Credentialism and degree inflation

{{Short description|More higher education reduces its value}} {{Use dmy dates|date=December 2020}} {{Education in the United States}} '''Credentialism''' and '''degree inflation''' are processes that result in an inflation of demand for educational qualifications, and the devaluation of these educational qualifications.

Credentialism or professionalization is the growing protection of professions in modern societies by demanding formal qualifications or certifications.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://wp.nyu.edu/dispatch/2017/11/17/the-curse-of-credentialism/|title=The Curse of Credentialism|date =17 November 2017|website=The NYU Dispatch|access-date=21 July 2019|quote=Credentialism, or degree inflation, as it is sometimes referred to, has been a growing problem globally for the better part of the last decade. |archive-date=26 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240226100235/https://wp.nyu.edu/dispatch/2017/11/17/the-curse-of-credentialism/}}</ref>

Degree inflation, also called '''credential inflation''', '''academic inflation''', and '''credential creep''', is the devaluation of educational or academic credentials over time,<ref name="Rispin"/><ref name=Rowntree/> and a corresponding decrease in the expected advantage given a degree holder in the job market, due to an excess of higher educated people who compete for too few jobs that require these degrees.<ref name="Vedder"/><ref>{{cite web | url =https://www.scmp.com/news/people-culture/social-welfare/article/3141313/chinas-universities-produce-millions-graduates | title =China's universities produce millions of graduates each year, but many can't get a decent job and end up unemployed or in factories | last =Zuo | first =Mandy | date =16 July 2021 | website =South China Morning Post | access-date =23 September 2021}}</ref> It has also led to grade inflation, a trend to award higher grades for accomplishment of the same quality.

==Credentialism and professionalization== {{See also|Professionalization}} '''Credentialism''' is a reliance on formal qualifications or certifications to determine whether someone is permitted to undertake a task, speak as an "expert"<ref>"Credentialism." International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. 2008. Retrieved 12 December 2014 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3045300482.html</ref> or work in a certain field. It has also been defined as "excessive reliance on credentials, especially academic degrees, in determining hiring or promotion policies."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/credentialism|title=the definition of credentialism|website=Dictionary.com}}</ref>

'''Professionalization''' is the social process by which any trade or occupation is transformed into a true "profession of the highest integrity and competence".<ref>{{cite web |last=Nilsson |first= Henrik |title= Professionalism, Lecture 5, What is a Profession? |publisher=University of Nottingham |date=n.d.| url=http://www.cs.nott.ac.uk/~nhn/G52GRP/LectureNotes/lecture05-4up.pdf |access-date=2007-08-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926100028/http://www.cs.nott.ac.uk/~nhn/G52GRP/LectureNotes/lecture05-4up.pdf  |archive-date=2007-09-26}}</ref> This process tends to involve establishing acceptable qualifications, a professional body or association to oversee the conduct of members of the profession and some degree of demarcation of the qualified from unqualified amateurs. This creates "a hierarchical divide between the knowledge-authorities in the professions and a deferential citizenry."<ref name=agre>{{cite web|title=What Is Conservatism and What Is Wrong with It? |first=Philip E. |last=Agre |date=August 2004 |url=https://pages.gseis.ucla.edu/faculty/agre/conservatism.html |access-date=19 April 2019}}</ref> This demarcation is often termed "occupational closure",<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1086/344121 |title=Why do Some Occupations Pay More than Others? Social Closure and Earnings Inequality in the United States |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=108 |pages=55–101 |year=2002 |last1=Weeden |first1=Kim A.|s2cid=141719403 |author-link1=Kim Weeden}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1177/0038038590024004007 |title=Patriarchy and Professions: The Gendered Politics of Occupational Closure |journal=Sociology |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=675–690 |year=1990 |last1=Witz |first1=Anne |s2cid=143826607 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/0954025032000042130 |title=The Gender of Professionalism and Occupational Closure: The management of tenure-related disputes by the 'Federation of Women Teachers' Associations of Ontario' 1918-1949 |journal=Gender and Education |volume=15 |pages=39–57 |year=2003 |last1=Cavanagh |first1=Sheila. L. |s2cid=144632048 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ422280&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=eric_accno&accno=EJ422280|title=Karen Mahony & Brett Van Toen, "Mathematical Formalism as a Means of Occupational Closure in Computing—Why 'Hard' Computing Tends to Exclude Women," ''Gender and Education'', 2.3, 1990, pp. 319–31|journal=Gender and Education|volume=2|issue=3|pages=319–31|access-date=4 October 2014|date=1989-11-30|last1=Mahony|first1=Karen|last2=Van Toen|first2=Brett|doi=10.1080/0954025900020306|url-access=subscription}}</ref> as it means that the profession then becomes closed to entry from outsiders, amateurs and the unqualified: a stratified occupation "defined by professional demarcation and grade".<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1136/bmj.328.7431.s19 |title=The Hospital at Night |journal=BMJ |volume=328 |issue=7431 |pages=19s–19 |year=2004 |last1=MacDonald |first1=R. }}</ref>

The institutionalizing of professional education has resulted in fewer and fewer opportunities for young people to work their way up by "learning on the job". Academic inflation leads employers to put more faith into certificates and diplomas awarded on the basis of other people's assessments.<ref name=Rowntree/>

