Crane fly

{{Short description|Superfamily of flies}} {{use dmy dates|date=August 2025}} {{Automatic taxobox | name = Tipuloidea | fossil_range = {{Fossilrange|Middle Triassic | Present}} | image = Tipulidae April 2008-2.jpg | image_caption = ''Nephrotoma appendiculata'' (spotted crane fly) | image2 = Crane Fly Larva (29146021264).jpg | image2_caption = Crane fly larva | taxon = Tipuloidea | authority = Latreille, 1802 | subdivision_ranks = Families | subdivision = * Cylindrotomidae Kertész, 1902 * Limoniidae Speiser, 1909 * Pediciidae Osten-Sacken, 1859 * Tipulidae Latreille, 1802 }}

A '''crane fly''', also known as a '''mosquito eater''', or a '''mosquito hawk''', is a member of the dipteran superfamily Tipuloidea, which contains the living families Cylindrotomidae, Limoniidae, Pediciidae and Tipulidae, as well as several extinct families.<ref name=Oosterbroek2023/> "Winter crane flies", members of the family Trichoceridae, are sufficiently different from the typical crane flies of Tipuloidea to be excluded from the superfamily Tipuloidea, and are placed as their sister group within Tipulomorpha.<ref name="Stary19922">{{cite journal |last=Stary |first=Jaroslav |year=1992 |title=Phylogeny and classification of Tipulomorpha, with special emphasis on the family Limoniidae |journal=Acta Zoologica Cracoviensia |volume=35 |pages=11–36}}</ref> Two other families of flies, the phantom crane flies (Ptychopteridae) and primitive crane flies (Tanyderidae), have similar common names due to their similar appearance, but they are not closely related to true crane flies.<ref name="Britannica20232">{{cite web |date=2023 |title=Crane fly |url=https://www.britannica.com/animal/crane-fly |access-date=16 October 2025 |website=Britannica |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.}}</ref>

The classification of crane flies has been varied in the past, with some or all of these families treated as subfamilies,<ref name=Byers1981/> but the following classification is currently accepted.<ref name=Zhang2016/><ref name=Kolcsár2021/><ref name=Oosterbroek2023/><ref name=Zhang2019/><ref name=bugguide/> Species counts are approximate, and vary over time.<ref name=Oosterbroek2023/>

;Superfamily Tipuloidea (typical crane flies) : Family Cylindrotomidae (Cylindrotomid or long-bodied crane flies, 67 species) : Family Limoniidae (Limoniid crane flies, 10,786 species, possibly paraphyletic) : Family Pediciidae (Hairy-eyed crane flies, 498 species) : Family Tipulidae (Large crane flies, 4,351 species)

In colloquial speech, crane flies are known as '''mosquito hawks''' or "'''skeeter-eaters'''", though they do not actually prey on adult mosquitos or other insects.<ref name=delta/><ref>{{cite web |url=https://endmosquitoes.com/do-mosquito-hawks-eat-mosquitoes/ |title=Do mosquito hawks eat mosquitoes? |publisher=endmosquitoes.com |access-date=29 August 2019}}</ref> They are also sometimes called "daddy longlegs", a name which is also used for arachnids of the family Pholcidae and the order Opiliones. The larvae of crane flies are known commonly as leatherjackets.<ref name=delta/>

Crane flies first appeared during the Middle Triassic, around 245 million years ago, making them one of the oldest known groups of flies,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lukashevich |first1=Elena D. |last2=Ribeiro |first2=Guilherme C. |date=2019-04-18 |title=Mesozoic fossils and the phylogeny of Tipulomorpha (Insecta: Diptera) |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14772019.2018.1448899 |journal=Journal of Systematic Palaeontology |language=en |volume=17 |issue=8 |pages=635–652 |doi=10.1080/14772019.2018.1448899 |bibcode=2019JSPal..17..635L |issn=1477-2019|url-access=subscription }}</ref> and are found worldwide, though individual species usually have limited ranges. They are most diverse in the tropics but are also common in northern latitudes and high elevations.<ref name=pritch>{{cite journal |last1=Pritchard |first1=G |title=Biology of Tipulidae |journal=Annual Review of Entomology |date=1983 |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1146/annurev.en.28.010183.000245 |url=http://nlbif.eti.uva.nl/ccw/documents/Pritchard,_1983.pdf |access-date=2013-10-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140112222236/http://nlbif.eti.uva.nl/ccw/documents/Pritchard,_1983.pdf |archive-date=2014-01-12 }}</ref>

