{{Short description|none}} [[File:Manantenina bushfire.jpg|thumb|Illegal slash-and-burn practice in the region west of Manantenina.]] '''Deforestation in Madagascar''' is an ongoing environmental issue. Deforestation<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080926085807/http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1844474,00.html "Saving the Wildlife of Madagascar"], ''Time'', September 25, 2008.</ref> creates agricultural or pastoral land but can also result in desertification, water resource degradation, biodiversity erosion and habitat loss, and soil loss.
The extent of primary forest loss in Madagascar has been the subject of debate.<ref name="McConnell Science">{{cite journal|last1=McConnell|first1=William|last2=Kull|first2=Christian|title=Protecting lemurs: Madagascar's forests|journal=Science |date=2014|volume=344|issue=6182|page=358|url=http://www.sciencemagazinedigital.org/sciencemagazine/25_april_2014?pg=26#pg26|doi=10.1126/science.344.6182.358-a|pmid=24763569|bibcode=2014Sci...344..358M|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref name="McConnell book chap">{{cite journal|last1=McConnell|first1=William|last2=Kull|first2=Christian|title=Deforestation in Madagascar: debates over the island's forest cover and challenges of measuring forest change|journal=Conservation and Environmental Management in Madagascar |editor=Ivan R. Scales |location=London |publisher=Routledge-Earthscan|date=2014|pages=67–104|url=http://christiankull.files.wordpress.com/2011/03/mcconnell-kull-2014-book-chapter.pdf}}</ref> What is certain is that the arrival of humans on Madagascar some 2000+ years ago began a process of fire, cultivation, logging and grazing that has reduced forest cover. Industrial forest exploitation during the Merina monarchy<ref name="Campbell 2013">{{cite journal|last1=Campbell|first1=Gwyn|title=Forest Depletion in Imperial Madagascar, c.1790–1861|journal=Contest for Land in Madagascar: Environment, Ancestors and Development, Edited by S. Evers, G. Campbell & M. Lambek (Leiden: Brill).|date=2013|pages=63–96|doi=10.1163/9789004256231_005 |isbn=978-90-04-25622-4 }}</ref> and French colonialism<ref name="Jarosz 1993">{{cite journal|last1=Jarosz|first1=Lucy|title=Defining and explaining tropical deforestation: shifting cultivation and population growth in colonial Madagascar (1896-1940)|journal=Economic Geography|date=1993|volume=69|issue=4|pages=366–379|doi=10.2307/143595|pmid=12318844|jstor=143595}}</ref> contributed to forest loss. Evidence from air photography and remote sensing suggest that by c. 2000, around 40% to 50% of the forest cover present in 1950 was lost.<ref name="McConnell book chap" /><ref name="At et al 2008">{{cite journal|last1=Allnutt|first1=Thomas|title=A method for quantifying biodiversity loss and its application to a 50-year record of deforestation across Madagascar|journal=Conservation Letters|date=2008|volume=1|issue=4|pages=173–181|doi=10.1111/j.1755-263X.2008.00027.x|display-authors=etal|doi-access=free|bibcode=2008ConL....1..173A }}</ref><ref>[http://news.mongabay.com/2007/0307-madagascar.html Deforestation causes species extinction in Madagascar]</ref> Current hotspots for deforestation include dry forests in the southwest being converted for maize cultivation and rain forests in the northeast exploited for tropical hardwoods.<ref name="Harper et al 2007">{{cite journal|last1=Harper|first1=Grady|last2=Steininger|first2=Marc|last3=Tucker|first3=Compton|last4=Juhn|first4=Daniel|last5=Hawkins|first5=Frank|title=Fifty years of deforestation and forest fragmentation in Madagascar|journal=Environmental Conservation|date=2007|volume=34|issue=4|pages=325–333|doi=10.1017/s0376892907004262|s2cid=86120326}}</ref>
Primary causes of forest loss include slash-and-burn for agricultural land (a practice known locally as ''tavy'') and for pasture, selective logging for precious woods or construction material, the collection of fuel wood (including charcoal production) and, in certain sites, forest clearing for mining.<ref name="Mittermeier4">{{cite book | last1 = Mittermeier | first1 = R.A. | last2 = Konstant | first2 = W.R. | last3 = Hawkins | first3 = F. | last4 = Louis | first4 = E.E. | last5 = Langrand | first5= O. | last6 = Ratsimbazafy | first6 = J. | last7 = Rasoloarison | first7 = R. | last8 = Ganzhorn | first8 = J.U. | last9 = Rajaobelina | first9 = S. | last10 = Tattersall | first10 = I. | last11 = Meyers | first11 = D.M. | author-link1 = Russell Mittermeier | author-link10 = Ian Tattersall | others = Illustrated by S.D. Nash | title = Lemurs of Madagascar | edition = 2nd | chapter = Chapter 4: Conservation of Lemurs | pages = 52–84 | publisher = Conservation International | year = 2006 | isbn = 1-881173-88-7}}</ref><ref name="doi.org">Zhu, Annah (2017). [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2017.08.010 "Rosewood Occidentalism and Orientalism in Madagascar"]. ''Geoforum''.</ref>