===Causes===

====Knowledge economy==== The developed world has transitioned from an agricultural economy (pre-1760s) to an industrial economy (1760s – 1900s) to a knowledge economy (late 1900s – present) due to increases in innovation. This latest stage is marked by technological advancement and global competition to produce new products and research.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1146/annurev.soc.29.010202.100037 |title=The Knowledge Economy |journal=Annual Review of Sociology |volume=30 |pages=199–220 |year=2004 |last1=Powell |first1=Walter |last2=Snellman |first2=Kaisa }}</ref> The shift to a knowledge economy, a term coined by Peter Drucker, has led to a decrease in the demand for physical labor (such as that seen during the Industrial Age) and an increase in the demand for intellect. This has caused a multitude of problems to arise. Economists from the Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis, who categorized jobs as being either routine cognitive, routine manual, nonroutine cognitive or nonroutine manual, have examined a 30 million increase in the number of nonroutine cognitive jobs over the past 30 years, making it the most common job type. These nonroutine cognitive jobs, according to researchers, require "high intellectual skill".<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.stlouisfed.org/on-the-economy/2016/january/jobs-involving-routine-tasks-arent-growing |title=Jobs Involving Routine Tasks Aren't Growing|last=Dvorkin|first=Maximiliano|website=stlouisfed.org}}</ref> This can be rather difficult to measure in potential employees.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.04.151 |title=The role of education in knowledge economies in developing countries |journal=Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences |volume=15 |pages=2589–2594 |year=2011 |last1=Weber |first1=Alan|doi-access=free }}</ref> Additionally, production outputs differ amongst labor types. The results of manual labor are tangible, whereas the results of knowledge labor are not. Management consultant Fred Nickols identifies an issue with this: {{Blockquote |text= The working behaviors of the manual worker are public and those of the knowledge worker are private. From the perspective of a supervisor or an industrial engineer, this means the visibility of working is high for a manual worker and low for a knowledge worker.<ref name=nickols>{{cite web|url=https://www.nickols.us/shift_to_KW.htm|title=The Shift from Manual Work to Knowledge Work |last=Nickols|website=nickols.us}}</ref>}} Decreased visibility in the workplace correlates with a greater risk of employees underperforming in cognitive tasks.<ref>{{cite thesis |degree=PhD |url=http://publications.aston.ac.uk/19292/1/Richardson_J_2010.pdf |title=AN INVESTIGATION OF THE PREVALENCE AND MEASUREMENT OF TEAMS IN ORGANISATIONS: THE DEVELOPMENT AND VALIDATION OF THE REAL TEAM SCALE |publisher=Aston University |page=2 |year=2010 |last1=Richardson |first1=Joanne}}</ref> This, along with the previously mentioned issue of measuring cognitive skill, has resulted in employers requiring credentials, such as college degrees. Matt Sigelman, CEO of a labor market analysis firm, elaborates on why employers such as himself value degrees:

{{Blockquote |text= Many employers are using the bachelor's degree as a proxy for quality employees—a rough, rule-of-thumb screening mechanism to sort through the resume pile. Employers believe in the college experience, not just as an incubator for job-specific skills but particularly for the so-called soft skills, such as writing, analytical thinking and even maturity.<ref name=Sigelman>{{cite web|url=https://nebhe.org/journal/do-employers-value-the-bachelors-degree-too-much/|title=Do Employers Value the Bachelor's Degree Too Much? |last=Sigelman|website=nebhe.org |date=2014-09-16}}</ref>}}

====History==== Western culture, specifically that in the United States, has experienced a rise in the attractiveness of professions and a decline in the attractiveness of manufacturing and independent business. This shift could be attributed to the class stratification that occurred during the Gilded Age.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.2307/1288142 |title=Review: The Matrix of Professionalization: Three Recent Interpretations |journal=Michigan Law Review |volume=77 |issue=3 |pages=641–654 |year=1979 |last1=Larson |first1=Magali |jstor=1288142 |url=https://repository.law.umich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3682&context=mlr |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

The Gilded Age was a period of time marked by a rise in big businesses and globalization, particularly within the construction and oil industries. During the Long Depression, the monopoly trusts dispossessed family and subsistence farmers of their land. This combined with the mechanization of farm work led to mass proletarianization, employers or the self-employed becoming wage laborers, as individuals took jobs working on large projects such as the Transcontinental Railroad. Rapid advancements such as railroad developments and increased use of steamboats to import/export goods made cities such as New York and Chicago convenient places to operate a business, and therefore ideal places to find work. Local business owners had a difficult time competing with the large companies such as Standard Oil and Armour and Company operating out of cities. The ability for people to become entrepreneurs declined, and people began taking underpaying jobs at these companies. This fueled a class divide between the working class and industrialists (also called "robber barons") such as Andrew Carnegie and John Rockefeller.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1353/ams.2010.0024 |title=The Class Divide in American Culture in the Early Twentieth Century |journal=American Studies |volume=49 |issue=3/4 |pages=255–267 |year=2008 |last1=Smith |first1=Jusith |s2cid=55535100 |url=http://journals.ku.edu/amerstud/article/view/4012 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Attempting to increase the prestige of one's occupation became standard among working class individuals trying to recover from the financial hardships of this time. Unqualified individuals turned to professions such as medicine and law, which had low barriers to entry.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.3109/0142159X.2015.1045856 |title=Globalisation, economics and professionalism |journal=Medical Teacher |volume=37 |issue=9 |pages=850–855 |year=2015 |last1=Tan |first1=Chay-Hoon |last2=Macneill |first2=Paul |pmid=26075950 |s2cid=21138321 |hdl=2123/25576 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Referring to this phenomenon, historian Robert Huddleston Wiebe once commented: {{Blockquote |text= The concept of a middle class crumbled to a touch. Small businesses appeared and disappeared at a frightening rate. The so-called professions meant little as long as anyone with a bag of pills and a bottle of syrup could pass for a doctor, a few books and a corrupt judge made a man a lawyer, and an unemployed literate qualified as a teacher. Nor did the growing number of clerks, salesman, and secretaries of the city share much more than a common sense of drift as they fell into jobs that attached them to nothing in particular, beyond a salary, a set of clean clothes, and a hope that they would somehow rise in the world.<ref>{{cite book|last=Wiebe|first=Robert|title=The Search for Order, 1877-1920|url=https://archive.org/details/searchfororder1800wieb|url-access=registration|year=1967|publisher=Hill and Wang|location=New York|isbn=9780809001040|pages=[https://archive.org/details/searchfororder1800wieb/page/13 13–14]}}</ref>}} The establishment of legitimized professional certifications began after the turn of the twentieth century when the Carnegie Foundation published reports on medical and law education. One example of such reports is the Flexner Report, written by educator Abraham Flexner.<ref>{{cite book|last=Flexner|first=Abraham|title=Medical Education in the United States and Canada|year=1910|publisher=Carnegie Foundation|location=New York}}</ref> This research led to the closing of low-quality medical and law schools. The impact of the many unqualified workers of the Gilded age also increased motivation to weed out unqualified workers in other professions. Professionalization increased, and the number of professions and professionals multiplied. There were economic benefits to this because it lowered the competition for jobs by weeding out unqualified candidates, driving up salaries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Khurana|first=Rakesh|title=From Higher Aims to Hired Hands: The Social Transformation of American Business Schools and the Unfulfilled Promise of Management as a Profession|year=2007|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=New Jersey|isbn=9780691120201|pages=66–70}}</ref>