More than 15,500 species and over 500 genera of crane flies have been described, the majority by C.P. Alexander, who published descriptions of 10,890 new species and subspecies, and 256 new genera and subgenera over a period of 71 years from 1910–1981.<ref name=Oosterbroek2023/><ref name=oo/>

== Description == [[File:Crane Fly - (Tipula).jpg|thumb|Head of a ''Tipula'' sp.]]

=== Summary === An adult crane fly, resembling an oversized male mosquito, typically has a slender body and long, stilt-like legs that are deciduous, easily coming off the body.<ref name=Petersen-etal-2010/><ref name=Zhang2016/> Like other insects, their wings are marked with wing interference patterns which vary among species, thus are useful for species identification.<ref name=Conrow2022/> They occur in moist, temperate environments such as vegetation near lakes and streams.<ref name=Zhang2016/> They generally do not feed, but some species consume nectar, pollen, or water.<ref name=Rodrigues2019/>

The wingspan is generally about {{convert|1.0|to|6.5|cm|frac=4|abbr=on}}, though some species of ''Holorusia'' can reach {{convert|11|cm|frac=4|abbr=on}}.<ref name=scmp/> The antennae have up to 19 segments.<ref name=delta/> It is also characterized by a 'V'‑shaped suture or groove on the back of the thorax (mesonotum) and by its wing venation.<ref name=pritch /> The rostrum is long and in some species as long as the head and thorax together.<ref name=de/>

Larvae occur in various habitats including marshes, springs, decaying wood, moist soil, leaf litter, fungi, vertebrate nests and vegetation. They usually feed on decaying plant matter and microbes associated with this, but some species instead feed on living plants, fungi, or other invertebrates.<ref name=Petersen-etal-2010/>

=== Formal === {{For|terms|Morphology of Diptera}} thumb|150px|Wing of a crane fly

Tipuloidea are medium to large-sized flies ({{convert|7|-|35|mm|frac=4|abbr=on|disp=comma}}) with elongated legs, wings, and abdomen. Their colour is yellow, brown, or grey. Ocelli are absent. The ''rostrum'' (a snout) is short with a beak-like point called the ''nasus'' (rarely absent). The apical segment of the maxillary palpi is flagelliform (whip-like) and much longer than the subapical segment. The antennae have 13 segments (exceptionally 14–19). These are whorled, serrate, or ctenidial (comb-like). There is a distinct 'V'‑shaped suture between the mesonotal ''prescutum'' and ''scutum'' (near the level of the wing bases). The wings are monochromatic, longitudinally striped or marbled. In females the wings are sometimes rudimentary. The sub-costal vein (Sc) joins through Sc2 with the radial vein, Sc1 is at most a short stump. There are four, rarely (when R2 is reduced) three branches of the radial vein merging into the alar margin. The discoidal wing cell is usually present. The wing has two anal veins. Sternite 9 of the male genitalia has, with few exceptions, two pairs of appendages. Sometimes appendages are also present on sternite 8. The female ovipositor has sclerotized valves and the cerci have a smooth or dentate lower margin. The valves are sometimes modified into thick bristles or short teeth.

The larvae are elongated, usually cylindrical. The posterior two-thirds of the head capsule is enclosed or retracted within the prothoracic segment. The larva is metapneustic (with only one pair of spiracles, these on the anal segment of the abdomen), but often with vestigial lateral spiracles (rarely apneustic). The head capsule is sclerotized anteriorly and deeply incised ventrally and often dorsolaterally. The mandibles are opposed and move in the horizontal or oblique plane. The abdominal segments have transverse creeping welts. The terminal segments of the abdomen are glabrous, often partially sclerotized and bearing posterior spiracles. The spiracular disc is usually surrounded by lobe-like projections and anal papillae or lobes.

