Dvaita Vedanta

{{Short description|School of thought in Hinduism}} {{Use British English|date=March 2015}} {{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}} {{DvaitaInfobox}} {{Hindu philosophy}} [[File:Shri Madhvacharya Vigraha, Pajaka, Udupi.jpg|thumb|Madhvacharya, who propounded the philosophy of Tattvavada]] '''Dvaita Vedanta''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|d|v|aɪ|t|ə|_|v|eɪ|ˈ|d|ɑː|n|t|ə}}, originally known as '''Tattvavada'''; IAST: {{IAST|Tattvavāda}}), is a sub-school in the Vedanta tradition of Hindu philosophy. The term Tattvavada literally means "arguments from a realist viewpoint". The Tattvavada (Dvaita) Vedanta sub-school was founded by the 13th-century Indian philosopher-saint Madhvacharya.<ref name="Fowler2002p342"/> Madhvacharya believed in three entities: God, ''jiva'' (soul), and ''jada'' (''maya'', matter).<ref name="stokeriep" /> The Dvaita Vedanta believes that God and the individual souls (jīvātman) exist as distinct realities. These individual souls are dependent (''paratantra'') on Vishnu (Narayana), who alone is independent (''svatantra'').

The Dvaita school contrasts with the other two major sub-schools of Vedanta, the Advaita Vedanta of Adi Shankara which posits nondualism—that ultimate reality (Brahman) and human soul (Ātman) are identical and all reality is interconnected oneness, and Vishishtadvaita of Ramanuja which posits qualified nondualism—that ultimate reality (Brahman) and human soul are different but with the potential to be identical.<ref>{{cite book |author=Jeaneane D. Fowler |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nHbCAQAACAAJ |title=Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism |publisher=Sussex Academic Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-898723-94-3 |pages=238–243, 288–293, 340–343}}</ref><ref>James Lochtefeld (2002), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Volume 1 & 2, Rosen Publishing, {{ISBN|0-8239-2287-1}}, pages 12-13, 213-214, 758-759</ref> Sanyasis of the Dvaita Vedanta tradition belong to the ēkadaṇḍi order.{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=525}}

==Etymology== {{Transliteration|sa|Dvaita}} ({{lang|sa|द्वैत}}) is a Sanskrit word that means "duality, dualism".<ref name=mmwsat507>Sir Monier Monier-Williams, [http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/0500/mw__0540.html Dvaita], A Sanskrit-English Dictionary: Etymologically and Philologically Arranged with Special Reference to Cognate Indo-European Languages, Oxford University Press (Reprinted: Motilal Banarsidass), {{ISBN|978-8120831056}}, page 507.</ref> The term refers to any premise, particularly in theology on the material and the divine, where two principles (truths) or realities are posited to exist simultaneously and independently.<ref name=mmwsat507/><ref name="Fowler2002p342">{{cite book |author=Jeaneane D. Fowler |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nHbCAQAACAAJ |title=Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism |publisher=Sussex Academic Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-898723-94-3 |pages=340–343}}</ref> While dualism generally entails a division between good and evil, Madhvacharya classifies reality into two based on independence and dependence: *independent entity: Creator Benefactor and Destroyer of the Universe which is One *the dependent reality: all else is dependent on Him

=== Other names ===

==== ''Svatantra-Advitiya-Brahmavāda'' ==== Indologist B. N. Krishnamurti Sharma says: "The English term ''Dualism'' is inadequate to express the full content and depth of meaning that Madhva has put into the term ''Dvaita'', as it is to be implied to his system. Even the Sanskrit word ''Dvaita'' is not literally capable of expressing more than the fundamental principles accepted.{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=5}}{{Sfn|Chang|1991|p=36}} B. N. K. Sharma suggested the term ''Svatantra-Advitiya-Brahmavāda'' as an alternative name for Madhva's system, explaining that it emphasizes both the transcendence and immanence of Brahman, directly conveying what Madhva and his commentators like Jayatirtha often stress: the unique supremacy of God (the infinite) alongside the dependent reality of souls and matter (the finite). Sharma says, Satyadhyana Tirtha of Uttaradi Math approved this terminology and would be terminologically balanced with other Vēdantic systems like ''Nirviśeṣādvaita'', ''Śuddhādvaita'', and ''Viśiṣṭādvaita''.{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=5}}