The alliance of employers with educational institutions progressed throughout the twentieth century as businesses and technological advancements progressed. Businessmen were unable to keep schedules or accounts in their heads like the small-town merchant had once done. New systems of accounting, organization, and business management were developed. In his book The Visible Hand, Alfred Chandler of Harvard Business School explained that the increase in large corporations with multiple divisions killed off the hybrid owner/managers of simpler times and created a demand for salaried, "scientific" management.<ref>{{cite book|last=Chandler|first=Alfred|title=The Visible Hand|year=1977|publisher=The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England|isbn=0-674--94052-0|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/visiblehandmanag00chan}}</ref> The development of professional management societies, research groups, and university business programs began in the early 1900s. By 1910, Harvard and Dartmouth offered graduate business programs, and NYU, the University of Chicago, and the University of Pennsylvania offered undergraduate business programs. By the 1960s, nearly half of all managerial jobs formally required either an undergraduate or graduate degree.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.cpajournal.com/2018/09/24/the-value-of-certification-and-professional-experience/|title=The Value of Certification and Professional Experience|last1=Emerson |first1=David J. |first2=Kenneth J. |last2=Smith |journal=The CPA Journal |date=September 2018}}</ref>

==Credential inflation or degree inflation== Credential inflation, also called academic inflation, refers to the devaluation of educational or academic credentials over time and a corresponding decrease in the expected advantage given a degree holder in the job market,<ref name="Rispin"/><ref name=Rowntree>Rowntree, 'Assessing Students: How Shall We Know Them?', Routledge Grading 1987, page 19, {{ISBN|1-85091-300-5}}</ref> due to an excess of higher educated people who compete for too few jobs that require these degrees.<ref name="Vedder">Vedder, R. [http://chronicle.com/blogs/innovations/the-great-college-degree-scam/28067 The Great College-Degree Scam], The Chronicle of Higher Education, December 2010</ref> Credential inflation is thus similar to price inflation, and describes the declining value of earned certificates and degrees. Credential inflation in the form of increased educational requirements and testing, can also create artificial labor shortages.

Credential inflation has been recognized as an enduring trend over the past century in Western higher education, and is also known to have occurred in ancient China and Japan, and at Spanish universities of the 17th century.<ref>Randall Collins, 2000. "Comparative and Historical Patterns of Education," in Maureen T. Hallinan (ed.), ''Handbook of the Sociology of Education''. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. pp. 213–239</ref><ref>Randall Collins, 1998, ''The Sociology of Philosophies: A Global Theory of Intellectual Change''. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. 580–582.</ref><ref name="Anderson 2005">{{cite journal |doi=10.1177/0001699305059945 |title=Social Background, Credential Inflation and Educational Strategies |journal=Acta Sociologica |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=321–340 |year=2005 |last1=Van De Werfhorst |first1=Herman G. |last2=Andersen |first2=Robert |citeseerx=10.1.1.199.1569 |s2cid=16574020 }}</ref><ref>Ronald P. Dore, 1976. ''The Diploma Disease: Education, Qualification, and Development''. Berkeley: University of California Press.</ref><ref>Randall Collins, 1981. "Crises and Declines in Credential Systems," in Randall Collins, ''Sociology since Mid-century: Essays in Theory Cumulation''. New York: Academic Press. pp. 191–215</ref><ref>John W. Chaffee, 1985. ''The Thorny Gates of Learning in Sung China''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref>

The term "academic inflation" was popularized by Ken Robinson in his TED Talk entitled "Schools Kill Creativity".<ref name="Rispin">{{cite web|last=Rispin|first=Kenith|title=Academic Inflation – Disaster in the Work Place|url=http://www.keithrispin.com/education/academic-inflation-knowledge-gone-wrong/|access-date=4 March 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160731182703/http://www.keithrispin.com/education/academic-inflation-knowledge-gone-wrong/|archive-date=31 July 2016|date=2011-05-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Robinson |first=Ken |title=Schools Kill Creativity |date=27 June 2006 |url=https://www.ted.com/talks/sir_ken_robinson_do_schools_kill_creativity}}</ref> It has been analogized to the inflation of paper currencies where too much currency chases too few commodities.<ref>Day et al., ''Issues in Educational Drama'', Taylor & Francis, 1983, page 12, {{ISBN|0-905273-66-4}}</ref>

===Examples=== For instance, in the late 1980s, a bachelor's degree was the standard qualification to enter the profession of physical therapy.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://chronicle.com/article/Credential-Creep/25476|title=Credential Creep|journal=The Chronicle of Higher Education|date=22 June 2007}}</ref> By the 1990s, a master's degree was expected. Today, a doctorate is becoming the norm.