{{Multiple image | align = center | direction = horizontal | width = 300 | image1 = Tipulidae wing veins-1.svg | caption1 = Tipulidae | image2 = Tipulidae wing veins-2.svg | caption2 = Dolichopeza | caption_align = center }}

== Biology == {{Multiple image | direction = horizontal | total_width = 320 | image1 = Tipulidae crane fly mating.jpg | caption1 = A pair of crane flies (Tipulidae) mating | image2 = Cranefly molting (3) 6june2014.jpg | caption2 = Crane fly exiting pupa }}

[[File:Cranefles mating.webm|thumb|right|thumbtime=45|Mating craneflies{{px2}}{{mdash}}{{hsp}}the light brown one with bipectinate antennae is male]] Adults have a lifespan of 10–15 days.<ref> {{cite web |title=Introduction |series=Crane flies |website=carnegiemnh.org |url=http://iz.carnegiemnh.org/cranefly/introduction.htm |access-date=2013-09-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170709155220/http://iz.carnegiemnh.org/cranefly/introduction.htm |archive-date=2017-07-09 }} </ref> The adult female usually contains mature eggs as she emerges from her pupa, and often mates immediately if a male is available. Males also search for females by walking or flying. Copulation takes a few minutes to hours and may be accomplished in flight. The female immediately oviposits, usually in wet soil or mats of algae. Some lay eggs on the surface of a water body or in dry soils, and some reportedly simply drop them in flight. Most crane fly eggs are black in color. They often have a filament, which may help anchor the egg in wet or aquatic environments.<ref name=oo/>

Crane fly larvae (leatherjackets) have been observed in many habitat types on dry land and in water,<ref name=oo/> including marine, brackish, and fresh water.<ref name=de/> They are cylindrical in shape, but taper toward the front end, and the head capsule is often retracted into the thorax. The abdomen may be smooth, lined with hairs, or studded with projections or welt-like spots. Projections may occur around the spiracles.<ref name=de /> Larvae may eat algae, microflora, and living or decomposing plant matter, including wood. Some are predatory.<ref name=pritch/><ref name=oo/>

== Ecology == Larval habitats include all kinds of freshwater, semiaquatic environments. Some Tipuloidea, including ''Dolichopeza'', are found in moist to wet cushions of mosses or liverworts. ''Ctenophora'' species are found in decaying wood or sodden logs. ''Nephrotoma'' and ''Tipula'' larvae are found in dry soils of pasturelands, lawns, and steppe. Tipuloidea larvae are also found in rich organic earth and mud, in wet spots in woods where the humus is saturated, in leaf litter or mud, decaying plant materials, or fruits in various stages of putrefaction.

Larvae can be important in the soil ecosystem, because they process organic material and increase microbial activity.<ref name=oo/> Larvae and adults are also valuable prey items for many animals, including insects, spiders, fish, amphibians, birds, and mammals.<ref name=de/>

Adult crane flies may be used for transport by aquatic species of the mite family Ascidae. This is known as phoresis.<ref> {{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Ian M. |last2=Smith |first2=Bruce P. |last3=Cook |first3=David R. |year=2001 |chapter=Water mites (Hydrachnida) and other arachnids |title=Ecology and Classification of North American Freshwater Invertebrates |pages=551–659 |publisher=Elsevier |lang=en |doi=10.1016/b978-012690647-9/50017-x |isbn=978-0-12-690647-9 }} </ref>