Quoting the term ''Advitīyatva'', Sharma notes that Madhva, in his Chandogya Bhashya, interprets it as denoting the "absence of peer and superior" to Brahman. This interpretation implicitly affirms the existence of "lesser reals", individual souls and matters, subordinate to God's sovereignty. Sharma further states that verses like "''नेह नानास्ति किंचना'' are understood as negating some internal distinctions (''nānātva'') in Brahman. The only internal distinctions that are logically conceivable in Brahman, are those of attributes. The adjunct ''Svatantra'' would thus serve to emphasize the transcendence of the supreme over the other reals and its immanence in them and show how the conception of Brahman, here, differs from the ''Nirviśeṣādvaita'' of Adi Shankara. It would also lay direct emphasis on the primacy of the supreme as the ''Para-Siddhanta'' of the Madhva's thought, and put the teachings about the finite in their proper place as constituting the ''Apara-Siddhānta'' (subsidiary truths)".{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=5}}

==== ''Pūrnabrahmavāda'' ==== Aluru Venkata Rao opines that the term ''Dvaita'' is not suitable for Madhva's philosophy, hence it should not be used.<ref>{{cite book|title=A Critique of Indian Dualism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kqPWAAAAMAAJ|author=Shivnarayan Joshi Shivji|publisher=Scientific Publishers|date=1 January 1992|isbn = 9788172330224|quote=Alur Venkat Rao opines that the term Dvaita is not suitable for Madhva's philosophy, hence it should not be used.}}</ref> Instead, he suggests to use the term ''Pūrnabrahmavāda''.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aktdBheKI-IC|title=A Treasury of Mahāyāna Sūtras: Selections from the Mahāratnakūṭa Sūtra|page=36|author=Chen-chi Chang|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|year=1991|isbn=978-8120809369|quote=Alur Venkatarao of Dharwar gave Madhva's philosophy the name "Pūrnabrahmavāda".}}</ref>

== Philosophy == {{Vaishnavism}} Dvaita Vedanta is a dualistic interpretation of the Vedas systematized by the 13th-century Indian philosopher-saint Madhvacharya, theorizing the existence of two separate realities. The first and the only independent reality (''svatantra-tattva''), is Vishnu as the ultimate reality (Brahman) and Supreme God.{{sfn|Fowler|2002|pp=340-344}} Vishnu is the supreme Self, in a manner similar to the monotheistic God in other major religions.<ref>Michael Myers (2000), Brahman: A Comparative Theology, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0700712571}}, pages 124-127</ref> He is believed to be almighty, eternal,<ref name="glasenapp-einleitung-1-2">Helmuth von Glasenapp: Madhva's Philosophie des Vishnu-Glaubens, Geistesströmungen des Ostens vol. 2, Bonn 1923, Einleitung (p. *1-2).</ref> always existing, everlasting, all-knowing, and compassionate.<ref>Glasenapp: Madhva's Philosophie des Vishnu-Glaubens, p. 32.</ref> The second reality is that of dependent (''asvatantra-tattva'' or ''paratantra'') but equally real universe that exists with its own separate essence. Everything that is composed of the second reality, such as individual soul, matter, and the like exist with their own separate reality. The distinguishing factor of this philosophy, as opposed to monistic Advaita Vedanta, is that God takes on a personal role and is seen as a real eternal entity that governs and controls the universe.{{sfn|Etter|2006|pp=59-60}}