State requirements that registered nurses must hold bachelor's degrees have also contributed to a nursing shortage.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Dufilho |first1=Matt |title=CAUSES AND SOLUTIONS FOR THE NURSING SHORTAGE |url=https://alwaysculture.com/hcahps/causes-solutions-nursing-shortage/ |website=alwaysculture.com |date=11 March 2021 |publisher=Always Culture |access-date=1 December 2021}}</ref>

===Indications=== A good example of credential inflation is the decline in the value of the US high school diploma since the beginning of the 20th century, when it was held by less than 10 percent of the population. At the time, high school diplomas attested to middle-class respectability and for many years even provided access to managerial level jobs. In the 21st century, however, a high school diploma often barely qualifies the graduate for menial service work.<ref name="Randall Collins 2002 pages 23-46">Randall Collins, "Credential Inflation and the Future of Universities," Chapter One of ''The Future of the City of Intellect: The Changing American University'', edited by Steven Brint (Stanford University Press, 2002), pages 23-46.</ref>

One indicator of credential inflation is the relative decline in the wage differential between those with college degrees and those with only high school diplomas.<ref name=WesselWSJ>{{cite news|first=David |last=Wessel |title=Why It Takes a Doctorate To Beat Inflation |newspaper=The Wall Street Journal |date=19 October 2006 |page=A2}}</ref> An additional indicator is the gap between the credentials requested by employers in job postings and the qualifications of those already in those occupations. A 2014 study in the United States found, for example, that 65% of job postings for executive secretaries and executive assistants now call for a bachelor's degree, but only 19% of those currently employed in these roles have a degree.<ref name="burning-glass.com">Burning Glass Technologies, [http://burning-glass.com/research/credentials-gap/ "Moving the Goalposts: How Demand for a Bachelor's Degree Is Reshaping the Workforce,"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180301124156/http://burning-glass.com/research/credentials-gap/ |date=1 March 2018 }} Sept. 2014, accessed 2016-06-12</ref>{{Dead link|date=July 2025}} Jobs that were open to high school graduates decades ago now routinely require higher education as well—without an appreciable change in required skills.<ref>[https://www.ets.org/Media/Research/pdf/PICJOBS.pdf Educational Testing Service, "What Jobs Require: Literacy, Education, and Training 1940-2006"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170102001850/https://www.ets.org/Media/Research/pdf/PICJOBS.pdf |date=2 January 2017 }}, published January 2000, accessed 2016-06-12</ref> In some cases, such as IT help desk roles, a study found there was little difference in advertised skill requirements between jobs requiring a college degree and those that do not.<ref name="burning-glass.com"/>

According to the New York Federal Reserve Bank, about one third of all college graduates are underemployed, meaning they are employed below the value of their degrees.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-12-04 |title=The Labor Market for Recent College Graduates - FEDERAL RESERVE BANK of NEW YORK |url=https://www.newyorkfed.org/research/college-labor-market/college-labor-market_underemployment_rates.html |access-date=2023-11-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221204074359/https://www.newyorkfed.org/research/college-labor-market/college-labor-market_underemployment_rates.html |archive-date=4 December 2022 }}</ref> That distribution has remained largely unchanged for thirty years, although the chance of being underemployed in a good job has gone down 28.0% for recent hirings, and 20.6% overall.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-12-06 |title=The Labor Market for Recent College Graduates - FEDERAL RESERVE BANK of NEW YORK |url=http://www.newyorkfed.org/research/college-labor-market/college-labor-market_underemployment_jobtypes.html |access-date=2023-11-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221206185224/http://www.newyorkfed.org/research/college-labor-market/college-labor-market_underemployment_jobtypes.html |archive-date=6 December 2022 }}</ref>

===Causes=== The causes of credential inflation are controversial, but it is generally thought to be the result of increased access to higher education. This has resulted in entry-level jobs requesting a bachelor's (or higher) degree when they were once open to high school graduates.<ref>{{cite book|last=Furlong|first=Andy|title=Youth Studies: An Introduction|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=New York|isbn=9780415564762|page=73}}</ref> Potential sources of credential inflation include: degree requirements by employers, self-interest of individuals and families, increased standards of living which allow for additional years of education, cultural pushes for being educated, and the availability of federal student loans which allow many more individuals to obtain credentials than could otherwise afford to do so.<ref>Randall Collins, 1979. The Credential Society: An Historical Sociology of Education and Stratification. New York: Academic Press. [http://media.pfeiffer.edu/lridener/courses/COLLINR2.HTML] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141023231049/http://media.pfeiffer.edu/lridener/courses/COLLINR2.HTML|date=23 October 2014}}</ref><ref>David K. Brown, "The Social Sources of Educational Credentialism: Status Cultures, Labor Markets, and Organizations," ''Sociology of Education'', Extra Issue (2001): 19-34.</ref>

In particular, the internal dynamics of credential inflation threaten higher education initiatives around the world because credential inflation appears to operate independently of market demand for credentials.<ref>David F. Labaree, ''How to Succeed in School without Really Learning: The Credentials Race in American Education'', Yale University Press (1997).</ref>

The push for more Americans to get a higher education rests on the well-evidenced idea that those without a college degree are less employable.<ref name = roi>{{cite news |last1=Singletary |first1=Michelle |title=Is college still worth it? Read this study. |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/personal-finance/is-college-still-worth-it-read-this-study/2020/01/10/b9894514-3330-11ea-91fd-82d4e04a3fac_story.html |access-date=12 January 2020 |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=11 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/08/30/class-2011-hiring_n_942571.html | work=Huffington Post | first=Alexander | last=Eichler | title=Hiring Is Up For The Class Of 2011, But Previous Classes Still Struggle | date=30 August 2011}}</ref> Many critics of higher education, in turn, complain that a surplus of college graduates has produced an "employer's market".<ref>{{cite web | url =https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2014/09/09/demand-degrees-grows-many-fields-havent-required-them | title =Credential Creep Confirmed | last =Lederman | first =Doug | date =9 September 2014 | website =Inside Higher Ed | access-date =17 January 2017 | quote =Many employers are seeking workers with B.A.s even for jobs that haven't historically required the degree. That may be good news for colleges -- but warning signs are on the horizon. }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url =https://gradsoflife.org/uncategorized/new-report-harmful-effects-degree-inflation/ | title =New Report on the Harmful Effects of Degree Inflation | date =2 November 2017 | website =Grads of Life | access-date =15 August 2019 | quote =By requesting that applicants have four-year degrees for positions that didn't previously require them, businesses are making it harder for themselves to find talent for middle skills jobs and, in the process, hampering the ability of middle-class Americans to find jobs. }}</ref> Economist Bryan Caplan has argued the combination of more college graduates and weaker learning outcomes has led to employers asking for college degrees for jobs that do not need one and previously did not require one.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wsj.com/us-news/education/why-americans-have-lost-faith-in-the-value-of-college-b6b635f2?mod=mhp|title=Why Americans Have Lost Faith in the Value of College|website=The Wall Street Journal|date=January 19, 2024|access-date=February 1, 2024|first1=Douglas|last1=Belkin}}</ref>