== Pest status == thumb|left|The thorax of a crane fly Some members of the tipulid genus ''Tipula'', such as the European crane fly, ''Tipula paludosa'' and the marsh crane fly ''T. oleracea'' are agricultural pests in Europe. The larvae of these species live in the top layers of soil where they feed on the roots, root hairs, crown, and sometimes the leaves of crops, stunting their growth or killing the plants. They are pests on a wide variety of plants. Since the late 1900s, ''T. paludosa'' and ''T. oleracea'' have become invasive in the United States.<ref> {{cite journal |first1=Sujaya |last1=Rao |first2=Aaron |last2=Listona |first3=Lora |last3=Cramptonb |first4=Joyce |last4=Takeyasu |year=2006 |title=Identification of larvae of exotic ''Tipula paludosa'' (Diptera: Tipulidae) and ''T. oleracea'' in North America using mitochondrial ''cytB'' sequences |journal=Annals of the Entomological Society of America |volume=99 |issue=1 |pages=33–40 |doi=10.1603/0013-8746(2006)099[0033:IOLOET]2.0.CO;2 |doi-access=free |s2cid=85635147 }} </ref><ref> {{cite journal |last1=Blackshaw |first1=R.P. |last2=Coll |first2=C. |year=1999 |title=Economically important leatherjackets of grassland and cereals: Biology, impact and control |journal=Integrated Pest Management Reviews |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=145–162 |doi=10.1023/A:1009625724013 |s2cid=80918734 |url=http://nlbif.eti.uva.nl/ccw/documents/Blackshaw_and_Coll,_1999.pdf |access-date=2019-08-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140115062323/http://nlbif.eti.uva.nl/ccw/documents/Blackshaw_and_Coll,_1999.pdf |archive-date=2014-01-15 }} </ref><ref> {{cite report |last1=Jackson |first1=D.M. |last2=Campbell |first2=R.L. |year=1975 |title=Biology of the European crane fly, Meigen, in western Washington (Tipulidae: Diptera) |series=Washington State University Technical Bulletin |volume=81 }} </ref> The larvae have been observed on many crops, including vegetables, fruits, cereals, pasture, lawn grasses, and ornamental plants. Starlings and members of the crow family will predate leatherjackets by probing for them beneath the soil, and the grubs have been successfully controlled by pathogenic nematodes watered on to the ground.<ref> {{cite web |title=Leatherjackets |series=Biodiversity |publisher=Royal Horticultural Society |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/biodiversity/leatherjackets |via=rhs.org.uk |access-date=8 August 2025 }} </ref>

In 1935, Lord's Cricket Ground in London was among venues affected by leatherjackets. Several thousand were collected by ground staff and burned, because they caused bald patches on the pitch and the pitch took unaccustomed spin for much of the season.<ref> {{Cite book | first = A. | last = Ward | year = 1999 | orig-date = 1998 | title = Cricket's Strangest Matches | publisher = Robson Books | place = London, UK | isbn = 978-1-86105-293-3 | url = https://archive.org/details/cricketsstranges0000ward | url-access = registration | page = [https://archive.org/details/cricketsstranges0000ward/page/111 111] | via = Internet Archive (archive.org) }}</ref>

== Phylogenetics == thumb|Tipulidae with large antennae The phylogenetic position of the Tipuloidea remains uncertain. The classical viewpoint that they are an early branch of Diptera<ref name=Rohdendorf1974/><ref name=Savchenko1966/>—perhaps (with the Trichoceridae) the sister group of all other Diptera—is giving way to modern views that they are more highly derived.<ref name=anic/> This is thanks to evidence from molecular studies, which is consistent with the more derived larval characters similar to those of 'higher' Diptera.<ref name=Gullan2014/> The Pediciidae and Tipulidae are sister groups (the "limoniids" are a paraphyletic clade).<ref name=Petersen-etal-2010/> Specifically, Limoniidae has recently been treated by numerous authors at the rank of family, but subsequent phylogenetic analyses revealed that the remaining groups of tipulids render the group paraphyletic.<ref name=Petersen-etal-2010/> The Cylindrotomidae appear to be a relict group that was much better represented in the Tertiary.<ref name=Hennig1950/> Tipulidae probably evolved from ancestors in the Upper Jurassic, the Architipulidae, and representatives of the Limoniidae are known from the Upper Triassic.