Like Ramanuja, for Madhvacharya too, Vishnu is the One Independent Supreme principle. But this is not sectarian; For Madhva, words like "Narayana", "Vishnu", etc, when etymologically derived, give the meaning of transcendence, immanence, abode of infinite auspicious attributes, infinite bliss, etc. Madhvacharya posits God as being personal and ''saguna'', that is endowed with attributes and qualities (in human terms, which are not believed to be able to fully describe God).<ref name="glasenapp-30-31">Glasenapp: Madhva's Philosophie des Vishnu-Glaubens, p. 30–31.</ref> To Madhvacharya, the metaphysical concept of Brahman in the Vedas was Vishnu. He stated: "''Brahmaśabdaśca Viṣṇaveva''", that Brahman can only refer to Vishnu. Scriptures which say different are declared as non-authoritative by him.<ref name="glasenapp-28-29">Glasenapp: Madhva's Philosophie des Vishnu-Glaubens, p. 28–29.</ref> For Madhvacharya, Vishnu was not just any other deva, but rather the one and only Supreme Being.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Edwin |last= Bryant| title=Krishna : A Sourcebook (Chapter 15 by Deepak Sarma)| publisher= Oxford University Press| year= 2007| isbn= 978-0195148923| page=358}}</ref><ref name=stokeriep>{{cite web|title=Madhva (1238-1317) |first= Valerie| last= Stoker| publisher= Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy|year=2011 |access-date=29 February 2016| url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/madhva/}}</ref> According to him, the devas are souls of deceased persons who were rewarded for good deeds by being reincarnated into the heavenly worlds and carrying out the will of God,<ref name="glasenapp-67-68">Glasenapp: Madhva's Philosophie des Vishnu-Glaubens, p. 67–68.</ref> which would also be the case with Vayu and Lakshmi.<ref>Glasenapp: Madhva's Philosophie des Vishnu-Glaubens, p. 75.</ref> He also believes that devas are mortal, and that some of them could sink into lower stages of existence after death.<ref name="glasenapp-67-68" /> Therefore, he believes that only God (Vishnu) should be worshipped through devas, and that worshipping devas on their own behalf is an apostasy which emerged during Treta Yuga, and did not yet exist during Satya Yuga.<ref name="glasenapp-71">Glasenapp: Madhva's Philosophie des Vishnu-Glaubens, p. 71.</ref> According to him, this must also be noticed regarding murtis.<ref name="glasenapp-85">Glasenapp: Madhva's Philosophie des Vishnu-Glaubens, p. 85.</ref>

'''''<big>The Reals</big>'''''

This system admits of a two-fold classification of "Reals"- into the Independent and Dependent reality; the Independent Reality is One, and is Vishnu. The dependent reality comprises all else- the jivas, the jadas and also the abhava padarthas.

'''''<big>The Brahman</big>'''''

Brahman is Vishnu, He is Supreme, abode of auspicious attributes, free from blemishes, and Infinite in every sense of the term. There is no gradation of Brahman into Saguna and Nirguna; Nirguna is understood as being free from all kinds of imperfections and is itself a guna (attribute) of the Supreme.

=== ''Jivas'' === The jivas are eternal and infinite in number. Therefore, for the jivas, Creation is the obtainment of visheshas- the bodies in successive births.

The individual souls (''jiva'') are depicted as reflections, images or shadows of the divine (bimba-pratibimba), but never in any way (even after ''moksha'', or liberation) identical with the divine. Being a reflection of God, each ''jiva'' has a nature with some characteristics (truth, conscious, bliss) of God in varying degree which is under the influence of ''karma'' in bondage and expands to its distinct full intrinsic capacity in ''moksha''. Liberated ''jivas'' do not attain equality with Brahman and also are not equal to each other.<ref name=":0" /> Jivas are qualitatively different from each other and have an intrinsic svabhava- nature that impels them into karma, good or evil.

'''''<big>Jadas</big>'''''

The jadas are the other dependent reality is subject to the cycle of creation and dissolution.

Five fundamental, eternal and real differences are described in Dvaita school:{{sfn|Fowler|2002|pp=340-344}}<ref name="stokeriep" /><ref>James Lochtefeld (2002), Madhva, The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN|978-0823931798}}, page 396</ref> # Between the individual souls (or jīvātman) and God (paramathma or Vishnu). # Between matter (inanimate, insentient) and God. # Between individual souls (jīvātman). # Between matter and jīvātman. # Between various types of matter.

The theory of five differences is that "the ''jiva'' is different from every other entity including all ''jivas''".<ref name=":0" /> These five differences are said to explain the nature of the universe. The world is called ''prapañca'' (''pañca'' "five") by the Dvaita school for this reason.