===Problems === Credential inflation is a controversial topic. There is very little consensus on how, or if, this type of inflation impacts higher education, the job market, and salaries. Some common concerns discussed in this topic are:

* The proliferation of a grandiose and superficial culture has engendered a paradoxical phenomenon within China's employment landscape, particularly evident in the disproportionate educational requirements for roles traditionally devoid of such stipulations. Previously, there were no academic qualifications required for security guard positions. However, it has come to light that some employers are now demanding that applicants for such roles possess a master's degree or higher. And in fact, many jobs do not require formal education and can be adequately performed after on-the-job training or apprenticeships and those applicants who meet the educational requirements and are hired by employers often find that the subject of their diploma does not align with the work they are doing. They have to start from scratch in their jobs, causing a waste of educational resources.<ref>{{Cite web |title=太卷了！北大、上海交大等985高校保卫部岗位竟要硕士及以上学历？ |url=https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s?__biz=MzIxNzk2Mjc0Ng==&mid=2247743268&idx=1&sn=003fe876261bbaa77bb679b399f175f9&chksm=97fcb6b1a08b3fa7e63d56303c56c1686d97b3334bbe5e363a04acfcf09b2c57127fe9fdb37f&__biz=MzIxNzk2Mjc0Ng==&mid=2247743268&idx=1&sn=003fe876261bbaa77bb679b399f175f9&chksm=97fcb6b1a08b3fa7e63d56303c56c1686d97b3334bbe5e363a04acfcf09b2c57127fe9fdb37f#rd |access-date=2024-09-21 |website=Weixin Official Accounts Platform}}</ref> * College tuition and fee increases have been blamed on degree inflation, though the current data does not generally support this assertion.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.usnews.com/education/articles/2009/01/15/the-surprising-causes-of-those-college-tuition-hikes |title= The Surprising Causes of Those College Tuition Hikes |last=Clark |first=Kim |date=15 January 2009 |website=usnews.com}}</ref><ref>Presentation of Chris Rasmussen, Director of Policy Research, Midwestern Higher Education Compact, at Loyola University, Chicago, Illinois, before the US Department of Education, on 5 October 2006. Transcript page 174. http://www2.ed.gov/policy/highered/reg/hearulemaking/2007/transcript-il.doc {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629123047/http://www2.ed.gov/policy/highered/reg/hearulemaking/2007/transcript-il.doc |date=29 June 2017 }}</ref> * Credential-driven students may be less engaged than those who are attending college for personal enrichment.<ref>David F. Labaree, ''How to Succeed in School without Really Learning: The Credentials Race in American Education'', Yale University Press (1997), pages 32, 50, 259.</ref> * Credentialism is prevalent in China, where children from impoverished families pursue higher education but cannot afford the associated costs. They are often forced to attend public schools or non-profit charitable universities, which have lower tuition than private institutions, yet even these fees remain a heavy burden. To pay for tuition, they economize on living expenses to the extreme.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-11-01 |title=Chinese worker living on 20p a day while supporting her sick brother overwhelmed with £51,000 in donations |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/china-wu-huayan-student-donations-malnourished-weight-age-brother-guizhou-a9180356.html |access-date=2026-02-05 |website=The Independent |language=en}}</ref> This situation, coupled with education inflation leading to the rapid devaluation of university degrees, means that when these graduates enter the job market, their employment prospects are often worse than anticipated. Since the tuition paid consumed a large portion of their poor families' expenditure, this disproportionate return on investment leads to feelings of disappointment and dissatisfaction among the children from these families. On the other hand, education inflation has led to many people holding a bachelor's degree or higher, and these highly educated individuals often have high expectations when job searching, believing they can secure high-paying positions commensurate with their academic qualifications. However, in reality, the professional skills of many graduates are misaligned with market demands; the market under-demands certain skills while certain specializations suffer from oversupply. Consequently, they are forced to accept jobs that are either mismatched with their majors or low-end positions for which they are overqualified. This mismatch of education to job results in a severe misallocation of human resources, and low-end employment leads to a waste of social resources. Furthermore, the vast gap between their ideals and reality forces these highly educated individuals to endure the heavy toll of mental exhaustion and low spirits over the long term.<ref>{{Cite web |title=纠结与治愈:青年精神内耗的表征、根源与应对-学生工作部 |url=https://www.csust.edu.cn/xsgzb/info/1268/10552.htm |access-date=2026-02-05 |website=www.csust.edu.cn}}</ref> * Devaluation of other forms of learning.<ref>{{Citation|last1=Coates|first1=Ken|last2=Morrison|first2=Bill|year=2016|title=Dream Factories: Why Universities Won't Solve the Youth Jobs Crisis|place=Toronto|publisher=Dundurn Books|pages=232|url=https://www.dundurn.com/books/Dream-Factories|isbn=9781459733770|access-date=13 January 2021|archive-date=1 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160601084152/https://www.dundurn.com/books/Dream-Factories|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.jamesgmartin.center/2020/08/credential-inflation-whats-causing-it-and-what-can-we-do-about-it/ | title=Credential Inflation: What's Causing It and What Can We Do About It? | last=Gillen | first=Andrew | website=James G. Martin Center for Academic Renewal | date=7 August 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last1 =Carnevale | first1 =Anthony | last2 =Cheah | first2 =Ban | title =Five Rules of the College and Career Game | publisher =Georgetown University | year =2018 | url =https://cew.georgetown.edu/cew-reports/5rules/ | access-date =May 16, 2018 }}</ref> * Before educational inflation, the diploma gap was not significant, and employers did not have high diploma requirements for job applicants. After educational inflation, people's educational qualifications became uneven, and employers raised the diploma requirements for recruitment. Those who could not meet the diploma threshold for recruitment had to resort to joining the underworld out of desperation to make a living, while women were forced to become hostesses or sex workers – jobs that do not require diplomas.