is generally a subset of CAD software, in which case it often an add-on to a more general CAD package such as AutoCAD.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Taking the Measure of Methods for Estimating Earthwork Volumes - Forester Network|url = http://foresternetwork.com/daily/construction/jobsite-infrastructure/taking-the-measure-of-methods-for-estimating-earthwork-volumes/|website = Forester Network|access-date = 2016-02-09|language = en-US|archive-date = 2016-02-22|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160222165746/http://foresternetwork.com/daily/construction/jobsite-infrastructure/taking-the-measure-of-methods-for-estimating-earthwork-volumes/|url-status = dead}}</ref> In that case, earthwork software is principally used to calculate cut and fill volumes which are then used for producing material and time estimates. Most products offer additional functionality such as the ability to takeoff terrain elevation from plans (using contour lines and spot heights); produce shaded cut and fill maps; produce cross sections and visualize terrain in 3D.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Vertigraph, Inc. -- Automating the Takeoff & Estimating Process|url = http://www.vertigraph.com/AutomatingTakeoffEstimatingProcess.shtml|website = www.vertigraph.com|access-date = 2016-02-09|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151215205045/http://www.vertigraph.com/AutomatingTakeoffEstimatingProcess.shtml|archive-date = 2015-12-15|url-status = dead}}</ref> The means by which volumes are calculated in software can differ quite considerably leading to potentially different results with the same input data. Many software products use methods based on triangulated irregular networks (TINS) and triangular prism volume algorithms, however other calculation methods are in use based on rationalizing elevations into high density grids or cross-sections.<ref>{{Cite web|title = How to Estimate Cut and Fill Volumes for Earthworks Projects {{!}} Grid Method, Cross Section Method, Earthworks Software|url = https://www.kublasoftware.com/knowledge-base/cut-and-fill/estimating-earthworks.html|website = www.kublasoftware.com|access-date = 2016-02-09}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title = Vertigraph, Inc. -- Calculating Cut and Fill Quantities : Modern Techniques and Best Practices|url = https://vertigraph.com/calc_cut_and_fill.shtml|website = vertigraph.com|access-date = 2016-02-10|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160131143234/http://www.vertigraph.com/calc_cut_and_fill.shtml|archive-date = 2016-01-31|url-status = dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title = Accuracy Comparison of Roadway Earthwork Computation between 3D and 2D Methods|journal = Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences|date = 2013-11-06|pages = 1277–1285|volume = 96|series = Intelligent and Integrated Sustainable Multimodal Transportation Systems Proceedings from the 13th COTA International Conference of Transportation Professionals (CICTP2013)|doi = 10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.08.145|first1 = Jian-chuan|last1 = Cheng|first2 = Long-jian|last2 = Jiang|doi-access = free}}</ref>
A few programs are specialised in earthworks transport optimization and planning the construction works.
==References== {{Reflist|30em}}
==External links== * {{Commons category-inline}} * [https://www.battlefields.org/learn/articles/nature-of-history/saving-old-dirt-preservation-earthworks Saving Old Dirt: The Preservation of Earthworks] at the American Battlefield Trust
{{Geotechnical engineering|state=collapsed}} {{Portal bar|Engineering}} {{Authority control}}
Category:Civil engineering Category:Earthworks (engineering) Category:Fortification (architectural elements)