==History of deforestation in Madagascar== ===Early history=== {{Further|Prehistory of Madagascar}} Deforestation by life in Madagascar by human intervention first made an impact on its highland forests as early as AD 600 in the establishment of swidden fields by Indonesian settlers.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gade|first1=D|last2=Sussman|first2=R|title=Deforestation and Its Effects in Highland Madagascar|journal= Mountain Research and Development|date=1996|volume=16|issue=2|pages=101–116|doi=10.2307/3674005|jstor=3674005|publisher=International Mountain Society}}</ref> The creation of swidden fields is a subsistence method of agriculture that has been practiced by humans across the globe for over 12000 years by means of a slash-and-burn technique that clears an area in preparation for crop growth.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Stief|first1=C|title=Slash and Burn Agriculture- An Overview of Slash and Burn|url=https://www.thoughtco.com/slash-and-burn-agriculture-p2-1435798|website=Geography.about.com.|date=2017}}</ref> An increase in the rate of forest removal was seen around AD 1000 with the introduction of cattle from Africa, compelling Malagasy islanders to expand their grassland grazing areas. Historical records point to the importance that this impact has caused with the disappearance of most of Madagascar's highland forest by 1600 AD.<ref name="Mountain Research and Development">{{cite journal|last1=Gade|first1=D|title=Deforestation and Its Effects in Highland Madagascar|journal= Mountain Research and Development|date=1996|volume=16|issue=2|pages=101–116|doi=10.2307/3674005|jstor=3674005|publisher=International Mountain Society}}</ref> Attempts to conserve Madagascar's forests were introduced by rulers in the establishment of environmental regulations, the earliest being seen in 1881 when Queen Ranavalona II placed a ban on using slash-and-burn techniques in agriculture.<ref name="Madagascar">{{cite web|last1=Butler|first1=R|title=Madagascar|doi=10.2307/1435954|jstor=1435954}}</ref> These efforts aimed to protect the future of the countries rainforests, however, it has been estimated that over 80 percent of Madagascar's original forests are gone with half of this loss occurring since the late 1950s.<ref name="Madagascar"/>
===Recent history=== Early estimates of deforestation in Madagascar were unreliable until using data taken over a 35-year period from a combination of aerial photography, taken in 1950, and more recently data from satellite imagery available since 1972 were used to clearly see the extent of rainforest cleared in the eastern areas of Madagascar.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal|last1=Green|first1=M|last2=Sussman|first2=R|title=). Deforestation History of the Eastern Rain Forests of Madagascar from Satellite Images|journal=Science |series=New Series|date=1990|volume=248|issue=4952|pages=212–215|doi=10.1126/science.248.4952.212|pmid=17740137|bibcode=1990Sci...248..212G|s2cid=8288722}}</ref> By 1985, only 50 percent of the 7.6 million hectares that existed in 1950 remained equating to an average deforestation rate of over 111,000 hectares per year<ref name="ReferenceA"/> and by 2005 the country had seen a total of 854,000 hectares of forest lost since 1990.<ref name="Madagascar"/> Since the first evidence of human occupation less than 2000 years ago the island of Madagascar's population in 2002 had grown to about 12 million people (McConnell, 2002). Agricultural fires, erosion and soil degradation continue to contribute to the degradation of the countries ecological stability impeding forest regrowth<ref name="Mountain Research and Development"/> and according to recent data taken over the 2001 – 2012 period the rate of forest loss in Madagascar's has continued to increase.<ref name="Madagascar"/>
[[File:Ecoregions and forest types in Madagascar.jpg|thumb|left|{{center|Ecoregions and forest types in Madagascar{{hsp}}<ref name=Vieilledent2018>{{cite journal | last1=Vieilledent | first1=Ghislain | last2=Grinand | first2=Clovis | last3=Rakotomalala | first3=Fety A. | last4=Ranaivosoa | first4=Rija | last5=Rakotoarijaona | first5=Jean-Roger | last6=Allnutt | first6=Thomas F. | last7=Achard | first7=Frédéric | title=Combining global tree cover loss data with historical national forest cover maps to look at six decades of deforestation and forest fragmentation in Madagascar | journal=Biological Conservation | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=222 | year=2018 | issn=0006-3207 | doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2018.04.008 | pages=189–197| doi-access=free | bibcode=2018BCons.222..189V }} 50px Modified material was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License].</ref>}}]]