<ref>{{Cite web |last=网易 |date=2014-11-27 |title=直击陪酒女：无学历月收入过万 |url=https://www.163.com/jiu/article/AC3041NN00824IMP.html |access-date=2025-08-04 |website=www.163.com}}</ref> Moreover, not all individuals lacking the relevant diplomas are poor students. Some students who excel in specific areas may struggle with the comprehensive general education requirements, preventing them from obtaining the necessary diplomas.{{cn|date=October 2025}} * Opportunity costs of attending graduate school, which can include delayed savings, fewer years in work force (and less earnings), and postponement of starting families.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/thecollegebubble/2014/05/21/do-the-math-how-opportunity-costs-multiply-tuition/ |title=Do the Math: How Opportunity Costs Multiply Tuition |work=Forbes.com |date=21 May 2014 |access-date=2019-05-10}}</ref> * Educational inflation has made mate selection difficult for women, who prefer partners with equal or higher education. In China, for example, mate selection was relatively easier for women before educational inflation because educational disparities were smaller. However, after educational inflation, the gap in academic qualifications has widened, the length of education has increased, and the time to enter the workforce has been delayed; in addition, women are unwilling to marry men with lower educational qualifications than themselves, leading to a significant increase in the number of single women in China.<ref>{{Cite web |title=报告关注“剩女”现象：学历越高越难找到相应配偶_新闻频道_央视网(cctv.com) |url=https://news.cctv.com/2016/11/30/ARTIlyxJJGuCuTYkvx9lmHJL161130.shtml |access-date=2026-02-04 |website=news.cctv.com}}</ref> Even if a man is exceptionally talented, a mere lack of sufficient educational credentials is enough to deter women from even wanting to get to know him.<ref>{{Cite web |title=40岁女博士相亲：我只有这些"要求"_生活_上海_学历 |url=https://learning.sohu.com/a/www.sohu.com/a/547594050_121121295 |access-date=2024-07-10 |website=learning.sohu.com}}{{Dead link|date=July 2025}}</ref> * Lack of adequately trained faculty and rises in the number of adjunct professors which can adversely impact quality of education.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/nation/when-a-college-contracts-adjunctivitis-its-the-students-who-lose|title=When a college contracts 'adjunctivitis,' it's the students who lose|website=PBS NewsHour|date=2014-07-25}}</ref> * Grade inflation has been correlated to degree inflation by some academics, though the causal direction is debated.<ref name="Randall Collins 2002 pages 23-46"/> * Some have accused degree inflation of devaluing job and employment experience, though most data show that degrees are not as highly sought after as relevant experience, which is the cited reason for student loan debt that cannot be paid back.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://inflationdata.com/articles/2012/09/03/college-degree-academic-inflation/|title=The College Degree and Academic Inflation|date=3 September 2012|access-date=3 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171219183440/https://inflationdata.com/articles/2012/09/03/college-degree-academic-inflation/|archive-date=19 December 2017}}</ref> * Some in-service employees or government officials in China, despite being experienced in their work, are forced to pursue higher education, such as associate degree to bachelor's degree, master's or doctoral degrees, due to the lack of high educational requirements when they were first hired. This diverts their energy from work, and sometimes the field of study is not relevant to their job. As a result, obtaining a degree does not necessarily improve their work abilities<ref>{{Cite web |title=鼓励在职进修拓宽视野增长见识条款.docx-原创力文档 |url=https://max.book118.com/html/2025/0527/8075032107007071.shtm |access-date=2025-06-03 |website=max.book118.com}}</ref> * Although honorary doctorates are intended to honor individuals for their exceptional contributions or social influence in a specific field, and do not require coursework, exams, or thesis defenses, the proliferation of regular doctoral degrees has diluted the prestige of honorary doctorates<ref>{{Cite web |last=考博猫 |title=学历贬值浪潮下，还要不要读博？博士学位的价值还剩多少？ |url=http://mp.weixin.qq.com/s?__biz=Mzk0NzYxMTUzNA==&mid=2247515658&idx=2&sn=feccd9ef3a2c7add2d00a5f46d3519ea&chksm=c2d268e5d361e6cf617b324bf8bf700f5a02032b109ff735b73d9e6a25e77470eb0b2bb1d997#rd |access-date=2025-06-03 |website=微信公众平台}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-06-14 |title=明星频频拿到的"荣誉博士"，含金量有多少 |url=https://finance.sina.com.cn/wm/2022-06-14/doc-imizirau8305820.shtml |access-date=2025-06-03 |website=finance.sina.com.cn}}</ref> * In April 2025, Peking Union Medical College in China was exposed by the media to have launched a clinical medicine doctoral training program in 2018 known as the "4+4" model, which consists of 4 years of non-medical undergraduate education followed by 4 years of medical professional education. The program uses the theory of liberal education as a justification, arguing that doctors should possess a broader knowledge base beyond medicine. This has sparked a debate between liberal education and specialized education. The public has expressed disapproval, claiming that it not only wastes the first four years of undergraduate study but also results in doctors trained under the liberal education theory lacking adequate medical skills. Furthermore, the program has been criticized as a shortcut for children of powerful and wealthy families to quickly obtain a doctoral degree.<ref>{{Cite web |title=董袭莹事件引发对协和"4+4"质疑：警惕有人打着改革创新旗号搞腐败 - 民族复兴网 - 手机版 |url=https://www.mzfxw.com/m/show1.php?classid=12&id=191155&style=0&cpage=0&cid=&bclassid=4 |access-date=2025-05-16 |website=www.mzfxw.com}}</ref>

==Grade inflation== {{main|Grade inflation}}

Grade inflation is the tendency to award progressively higher academic grades for work that would have received lower grades in the past. It is frequently discussed in relation to education in the United States, and to GCSEs and A levels in England and Wales. It is also discussed as an issue in Canada and many other nations, especially Australia and New Zealand.