Madhva differed significantly from traditional Hindu beliefs owing to his concept of eternal damnation. According to him, there are three different classes of souls: One class, ''Mukti-yogyas'', which would qualify for liberation, another, the ''Nitya-samsarins'', which would be subject to eternal rebirth or eternal transmigration and a third class, ''Tamo-yogyas'', which would be condemned to eternal hell (Andhatamisra).<ref name=":0">Tapasyananda, Swami. ''Bhakti Schools of Vedanta'' pg. 173-187.</ref>

=== ''Moksha'' (liberation) === ''Moksha'' (liberation) is described as the realization that all finite reality is essentially dependent on the Supreme.{{sfn|Fowler|2002|pp=340-344}} God is believed to have shown the way to attain ''moksha'' through several avatars.<ref name="glasenapp-einleitung-1-2" /> Bhakti Yoga is an essential part of Dvaita Vedanta. By devotion to God and God's grace, ''jiva'' attains ''moksha''. Moksha is the expression and manifestation of the innate bliss in the soul that has been all along covered by ajnana and bondage. While Divine Grace is a must for this, Mukti is not possible without jnana (Jnanenaiva paramam padam- Sri Madhvacharya in Anubhashya, a small metric composition on the Brahmasutras). However, the concept of jnana differs significantly from that of other schools; Jnana may be described as a direct knowledge and vision (aparokshajnana) of the indwelling form of the Lord through study of scriptures, righteous living spanning births and devotion to the Lord with full understanding of his transendental attributes. However, bad karma results in condemnation from God.{{Sfn|Etter|2006|pp=59-60}}

'''''<big>Sadhana and Liberation</big>'''''

According to Madhvacharya, the ''jiva'' is unaware of its real nature due to ignorance (''avidyā'') caused by ''maya'', and thus, is unable to realize its expression of intrinsic attributes.<ref name=":0" /> Some ''jivas'' are predestined to attain ''moksha'', while others are predestined to eternally suffer.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sarma |first=Deepak |title=An introduction to Mādhva Vedānta |date=2003 |publisher=Ashgate |isbn=978-0-7546-0637-6 |series=Ashgate world philosophies series |location=Aldershot |pages=56}}</ref> While this may seem cruel, it is actually a corollary of the three-fold classification of the svabhava or the intrinsic nature of the jivas.

Liberation for each ''jiva'' means realizing its innate bliss by removal of covering of ''maya''. Liberation can only be achieved by the grace of God with self-effort on the part of the ''jiva''. Practicing ''vairāgya'' allows ''Mukti-yogyas'' (''jivas'' qualified for liberation) to gain freedom from worldly attachments and develop faith in God. Self-effort which makes a ''jiva'' worthy for liberation involves ''karma'' (good work), Jnana Yoga (knowledge) and Bhakti Yoga (devotion). S''ādhaka'' performs such sadhana through ''śravaṇa'', ''manana'' and ''nididhyasana''. Madhva also placed a great importance on a Guru's guidance and blessings to understand the jnana from scriptures. According to Madhva, ''śravaṇa'' and ''manana'' are the only means for nidhiyasana. This sadhana leads the sadhaka to ''aparoksa-jnana'' (spiritual realisation) and liberation through grace of God.<ref name=":0" />

Thus the path to liberation consists of: Jnana, bhakti, jnana and bhakti again.

# righteous living # study of shastras and obtaining indirect knowledge of God, reflection and meditation on His infinite auspicious attributes and as benefactor of all of the Universe # Love of God( paroksha jnana and bhakti) # Direct vision of God (aparokshajnana) that cuts all karma except prarabhdha # sadhana continues and at the end of the Brahma-kalpa, shedding of all coils including the last- the linga deha and entering Vaikunta.

== Relationship with other traditions ==

=== Advaita === Dvaita philosophers challenge the Advaita Vedanta view that ignorance (''avidya'') explains the appearance of multiplicity in a singular, unchanging reality (Brahman). Madhva offers multiple counterarguments:<ref name=":1" />

# How is liberation possible if both the universe and ignorance are mere illusions connected to Brahman.<ref name=":1" /> # There is no similarity between Brahman and the cosmos to justify such an illusion.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Bartley |first=C. J. |title=An introduction to Indian philosophy |date=2011 |publisher=Continuum |isbn=978-1-84706-448-6 |location=London; New York |pages=191–192}}</ref> # If individuality is a misconception, but individuals have ignorance, ignorance must belong to Brahman, too. And if ignorance is a part of Brahman, and Brahman is real, ignorance is real, contradicting the foundational goal of liberation in Advaita philosophy.<ref name=":1" />