As shown in the diagram on the left, Madagascar can be divided into four climatic ecoregions with four forest types: moist forest in the East (green), dry forest in the West (orange), spiny forest in the South (red), and mangrove forests along the West coast (blue). Ecoregions were defined following climatic{{hsp}}<ref>Cornet A. (1974) "Essai De Cartographie Bioclimatique à Madagascar", Tech. Rep, Orstom.</ref> and vegetation criteria.<ref>Ministère de l'Environnement (1996) "IEFN: Inventaire Ecologique Forestier National", Tech. Rep., Ministère De l'Environnement De Madagascar, Direction Des Eaux Et Forêts, DFS Deutsch Forest Service GmbH, Entreprise d'études de développement rural "Mamokatra", FTM.</ref> The dark grey areas represent the remaining natural forest cover for the year 2014. Forest types are defined on the basis of their belonging to one of the four ecoregions.<ref name=Vieilledent2018 />
thumb|upright=2|{{center|Forest cover change on six decades from 1953 to 2014{{hsp}}<ref name=Vieilledent2018 />}}
{{clear left}}
The main figure in the diagram on the right shows the changes in forest cover from 1973 to 2014. Forest cover in 1953 is shown in the bottom-right inset. Two zooms in the western dry (left part) and eastern moist (right part) ecoregions present more detailed views of (from top to bottom): forest cover in 1953, forest cover change from 1973 to 2014, forest fragmentation in 2014 and distance to forest edge in 2014. Data on water bodies (blue) and water seasonality (light blue for seasonal water to dark blue for permanent water) have been extracted from Pekel et al. (2016).<ref>Pekel J.F., Cottam A., Gorelick N., Belward A.S. (2016) "High-resolution mapping of global surface water and its long-term changes", Nature, 540: 418–422.</ref><ref name=Vieilledent2018 />
==Causes==
===Agriculture=== The primary cause for deforestation in Madagascar is the slash-and-burn practice. Historically and culturally known as ''tavy'', the process involves setting vegetation alight after being cut down, creating potential land for rice cultivation.<ref name="auto789">{{cite journal|last1=Jorgen|first1=K|title=Deforestation in the Madagascar Highlands|journal=GeoJournal|date=2002|volume=56|issue=3|pages=191–199|id={{ProQuest|223672089}}|doi=10.1023/A:1025187422687|s2cid=150928630}}</ref> Coupled with the establishment of rural communities who undertake farming,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Brooks|first1=C.P.|last2=Holmes|first2=C|last3=Kramer|first3=K|last4=Barnett|first4=B|last5=Keitt|first5=T.H.|title=The Role of Demography and Markets in Determining Deforestation Rates Near Ranomafana National Park, Madagascar|journal=PLOS ONE|date=2009|volume=4|issue=6|article-number=e5783|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0005783|pmid=19536282|pmc=2691994|bibcode=2009PLoSO...4.5783B|doi-access=free}}</ref> hectares of forest are lost to agriculture.
===Population increase=== Since the 1940s, the population in Madagascar has rapidly increased, putting pressure on the land available for housing and farming. Thousands of hectares of rainforests have been cut down in order to provide for the increased population.
===Firewood=== As 40% of Madagascar's rural population lives in poverty and has little to no access to electricity, they have to resort to using firewood for completing daily tasks. Consuming approximately 100 kg of firewood monthly, Madagascan households use this energy for cooking, home heating and lighting.<ref>{{cite web|author1=NASA|title=Deforestation in Madagascar|url=http://lcluc.umd.edu/hotspot/deforestation-madagascar|website=Lcluc.umd.edu.|access-date=2017-05-08|archive-date=2017-04-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170423071853/http://lcluc.umd.edu/hotspot/deforestation-madagascar}}</ref>
===Timber=== [[File:Illegal_export_of_rosewood_002.jpg|thumb|Illegal export of rosewood from Marojejy National Park]] The Masoala Peninsula, in Madagascar's east, consists of valuable hardwood timber. Mostly ebony and rosewood, rainforests are degraded in order to satisfy a high demand within the international market.<ref name="Madagascar"/><ref name="doi.org"/>
==Illegal logging== {{Main|Illegal logging in Madagascar}} Illegal logging in Madagascar has been a problem for decades and is perpetuated by extreme poverty and government corruption. Often taking the form of selective logging, the trade has been driven by high international demand for expensive, fine-grained lumber such as rosewood and ebony.<ref>Zhu, Annah (2020). [https://doi.org/10.1080/24694452.2019.1613955 "China's Rosewood Boom: A Cultural Fix to Capital Overaccumulation"]. ''Annals of the American Association of Geographers''.</ref> Historically, logging and exporting in Madagascar have been regulated by the Malagasy government, although the logging of rare hardwoods was explicitly banned from protected areas in 2000. Since then, government orders and memos have intermittently alternated between permitting and banning exports of precious woods. The most commonly cited reason for permitting exports is to salvage valuable wood from cyclone damage, although this reasoning has come under heavy scrutiny. This oscillating availability of Malagasy rosewood and other precious woods has created a market of rising and falling prices, allowing traders or "timber barons" to stockpile illegally sourced logs during periodic bans and then flood the market when the trade windows open and prices are high.<ref>Anonymous (2018). [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2017.06.014 "Rosewood democracy in the political forests of Madagascar"]. ''Political Geography''.</ref>