== In non-US countries ==

=== China === {{See also|Neijuan|Education in China|Higher education in China}} Chinese educational competition is described as breakneck and cut-throat.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Chinese youth suicide rate quadruples in over a decade |url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Spotlight/Caixin/Chinese-youth-suicide-rate-quadruples-in-over-a-decade |access-date=2023-11-11 |website=Nikkei Asia |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=China's Gen Z mental health crisis emerges in disturbing jump in suicide rate amid intense academic pressure |url=https://fortune.com/2023/07/06/china-gen-z-mental-health-crisis-suicide-academic-depression-education/ |access-date=2023-11-11 |website=Fortune |language=en}}</ref> The word “neijuan” or “involution” has been used to describe people competing for diminishing returns.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=MacMarty |first=Malcom Kyeyune, Marty |date=2021-11-20 |title=Crises of Elite Competition in the East and West |url=https://americanaffairsjournal.org/2021/11/crises-of-elite-competition-in-the-east-and-west/ |access-date=2023-11-11 |website=American Affairs Journal |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=thewireuw |date=2021-10-20 |title=Involution: China's Hyper-Competitive Education System |url=https://thewireuw.wordpress.com/2021/10/20/involution-chinas-hyper-competitive-education-system/ |access-date=2023-11-11 |website=The WIRe |language=en}}</ref> China is a country exhibiting high wealth inequality and meager social mobility, raising the stakes to get into the few available managerial positions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The 'lying flat' movement standing in the way of China's innovation drive |url=https://www.brookings.edu/articles/the-lying-flat-movement-standing-in-the-way-of-chinas-innovation-drive/ |access-date=2023-11-11 |website=Brookings |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=University |first1=© Stanford |last2=Stanford |last3=California 94305 |title=The Rise of Wealth, Private Property, and Income Inequality in China |url=https://sccei.fsi.stanford.edu/china-briefs/rise-wealth-private-property-and-income-inequality-china |access-date=2023-11-11 |website=sccei.fsi.stanford.edu |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine |date=2023-06-23 |title=China Wants Its Rich to Stop Doing Rich People Things |url=https://time.com/6289559/china-inequality-wealth-flaunting-common-prosperity/ |access-date=2023-11-11 |magazine=Time |language=en}}</ref> The entrenched high-stakes testing culture coupled with inconsistent governance has led to unusually high levels of cheating among the fuerdai (China's second-generation rich).<ref name=":1"/> The practice includes whole cheating rings and persists despite extreme penalties, as high as seven years in prison. To combat this self-defeating testing culture, the Chinese government has banned cram schools and for-profit tutoring businesses, as well as tutoring on the weekends. “Tang ping” or “lying flat” refers to a peaceful Chinese protest movement calling attention to the desire not to be burned up in an economic race that so many cannot seem to win.

=== South Korea === {{See also|Education in South Korea|Suicide in South Korea}} South Korea has a very high-pressure education system. 70% of South Koreans have postsecondary diplomas and South Koreans score at or near the top when compared to other countries, but are left to fight for few jobs in a high-maintenance economy.<ref name=":1"/> Aside from having to work very hard, they also face an immense housing crisis.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Park |first=Katrin |date=2021-11-05 |title=South Korea Is No Country for Young People |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/11/05/south-korea-suicide-rates-mental-illness-squid-game/ |access-date=2023-11-11 |website=Foreign Policy |language=en-US}}</ref> In 2021, suicide was the leading cause of death for those under 40, responsible for 44% of teenage deaths, which went up to 56.8% of deaths for those in their 20's.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Rashid |first=Raphael |date=2023-04-29 |title=South Korea may look perfect, but behind the facade lies a devastating suicide crisis |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2023/apr/29/south-korea-suicide-crisis-k-pop-young-people |access-date=2023-11-11 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> Among OECD nations, South Korea has the highest suicide rate.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bae |first=Jessie Yeung,Yoonjung Seo,Gawon |date=2023-09-05 |title=South Korean teachers hold mass protests after suicide highlights pressures from parents |url=https://www.cnn.com/2023/09/05/asia/south-korea-teachers-protest-suicide-intl-hnk/index.html |access-date=2023-11-11 |website=CNN |language=en}}</ref> Only 23.6% of teachers expressed satisfaction with their work in a 2023 poll. The country has also suffered from cripplingly low birth-rates, less than one per female, a testament to the strain that would-be parents endure.<ref name=":1" />

==References== {{reflist}} {{Refbegin}} * {{ Citation | first1 = Stuart | last1 = Rojstaczer | first2 = Christopher | last2 = Healy | title = Grading in American Colleges and Universities | date = 2010-03-04 | journal = Teachers College Record | url = http://www.tcrecord.org/Content.asp?ContentID=15928 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100407112822/http://www.tcrecord.org/Content.asp?ContentID=15928 |archive-date=2010-04-07 | access-date = 2010-04-19}} **{{cite web |first1=Stuart |last1=Rojstaczer |first2=Christopher |last2=Healy |author-mask=2 |author-mask2=2 |title=Grading in American Colleges and Universities |website=Grade Inflation |url=http://www.gradeinflation.com/tcr2010grading.pdf}} {{Refend}}