=== Vishishtadvaita === The Dvaita school also differs from Vishishtadvaita of Ramanuja. Vishishtadvaita maintains that ultimate reality and the soul are different but with the potential to become identical, proposing a qualified non-dualism where souls and matter are real parts of Brahman. Dvaita rejects this as an insufficient distinction, insisting on a complete and eternal separation between God, souls, and matter. Madhva accepted Ramanuja's affirmation of a real world and a personal God, but rejected his qualified non-dualism as an inconsistent middle ground.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hebbar |first=B.N. |url=https://search.libraries.emory.edu/catalog/990006053760302486 |title=Viśiṣṭādvaita and Dvaita: A Systematic and Comparative Study of the Two Schools of Vedānta with Special Reference to Some Doctrinal Controversies |publisher=Bharatiya Granth Niketan |year=2004 |isbn=978-8189211011 |location=New Delhi |quote=The book compares the two Vedantic traditions in the areas of epistemology, ontology, theology, cosmology, psychology and soteriology.}}</ref>

=== Shuddhadvaita === Vallabhacharya's Shuddhadvaita (pure non-dualism) shares with Dvaita a strong devotional orientation and acceptance of the reality of the world. Vallabha maintains that Krishna is the absolute Brahman and the world is a real manifestation of his nature i.e sat, chit, ananda. Dvaita Vedanta rejects this as an undue identification of the material world with the divine, insisting on the ontological distinction between creator and creation.<ref>{{cite web |title=What is the definition of Nirguna Brahman according to Dvaitadvaita & Dvaita? |url=https://hinduism.stackexchange.com/questions/21422/what-is-the-definition-of-nirguna-brahman-according-to-dvaitadvaita-dvaita |access-date=31 March 2026 |website=Hinduism Stack Exchange |quote=Roma Bose in her book 'Doctrines of Nimbarka and his Followers'... B.N.K. Sharma in 'A History of the Dvaita School of Vedanta and its Literature' explains the Dvaita position.}}</ref>

== Influence == * Dvaita Vedanta and Madhvacharya's historical influence in Hinduism, state Kulandran and Kraemer, has been salutary, but not extensive.<ref name=skhk177>Sabapathy Kulandran and Hendrik Kraemer (2004), Grace in Christianity and Hinduism, James Clarke, {{ISBN|978-0227172360}}, pages 177-179</ref> * According to Sharma, the influence of Dvaita Vedanta ideas have been most prominent on the Chaitanya school of Bengal Vaishnavism,{{Sfn|Sharma|1962|pp=22-23}} and in Assam.{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|pp=xxxii-xxxiii, 514-516}} * Madhva's theology influenced later scholars such as Nimbarka, Vallabha, and Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. B.N.K. Sharma notes that Nimbarka's theology is a loose ''réchauffé'' of Madhva's in its most essential aspects.{{Sfn|Sharma|2000|p=453}}

== References == {{reflist|30em}}

===Sources=== * {{cite book|last=Etter|first=Christopher|title=A Study of Qualitative Non-Pluralism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jW2pcWpXY8wC&pg=PA59|year=2006|publisher=iUniverse|isbn=978-0-595-39312-1}} * {{cite book |last=Fowler |first=Jeaneane D. |title=Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PJbsAAAAIAAJ |year=2002 |publisher=Sussex Academic Press |isbn=978-1-898723-93-6}} * {{cite book|title = Philosophy of Śrī Madhvācārya|first = B. N. Krishnamurti| last = Sharma| publisher=Motilal Banarsidass (2014 Reprint) |isbn = 978-8120800687| year= 1962 | url=https://archive.org/stream/Philosophy.of.Sri.Madhvacarya/Philosophy.of.Sri.Madhvacharya#page/n0/mode/2up}} * {{cite book|title = A History of the Dvaita School of Vedānta and Its Literature, 3rd Edition|first = B. N. Krishnamurti| last = Sharma| publisher=Motilal Banarsidass (2008 Reprint) |isbn = 978-8120815759| year= 2000 }} *{{Citation|title=A Treasury of Mahāyāna Sūtras: Selections from the Mahāratnakūṭa Sūtra|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aktdBheKI-IC|first=Chen-chi|last=Chang|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ.|year=1991|isbn = 9788120809369}}

==External links== * [http://www.tatvavada.org Tatvavada]

Category:Dualism in cosmology Category:Dvaita Vedanta Category:Vedanta Category:Schools and traditions in ancient Indian philosophy Category:Hindu philosophical concepts