==Environmental impacts==
===Biodiversity=== [[File:Slash and Burn Agriculture, Morondava, Madagascar.jpg|thumb|Lemurs in Madagascar's dry deciduous forests are threatened by deforestation for the creation of farmland and pasture.]] Since its divergence from Africa over 88 million years ago, Madagascar has evolved into an incredibly biodiverse island.<ref name="Taylor and Francis">{{cite book|last1=Scales|first1=Ivan R.|title=Conservation and Environmental Management in Madagascar|date=2014|publisher=Taylor and Francis|location=Hoboken|edition=1st}}</ref> Including more than 13000 plants and 700 vertebrates,<ref name="Taylor and Francis"/> close to 90% of Madagascar's species are endemic and are found nowhere else in the world.<ref name="Elements of Ecology">{{cite book|last1=Smith|first1=Thomas M.|last2=Smith|first2=Robert Leo|title=Elements of Ecology|date=2015|publisher=Pearson|location=Harlow, England|isbn=978-1-292-07740-6|edition=9h}}</ref> However, with deforestation depleting key habitats and food resources, over 8000 species are either classified as vulnerable or endangered and some, including 15 species of lemur, have actually gone extinct.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Clark|first1=Megan|title=Deforestation in Madagascar: Consequences of Population Growth and Unsustainable Agricultural Processes|journal=Global Majority e-Journal|date=2015|volume=3|issue=1|pages=61–71|url=http://www.american.edu/cas/economics/ejournal/upload/Global_Majority_e_Journal_3_1_Clark.pdf}}</ref> Coupled with its geographic isolation thus increasing vulnerability to destruction,<ref name="Elements of Ecology"/> deforestation will continue to impact Madagascar's flora and fauna, increasing rates of extinction.
Lemurs are an endemic species of primates to the island of Madagascar.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Schüßler|first1=Dominik|last2=Radespiel|first2=Ute|last3=Ratsimbazafy|first3=Jonah Henri|last4=Mantilla-Contreras|first4=Jasmin|date=2018-12-01|title=Lemurs in a dying forest: Factors influencing lemur diversity and distribution in forest remnants of north-eastern Madagascar|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320718310097|journal=Biological Conservation|language=en|volume=228|pages=17–26|doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2018.10.008|bibcode=2018BCons.228...17S |s2cid=92420538 |issn=0006-3207|url-access=subscription}}</ref> They act as pollinators, seed dispersers, and prey in their ecosystems.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Murphy|first1=Asia J.|last2=Farris|first2=Zach J.|last3=Karpanty|first3=Sarah|last4=Ratelolahy|first4=Felix|last5=Kelly|first5=Marcella J.|date=2016-06-01|title=Estimating Encounter Rates and Densities of Three Lemur Species in Northeastern Madagascar|journal=International Journal of Primatology|language=en|volume=37|issue=3|pages=371–389|doi=10.1007/s10764-016-9906-0|s2cid=7670062|issn=1573-8604}}</ref> The majority of lemurs are classified as endangered due to human activities, including deforestation.<ref name=":1" /> This deforestation has led to different forest types in Madagascar: primary or intact forests, secondary or intermediate forests, mosaic forests, and agricultural land.<ref name=":1" /> The primary forests have not been deforested and are the most biodiverse.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Sawyer|first1=Rachel Mary|last2=Fenosoa|first2=Zo Samuel Ella|last3=Andrianarimisa|first3=Aristide|last4=Donati|first4=Giuseppe|date=2017-01-01|title=The effect of habitat disturbance on the abundance of nocturnal lemur species on the Masoala Peninsula, northeastern Madagascar|journal=Primates|language=en|volume=58|issue=1|pages=187–197|doi=10.1007/s10329-016-0552-0|pmid=27394434|s2cid=25928477|issn=1610-7365}}</ref> These forests have the highest abundance of lemurs.<ref name=":0" /> The secondary forests are somewhat degraded, but some lemur species are just as abundant in these areas.<ref name=":0" /> Mosaic forests are fragmented and are heavily affected by deforestation. Some species of lemurs cannot survive in these forests,<ref name=":1" /> while others can.<ref name=":2" /> Survival in these mosaic forests depends on a variety of factors, such as diet.<ref name=":0" /> Research suggests that omnivores and folivores can tolerate these varying habitats since their diets include a wide variety of food sources.<ref name=":0" /> For example, microcebus, an omnivore, has been found living in these forests and takes advantage of the abundance of insects here.<ref name=":2" /> However, lemurs that have specialized diets, such as frugivores, are more sensitive to habitat disturbance.<ref name=":0" /> These lemurs are found more often in primary forests.<ref name=":2" />