== Common names ==    Numerous common names have been applied to the crane fly. Many of the names are more or less regional in the U.S., including mosquito hawk, mosquito eater, gallinipper, and gollywhopper.<ref name=DARE> {{cite book |last = Cassidy |first = Frederic Gomes |year = 1985 |title = Dictionary of American Regional English |publisher = Belknap Press / Harvard University Press |isbn = 978-0-674-20511-6 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=tRICoQEACAAJ&q=dictionary+of+american+regional+english |via = Google }} </ref> They are also known as "daddy longlegs" in English-speaking countries outside the U.S.,<ref name=delta/> not to be confused with the U.S. usages of "daddy long legs" that refer to either arachnids of the order Opiliones or the family Pholcidae. The larvae of crane flies are known commonly as leatherjackets.<ref name=delta/>

They are also known as "Jenny long legs" in Scotland.<ref name=Horton-2021-09-22> {{cite news |first=Helena |last=Horton |date=2021-09-22 |title=Is the UK really seeing a record daddy long legs invasion? |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/sep/22/is-the-uk-really-seeing-a-record-daddy-long-legs-invasion |via=theguardian.com |access-date=2023-01-04 |lang=en-GB }} </ref> In Ireland, they are generally called "daddy long legs" in English, whereas in Irish they are commonly known as ''Pilib an Gheataire'', which means Skinny Philip.<ref name=Horton-2021-09-22/><ref> {{cite web |title=Béarla (Ó Dónaill): Crane-fly |series=Foclóir Gaeilge |website=teanglann.ie |lang=en-IE |url=https://www.teanglann.ie/en/fgb/Crane-fly |access-date=2023-09-24 }} </ref>

== Misconceptions == There is an enduring urban legend that crane flies are the most venomous insects in the world; however, they have neither venom nor the ability to bite.<ref name=newsround> {{Cite news |title=Could record 200 billion daddy-long-legs hit UK? |date=8 September 2016 |series=CBBC |department=Newsround |publisher=British Broadcasting Corporation |lang=en-GB |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/37308044 |access-date=2023-01-04 }} </ref> The myth probably arose due to their being confused with the cellar spider as they are also informally called "daddy longlegs", and although the arachnid does possess venom, it is not especially potent.<ref> {{cite news |last=Ryan |first=Nicky |date=2013-10-20 |title=Debunked: Are "daddy longlegs" the most poisonous spiders in the world? |newspaper=The Journal, Ireland |url=https://www.thejournal.ie/daddy-long-legs-longlegs-poison-venom-world-1137769-Oct2013/ |access-date=2023-01-04 |lang=en-IE }} </ref>

Despite widely held beliefs that adult crane flies (or "mosquito hawks") prey on mosquito populations, the adult crane fly is anatomically incapable of killing or consuming other insects.<ref name=ET> {{cite web |first=Leslie |last=Mertz |date=17 August 2015 |title=Mosquito hawk? Skeeter eater? Giant mosquito? No, no, and no |website=Entomology Today (entomologytoday.org) |publisher=Entomological Society of America |url=http://entomologytoday.org/2015/08/17/mosquito-hawk-skeeter-eater-giant-mosquito-no-no-and-no/ }} </ref> Although the adults of some species may feed on nectar, the adults of many species have such short lifespans that they do not eat at all.<ref name=DepartmentOfEntomology> {{cite web |first=Blake |last=Newton |title=Crane flies of Kentucky |series=Department of Entomology |publisher=University of Kentucky |place=Lexington, KT |url=http://www.uky.edu/Ag/CritterFiles/casefile/insects/flies/craneflies/craneflies.htm |via=uky.edu }} </ref>

== See also == * ''Tipularia discolor'', the crane fly orchid

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<ref name=delta> {{cite web |last1=Watson |first1=L. |last2=Dallwitz |first2=M.J. |date=1 January 2012  |orig-date=2003 |title=Tipulidae |series=The families of Diptera |website=British Insects |url=http://delta-intkey.com/britin/dip/www/tipulida.htm }} </ref>

<ref name=Rodrigues2019> {{Cite journal |last1=Rodrigues |first1=Lucas |last2=Ortega |first2=Ileana |last3=Vieira |first3=Rony |last4=Carrasco |first4=Daiane |last5=Proietti |first5=Maíra |year=2019 |title=Crane flies (Diptera, Tipuloidea) from southern neotropical salt marshes: Survey with DNA barcoding |journal=Iheringia |series=Série Zoologia |volume=109 |article-number=e2019013 |issn=1678-4766 |doi=10.1590/1678-4766e2019013 |doi-access=free }} </ref>