== Further reading == * Berg, I. (1970). Education and Jobs: The Great Training Robbery. Praeger: New York * Brown, D. (2001) "[http://www.asanet.org/images/members/docs/pdf/special/soe/soe_extra_2001_Article_2_Brown.pdf The Social Sources of Educational Credentialism: Status Cultures, Labour Markets and Organisations]". ''Sociology of Education'' Extra Issue 2001; 19–34. * Tony Buon & Compton, R. (1990). "Credentials, Credentialism and Employee Selection". ''Asia Pacific Human Resource Management''. 28, 126–132. * Tony Buon (1994). "The Recruitment of Training Professionals". ''Training & Development in Australia''. 21, (5), 17–22 * Caplan, B. (2018). ''The Case Against Education: Why the Education System Is a Waste of Time and Money''. Princeton University Press. * Randall Collins, "Functional and Conflict Theories of Educational Stratification", ''American Sociological Review'', Vol. 36, No. 6. (Dec., 1971), pp. 1002-1019 (for the earliest discussion of how credential inflation operates, see 1015–1016). https://www.suz.uzh.ch/dam/jcr:00000000-510b-31c0-0000-000011824966/11.02-collins-71.pdf * Randall Collins, ''The Credential Society: An Historical Sociology of Education and Stratification'', Academic Press, 1979/2019. * Ronald Dore (1976) "The Diploma Disease: Education, Qualification, and Development" * Charles D. Hayes, ''Proving You're Qualified: Strategies for Competent People without College Degrees'', Autodidactic Press, 1995. * Charles Derber, William A. Schwartz, Yale Magrass, ''Power in the Highest Degree: Professionals and the Rise of a New Mandarin Order'', Oxford University Press, 1990. * John McKnight, ''The Careless Society: Community and Its Counterfeits'', New York, BasicBooks, 1995. * {{cite journal|last=Meehl |first=P.E. |author-link = Paul E. Meehl |year=1997 |title=Credentialed persons, credentialed knowledge | url=http://www.tc.umn.edu/~pemeehl/168CredentialedPersons.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120212175832/http://www.tc.umn.edu/~pemeehl/168CredentialedPersons.pdf | archive-date=2012-02-12 |journal=Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=91–98 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-2850.1997.tb00103.x}} * Robert S. Mendelsohn, ''Confessions of a Medical Heretic'', Chicago: Contemporary books, 1979. * Ivan Illich, Irving K. Zola, John McKnight, ''Disabling Professions'', 1977. * Ivan Illich, ''Deschooling Society'', 1971. * Woodward, Orrin & Oliver DeMille ''LeaderShift: A Call for Americans to Finally Stand Up & Lead'' Grand Central Publishing 2013 * Sarah Kendzior (2014), [http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2014/05/college-promise-economy-does-no-201451411124734124.html "College is a promise the economy does not keep"] (Al Jazeera)

== External links == {{Wiktionary}}

===Credential inflation=== * Gary North, The PhD Glut Revisited, 24 January 2006 [https://archive.lewrockwell.com/north/north427.html] * Randall Collins, The Dirty Little Secret of Credential Inflation, The Chronicle of Higher Education, 27 September 2002, Volume 49, Issue 5, Page B20 [http://chronicle.com/article/The-Dirty-Little-Secret-of/20548] * Randall Collins, "Functional and Conflict Theories of Educational Stratification", ''American Sociological Review,'' Vol. 36, No. 6. (Dec., 1971), pp. 1002-1019 (for the earliest discussion of how credential inflation operates, see 1015–1016). [https://www.suz.uzh.ch/dam/jcr:00000000-510b-31c0-0000-000011824966/11.02-collins-71.pdf] * Randall Collins, The Credential Society. New York: Academic Press, 1979, pp. 191–204. [https://web.archive.org/web/20141023231049/http://media.pfeiffer.edu/lridener/courses/COLLINR2.HTML] * Lowell Gallaway, The Supreme Court and the Inflation of Educational Credentials: Impact of Griggs examined. Clarion Call, 9 November 2006 [https://web.archive.org/web/20100620230814/http://popecenter.org/issues/article.html?id=1749] * Laura Pappano "The Masters as the New Bachelor's" (New York Times, 22 July 2011), [https://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/24/education/edlife/edl-24masters-t.html link] * Joseph B. Fuller & Manjari Raman et al. (October 2017). "[http://www.hbs.edu/managing-the-future-of-work/Documents/dismissed-by-degrees.pdf Dismissed by Degrees: How degree inflation is undermining U.S. competitiveness and hurting America's middle class]". Accenture, Grads of Life & Harvard Business School.

===Academic inflation=== * [https://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/24/education/edlife/edl-24masters-t.html The Master's as the New Bachelor's] * [https://www.ted.com/talks/sir_ken_robinson_do_schools_kill_creativity Sir Ken Robinson: Do schools kill creativity?]

===Grade inflation=== * [http://www.gradeinflation.com Grade Inflation At American Colleges and Universities]   * Alfie Kohn: [https://web.archive.org/web/20060409113947/http://www.alfiekohn.org/teaching/gi.htm The Dangerous Myth of Grade Inflation] * Steven Landsburg: [http://www.slate.com/id/33044/ Grade Expectations: Why grade inflation is bad for schools--and what to do about it.] * [https://archive.today/20041015060240/http://alfiekohn.org/teaching/gisources.htm Grade Inflation Sources]  * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060920233617/http://www.ent.ohiou.edu/~manhire/grade/2004-22_Final.pdf Grade Inflation, Ethics and Engineering Education] * [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/06/02/AR2005060201593_pf.html A's for Everyone!] (''The Washington Post'' article written by Alicia Shepard) * [http://ssrn.com/abstract=531623 Nominal GPA and Real GPA: A Simple Adjustment that Compensates for Grade Inflation] * [http://ssrn.com/abstract=2405629 Real GPA and Real SET: Two Antidotes to Greed, Sloth, and Cowardice in the College Classroom]

Category:Education issues Category:Student assessment and evaluation Category:Waste of resources