Research in Masoala National Park, the largest protected forest in Madagascar,<ref name=":0" /> showed that there was a positive correlation between mean tree height and lemur abundance.<ref name=":2" /> This explains why the primary lowland forests, which had the tallest trees and most canopy cover, had the greatest number of lemurs.<ref name=":2" /> Lepilemur scotterum, avahi mooreorum,<ref name=":2" /> and eulemur albifrons were mostly found in the greatest densities in these areas.<ref name=":0" /> Other species, like avahi laniger, allocebus, and microcebus, were found in equal densities in primary, secondary, and degraded forests.<ref name=":0" />
A study of the Antserananomby Forest in western Madagascar in the 1960s and 1970s showed it had the highest population densities for each lemur species living there.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Kelley|first1=Elizabeth A.|last2=Sussman|first2=Robert W.|last3=Muldoon|first3=Kathleen M.|date=January 2007|title=The Status of Lemur Species at Antserananomby: An Update|journal=Primate Conservation |volume=22|issue=1|pages=71–77|doi=10.1896/052.022.0105|issn=0898-6207|doi-access=free}}</ref> A more recent study has shown that much of the forest has been cleared for agricultural use and population densities of lemurs have declined significantly.<ref name=":3" /> Reduced forest size has been shown to have a direct negative effect on lemur diversity.<ref name=":1" />
===Soil and water===
[[File:Madagascar highland plateau.jpg|thumb|Deforestation of the Highland Plateau has led to extensive siltation and unstable flows of western rivers.]] Like many habitats that undergo deforestation, Madagascar experiences soil erosion, of which can adversely affect river systems and lakes. In the case of Lake Alaotra in Ambatondrazaka area, in the country's east, deforestation in the hills above has caused heavy erosion, leading to increased sedimentation in the lake. As result, Lake Alaotra has actually decreased in size by approximately 30% in last 40 years. Moreover, the water quality of the lake has suffered, thus reducing the productivity of neighbouring rice cultivations.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bakoariniaina|first1=Lao Nathalie |last2=Kusky|first2=Timothy|last3=Raharimahefa|first3=Tsilavo|title=Disappearing Lake Alaotra: Monitoring catastrophic erosion, waterway silting, and land degradation hazards in Madagascar using Landsat imagery|journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |date=2006|volume=44|issue=2|pages=241–252|doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.10.013|bibcode=2006JAfES..44..241B}}</ref> Soil can also become infertile after vegetation clearing. When plants die or shed their leaves, micro-organisms in soil decompose the leaf litter as they consume it, breaking it down to key nutrients valuable to future plant growth. Should this biomass be removed, there will be no nutrient recycling, reducing soil fertility and reducing plant growth.<ref name="Elements of Ecology"/>
===Atmosphere and climate=== {{See also|Climate change in Madagascar}} Deforestation in Madagascar, as well as other parts of the world, can have an influence on climate. When the forest is cleared, the understorey is left exposed to the sun to a greater extent than before. This increased sunlight reduces soil moisture and increases rates of evapotranspiration in plants, ultimately dehydrating them and stunting growth.<ref name="Soil Erosion and Degradation">{{cite web|title=Soil Erosion and Degradation|url=https://www.worldwildlife.org/threats/soil-erosion-and-degradation|website=World Wildlife Foundation|access-date=24 November 2021}}</ref> At a global level, deforestation is also known to have an effect on carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere through; * Slash-and-burn practices: Used primarily to create agricultural land, it involves the logging of forests and burning debris afterwards.<ref name="Soil Erosion and Degradation"/> * Disruption of photosynthesis: Plants absorb atmospheric carbon dioxide, as well water, in order to form their biomass and oxygen.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Reece|first1=Jane B.|last2=Taylor|first2=Martha R.|last3=Simon|first3=Eric J.|last4=Dickey|first4=Jean L.|title=Campbell Biology Concepts & Connections|date=2015|publisher=Pearson Education Limited|location=England|edition=8th}}</ref> Without plants, carbon dioxide is not absorbed. It is with the loss of crucial carbon sinks and continuation of slash-and-burn deforestation that carbon dioxide levels will continue to increase in the atmosphere, ultimately contributing to global warming.<ref name="Soil Erosion and Degradation"/>