<ref name=Conrow2022> {{cite journal |last1=Conrow |first1=Robert T. |last2=Gelhaus |first2=Jon K. |date=2022-05-01 |title=Wing interference patterns are consistent and sexually dimorphic in the four families of crane flies (Diptera, Tipuloidea) |journal=ZooKeys |lang=en |issue=1080 |pages=135–163 |doi=10.3897/zookeys.1080.69060 |doi-access=free |issn=1313-2970 |pmc=8755705 |pmid=35068968 |bibcode=2022ZooK.1080..135C }} </ref>

<ref name=oo> {{cite book |last=Oosterbroek |first=P. |year=1989 |chapter=Chapter 2 – Superfamily Tipuloidea, family Tipulidae |editor-last=Evenhuis |editor-first=N.L. |title=Catalog of the Diptera of the Australasian and Oceanian Regions |volume=86 |series=Bernice P. Bishop Museum Special Publications |publisher=Apollo Press |chapter-url=http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/aocat/pdf/02tipulidae.pdf }} </ref>

}}

== Further reading == ; Identification * R. L. Coe, Paul Freeman & P. F. Mattingly Nematocera: families Tipulidae to Chironomidae (Tipulidae). ''Handbooks for the Identification of British Insects'' Vol 9 Part 2 i. [https://web.archive.org/web/20140209094357/http://www.royensoc.co.uk/content/out-print-handbooks pdf] * J.F. McAlpine, B.V. Petersen, G.E. Shewell, H.J. Teskey, J.R. Vockeroth, D.M. Wood. Eds. 1987 Manual of Nearctic Diptera Volume 1 Research Branch Agriculture Canada, 1987 [https://web.archive.org/web/20131201030220/http://www.esc-sec.ca/aafcmono.php pdf] key to Nearctic genera * Pierre C.,1924, Diptères: Tipulidae ''Faune de France'' n° 8 [https://web.archive.org/web/20131014031511/http://www.faunedefrance.org/BibliothequeVirtuelleNumerique Bibliotheque Virtuelle Numerique] Out of date but online at no cost. In French. * E. N. Savchenko Family Tipulidae in Bei-Bienko, G. Ya, 1988 ''Keys to the insects of the European Part of the USSR'' Volume 5 (Diptera) Part 2 English edition. Keys to Palaearctic species but now needs revision.

== External links == {{Wiktionary|crane fly}} {{Commons category|Tipulidae}} {{Wikispecies|Tipulidae}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20040207133629/http://ohioline.osu.edu/hyg-fact/2000/2129.html Ohioline.osu.edu], Ohio State University Fact Sheet * [http://eol.org/pages/514/media Family Tipulidae at EOL] * [https://www.invertebratezoology.org/CraneFly2/default.asp?uid=Guest IZ.carnegiemnh.org], Crane Flies of Pennsylvania, Extensive Specimen Collection, Carnegie Museum of Natural History * [https://ccw.naturalis.nl/ https://ccw.naturalis.nl/], Catalog of Craneflies of the World * [http://www.diptera.info/photogallery.php?album_id=54 Diptera.info], Image Gallery * [http://bugguide.net/node/view/183/bgimage BugGuide.net], photo gallery, many species * [https://texasinsects.tamu.edu/crane-fly/ Crane Fly], Field Guide to Common Texas Insects * {{cite web |title=CRANE FLY LARVAE |url=https://nature.mdc.mo.gov/discover-nature/field-guide/crane-fly-larvae#:~:text=The%20aquatic%20larvae%20often%20eat,other%20insects%2C%20including%20mosquito%20larvae.&text=Like%20mayflies%2C%20the%20winged%20adult,time%20mating%20and%20laying%20eggs. |website=Missouri Department of Conservation |access-date=27 September 2020}}

=== Species lists === * [https://web.archive.org/web/20051223135348/http://www.faunaeur.org/full_results.php?id=11636 West Palaearctic including Russia] * [http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/aocat/Tipulidae.html Australasian/Oceanian] * [http://www.nearctica.com/nomina/main.htm Nearctic] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20190527005729/http://konchudb.agr.agr.kyushu-u.ac.jp/mokuroku/ Japan]

Category:Tipuloidea  Category:Extant Middle Triassic first appearances Category:Taxa named by Pierre André Latreille