==Economic impacts== Economic impacts of deforestation in Madagascar closely align with the degradation of its natural environment and resources. Examples exist within;
===Agriculture=== {{See also|Agriculture in Madagascar}}thumb|Deforested agricultural countryside in Madagascar While a key cause of deforestation,<ref name="auto789"/> agriculture can also be one of its victims. Without vegetation to anchor soil, the chance of erosion increases, sending close to 400 tonnes/ha of sediment into waterways annually.<ref name="auto789"/> As a result, water quality decreases and coupled with a lack of nutrient cycling due to minimal biomass, plant productivity is reduced, including valuable rice crops.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bakoariniaina|first1=L|last2=Kusky|first2=T|last3=Raharimahefa|first3=T|title=Monitoring catastrophic erosion, waterway silting, and land degradation hazards in Madagascar using Lansat imagery.|journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences|date=2006|volume=44|issue=2|pages=241–252|doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.10.013|bibcode=2006JAfES..44..241B}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite book|last1=Smith|first1=T.M.|last2=Smith|first2=R.L|title=Elements of Ecology|date=2015|publisher=Pearson|location=Harlow, Essex|edition=9}}</ref>
===Medicine=== As a product of its biodiversity, Madagascar has a vast array of plant species, with 2,300 having medicinal properties that treat many illness, from common ailments to cancers.<ref name="wildmadagascar.org">{{cite web|title=Making conservation work in Madagascar|url=http://www.wildmadagascar.org/conservation/saving.html|website=Wildmadagascar.org.|date=2017}}</ref> Should deforestation continue, the pharmaceutical industry will lose a key resource, eventually suffering decreases in profit.<ref>{{cite web|title=ecoDestinations-Madagascar|url=http://www.ecotourism.org/madagascar|website=ecotourism.org|publisher=The International Ecotourism Society}}</ref>
===Ecotourism=== Madagascar possesses a vast array of species, 90% of which are only unique to the island.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> With deforestation destroying habitats and causing increased extinctions, Madagascar will potentially lose a great tourism asset, eliminating incentive to invest in ecotourism operations (such as resorts, recreational facilities, and national parks), thus decreasing long-lasting employment opportunities for local communities.<ref name="wildmadagascar.org"/>
==Reforestation efforts== Despite the deforestation trend, tree cover is increasing in some parts of the country, though largely of introduced (non-native) species such as ''Eucalyptus'' (various species), pine (''Pinus kesiya, Pinus patula'',) silver wattle (''Acacia dealbata''), silky oak (''Grevillea banksii''), and paperbark/niaouli ("Melaleuca quinquenervia"). Some of these trees are planted by foresters and farmers; others have become invasive of their own accord.<ref name="Carriere">{{cite journal|last1=Carriere |first1=Stephanie |last2=Randriambanona |title=Biodiversité introduite et autochtone: antagonisme ou complémentarité? Le cas de l'eucalyptus à Madagascar |journal=Bois et Forêts des Tropiques |volume=292 |issue=2 |pages=5–21 |url=http://bft.revuesonline.com/gratuit/BFT_292_5-21.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151024231636/http://bft.revuesonline.com/gratuit/BFT_292_5-21.pdf |archive-date=2015-10-24 }}</ref><ref name="Kull et al 2007">{{cite journal|last1=Kull|first1=Christian|last2=Tassin|first2=Jacques|last3=Rangan|first3=Haripriya|title=Multifunctional, scrubby, and invasive forests? Wattles in the highlands of Madagascar|journal=Mountain Research and Development|volume=27|issue=3|pages=224–231|doi=10.1659/mrd.0864|url=http://www.mtnforum.org/content/multifunctional-scrubby-and-invasive-forests-wattles-highlands-madagascar|year=2007|s2cid=106404585|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Tassin et al 2009">{{cite journal|last1=Tassin |first1=Jacques |title=Evaluation préliminaire des risques d'invasion par les essences forestières à Madagascar |journal=Bois et Forêts des Tropiques |date=2009 |volume=299 |issue=1 |pages=27–36 |doi=10.19182/bft2009.299.a20420 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Reforestation by eucalypts, pines, and wattles has been demonstrated, for instance, in the central highlands.<ref name="Kull 2012">{{cite journal|last1=Kull|first1=Christian|title=Air photo evidence of historical land cover change in the highlands: wetlands and grasslands give way to crops and woodlots|journal=Madagascar Conservation & Development|date=2012|volume=7|issue=3|pages=144–152|doi=10.4314/mcd.v7i3.7|url=http://journalmcd.com/index.php/mcd/article/view/mcd.v7i3.7/321|doi-access=free}}</ref>
Reforestation efforts with native species, particularly in rainforest corridors, have had mixed success. Some reforestation efforts have been conducted by Rio Tinto, a mining organization. This effort includes the set-up of 2 tree nurseries near Fort Dauphin. The nurseries are called the Rio Tinto QMM's nurseries. The nurseries plant some 600 tree species native to Madagascar.<ref>[https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20121113092202/http://www.iucn.org/dbtw-wpd/edocs/2012-049.pdf IUCN report on Rio Tinto mines in Madagascar]</ref><ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00pqbfg Indian Ocean With Simon Reeve documentary]</ref> However, in 2003, Rio Tinto also announced plans to mine ilmenite (used to make toothpaste and paint) in southern Madagascar. These plans included the creation of a new port, roads, and other facilities. Mostly migrant workers would be employed, despite high levels of unemployment in the region. This unemployment and poverty drives charcoal production, which is a major factor in deforestation in that region.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=Geocases |title=Deforestation of Tropical Rainforests - A Case Study of Madagascar |year=2005 |url=http://www.geocases1.co.uk/printable/Deforestation%20of%20TRF%20a%20case%20study%20of%20Madagascar.pdf |access-date=30 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131101104821/http://www.geocases1.co.uk/printable/Deforestation%20of%20TRF%20a%20case%20study%20of%20Madagascar.pdf |archive-date=1 November 2013 }}</ref>
== Tree cover extent and loss == Global Forest Watch publishes annual estimates of tree cover loss and 2000 tree cover extent derived from time-series analysis of Landsat satellite imagery in the Global Forest Change dataset.<ref name="GFWMDGdashboard">{{cite web |title=Madagascar Deforestation Rates & Statistics |website=Global Forest Watch |url=https://www.globalforestwatch.org/dashboards/country/MDG/ }}</ref><ref name="HansenEtAl2013">{{cite journal |last1=Hansen |first1=Matthew C. |last2=Potapov |first2=Peter V. |last3=Moore |first3=Rebecca |last4=Hancher |first4=Matt |last5=Turubanova |first5=Svetlana A. |last6=Tyukavina |first6=Alexandra |display-authors=3 |title=High-Resolution Global Maps of 21st-Century Forest Cover Change |journal=Science |volume=342 |issue=6160 |year=2013 |pages=850–853 |doi=10.1126/science.1244693 }}</ref><ref name="GFWTCLossAbout">{{cite web |title=Tree cover loss |website=Global Forest Watch Open Data Portal |url=https://data.globalforestwatch.org/documents/gfw::tree-cover-loss/about }}</ref><ref name="GFWTCCover2000About">{{cite web |title=Tree cover (2000) |website=Global Forest Watch Open Data Portal |url=https://data.globalforestwatch.org/documents/gfw::tree-cover-2000/about }}</ref> In this framework, tree cover refers to vegetation taller than 5 m (including natural forests and tree plantations), and tree cover loss is defined as the complete removal of tree cover canopy for a given year, regardless of cause.<ref name="GFRTreeCoverLoss2023">{{cite web |title=How much forest was lost in 2023? |website=Global Forest Review |url=https://gfr.wri.org/global-tree-cover-loss-data-2023 }}</ref>
For Madagascar, country statistics report cumulative tree cover loss of {{convert|5153136|ha|km2|abbr=on}} from 2001 to 2024 (about 30.1% of its 2000 tree cover area).<ref name="GFWMDGdashboard" /> For tree cover density greater than 30%, country statistics report a 2000 tree cover extent of {{convert|17141084|ha|km2|abbr=on}}.<ref name="GFWMDGdashboard" /> The charts and table below display this data. In simple terms, the annual loss number is the area where tree cover disappeared in that year, and the extent number shows what remains of the 2000 tree cover baseline after subtracting cumulative loss. Forest regrowth is not included in the dataset.<ref name="GFWMDGdashboard" /><ref name="GFRTreeCoverLoss2023" />
{{ChartDirect |type=bar |align=center |width=100% |x=2001,2002,2003,2004,2005,2006,2007,2008,2009,2010,2011,2012,2013,2014,2015,2016,2017,2018,2019,2020,2021,2022,2023,2024 |xType=integer |y1=869.57,893.17,842.49,818.46,936.27,710.35,1885.79,1235.03,1365.37,1072.20,1623.23,1284.68,2993.50,4166.82,3017.89,3836.56,5103.56,3666.21,2542.42,2411.13,2348.79,2563.78,3031.91,2312.18 |y1Title=Annual tree cover loss (km²) |caption=Annual tree cover loss in Madagascar, 2001–2024.<ref name="GFWMDGdashboard" /> }}
{{ChartDirect |type=line |align=center |width=100% |x=2001,2002,2003,2004,2005,2006,2007,2008,2009,2010,2011,2012,2013,2014,2015,2016,2017,2018,2019,2020,2021,2022,2023,2024 |xType=integer |y1=170541.27,169648.10,168805.61,167987.15,167050.88,166340.53,164454.74,163219.71,161854.34,160782.14,159158.91,157874.23,154880.73,150713.91,147696.02,143859.46,138755.90,135089.69,132547.27,130136.14,127787.35,125223.57,122191.66,119879.48 |y1Title=Extent minus cumulative loss (km²) |caption=Tree cover extent in 2000 minus cumulative tree cover loss in Madagascar, 2001–2024 (loss-only residual; does not account for gain).<ref name="GFWMDGdashboard" /> }}
{| class="wikitable sortable collapsible collapsed" style="text-align:right;" |+ Annual tree cover extent and loss<ref name="GFWMDGdashboard" /> ! Year ! Tree cover extent (km2){{efn|name=regrowth|This residual measure does not include forest regrowth.}} ! Annual tree cover loss (km2) |- | 2001 || 170,541.27 || 869.57 |- | 2002 || 169,648.10 || 893.17 |- | 2003 || 168,805.61 || 842.49 |- | 2004 || 167,987.15 || 818.46 |- | 2005 || 167,050.88 || 936.27 |- | 2006 || 166,340.53 || 710.35 |- | 2007 || 164,454.74 || 1,885.79 |- | 2008 || 163,219.71 || 1,235.03 |- | 2009 || 161,854.34 || 1,365.37 |- | 2010 || 160,782.14 || 1,072.20 |- | 2011 || 159,158.91 || 1,623.23 |- | 2012 || 157,874.23 || 1,284.68 |- | 2013 || 154,880.73 || 2,993.50 |- | 2014 || 150,713.91 || 4,166.82 |- | 2015 || 147,696.02 || 3,017.89 |- | 2016 || 143,859.46 || 3,836.56 |- | 2017 || 138,755.90 || 5,103.56 |- | 2018 || 135,089.69 || 3,666.21 |- | 2019 || 132,547.27 || 2,542.42 |- | 2020 || 130,136.14 || 2,411.13 |- | 2021 || 127,787.35 || 2,348.79 |- | 2022 || 125,223.57 || 2,563.78 |- | 2023 || 122,191.66 || 3,031.91 |- | 2024 || 119,879.48 || 2,312.18 |}
==REDD+ forest reference emission levels and monitoring== Under the UNFCCC REDD+ framework, Madagascar has submitted national forest reference emission levels (FRELs). On the UNFCCC REDD+ Web Platform, the country's 2017 and 2018 submissions are both listed as having assessed reference levels, while the other Warsaw Framework elements—a national strategy, safeguards, and a national forest monitoring system—are listed as “not reported” for those submissions.<ref name="UNFCCC_REDD_MDG">{{cite web |title=Madagascar (MDG) — Submissions provided by Country |website=REDD+ Web Platform |publisher=United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) |url=https://redd.unfccc.int/submissions/by-country/country_detail/mdg.html}}</ref>
The first assessed national FREL, submitted in 2017, covered the REDD+ activity “reducing emissions from deforestation” and was assessed at 20,474,434 t CO2 eq per year for the historical reference period 2005–2013.<ref name="UNFCCC_TAR_MDG_2017">{{cite report |title=Report of the technical assessment of the proposed forest reference emission level of Madagascar submitted in 2017 |publisher=United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) |date=12 December 2017 |id=FCCC/TAR/2017/MDG |url=https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/docs/2017/tar/mdg.pdf}}</ref><ref name="UNFCCC_REDD_MDG" /> The technical assessment reported that this first FREL included above-ground and below-ground biomass of living trees and standing dead trees, and included CO2, methane (CH<sub>4</sub>) and nitrous oxide (N<sub>2</sub>O), with only natural forests considered and secondary forests and plantations excluded in identifying deforestation.<ref name="UNFCCC_TAR_MDG_2017" />
A second national FREL was submitted in 2018, again covering reducing emissions from deforestation at national scale. Following the technical assessment and a modified submission, the assessed FREL was 34,342,327 t CO2 eq per year for the revised historical reference period 2006–2015.<ref name="UNFCCC_TAR_MDG_2018">{{cite report |title=Report on the technical assessment of the proposed forest reference emission level of Madagascar submitted in 2018 |publisher=United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) |date=10 December 2018 |id=FCCC/TAR/2018/MDG |url=https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/tar2018_MDG.pdf}}</ref><ref name="UNFCCC_REDD_MDG" /> According to the 2018 technical assessment, the increase relative to the 2017 assessed FREL was due mainly to new above-ground biomass and deadwood data for the dry forest ecoregion and new activity data based on stratified sampling of Madagascar's four forest ecoregions. In the 2018 submission, the FREL included above-ground biomass, below-ground biomass, deadwood and soil organic carbon, and included CO2 as well as CH<sub>4</sub> and N<sub>2</sub>O from burning on deforested land.<ref name="UNFCCC_TAR_MDG_2018" />
==See also== {{Commons category|Deforestation in Madagascar}} *Deforestation by region *Environment of Madagascar *Wildlife of Madagascar
== Notes == {{notelist}}
==References== {{Reflist}}
{{deforestation}} {{Africa topic|Deforestation in}}{{Madagascar topics}}
Category:Forests of Madagascar Madagascar Category:Forestry in Madagascar Category:Environmental issues in Madagascar Category:Climate change in Madagascar