{{Short description|Concept in sociology}}
A '''contagious shooting''' is a sociological phenomenon observed in police personnel, in which one person firing on a target can induce others to begin shooting without knowing why they are firing. The term may have been coined, but certainly rose to prominence in public discourse in the aftermath of the killing of Amadou Diallo by the NYPD in 1999.<ref>{{cite news |author=Michael Wilson |title=50 Shots Fired, and the Experts Offer a Theory |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/11/27/nyregion/27fire.html |newspaper=The New York Times |date=November 27, 2006 }}</ref><ref name=villagevoice_dec_5_06>{{cite news |first=Sean |last=Gardiner |title=Guns Gone Wild; NYPD gunfire goes up while crime goes down. What gives? |url=https://www.villagevoice.com/2006/11/28/guns-gone-wild/3/ |publisher=Village Voice |date=December 5, 2006 |access-date=2007-09-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926225318/http://www.villagevoice.com/news/0649,gardiner,75216,6.html |archive-date=September 26, 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://people.howstuffworks.com/contagious-shooting.htm |first=Julia |last=Layton |title=Can "contagious shooting" explain what happened in New York this weekend? |date=28 November 2006 |access-date=2007-09-25 |publisher=How Stuff Works}}</ref> DeCarlo, Dlugolenski, and Myers (2024) conducted a randomized trial with 169 officers across four states and 11 agencies. Officers were randomly assigned to test or control conditions. Each officer experienced the exact same scenario. In test conditions, two peer (role player) officers fired their weapons. In the control condition they withheld their fire. The odds of officers firing in the presence of peer fire was 11.57 times greater, and they fired 72% more rounds on average than the control condition. The large effect size and causal design demonstrated that behavioral interdependence is a key concern in multi-officer-involved shootings<ref>{{Cite journal |last=DeCarlo |first=John |last2=Dlugolenski |first2=Eric |last3=Myers |first3=David |date=2024-07-01 |title=An experimental test of the contagious fire thesis in policing |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0047235224000643 |journal=Journal of Criminal Justice |volume=93 |article-number=102215 |doi=10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2024.102215 |issn=0047-2352|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
==Examples== *2026: In Minneapolis, Minnesota, three law enforcement experts consulted by CNN in the killing of Alex Pretti suggested the shooting pattern could be indicative of contagious fire.<ref>{{Cite news |title=How two federal agents escalated an encounter with Alex Pretti into a deadly shooting |last=Chapman |first=Isabelle |date=January 30, 2026 |url=https://www.cnn.com/2026/01/29/us/immigration-agents-shooting-alex-pretti-invs |access-date=January 30, 2026 |publisher=CNN |last2=Abou-Ghazala |first2=Yahya |last3=Ash |first3=Audrey |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260130012042/https://www.cnn.com/2026/01/29/us/immigration-agents-shooting-alex-pretti-invs |archive-date=January 30, 2026 |url-status=live}}</ref> *2013: In California, officers involved in the search for Christopher Dorner mistakenly fired at least 100 rounds at a truck occupied by three people, none of whom had any connection to the suspect.<ref name=dorner>{{cite news |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2013/04/23/los-angeles-dorner-settlement/2107289/ |title=2 women hurt during L.A. manhunt to receive $4.2M |author=Michael Winter |date=23 Apr 2013 |access-date=28 Apr 2013 |work=USA Today}}</ref> Each of the two women injured received $2.1 million in a settlement with the city of Los Angeles. *2012: NYPD officers responded to a report of shots fired with one victim killed in front of the Empire State Building. Officers fired sixteen rounds, wounding 9 bystanders and killing the shooter.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.nydailynews.com/new-york/person-killed-shooting-empire-state-building-morning-rush-article-1.1143522?pgno=1 |title=Empire State Building shooting leaves 2 dead, 9 injured| location=New York | work=Daily News}}</ref> *2011: On Memorial Day in Miami Beach, several police officers fired until their magazines were empty on a stopped car after the driver smashed into other cars, killing the driver and injuring seven bystanders.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.miamiherald.com/2011/05/30/2241990/police-gunmen-open-fire-on-south.html |title=Police Gunmen Open Fire On South|website=Miami Herald |access-date=June 7, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110603111405/http://www.miamiherald.com/2011/05/30/2241990/police-gunmen-open-fire-on-south.html |archive-date=June 3, 2011 }}</ref> *2010: A bystander was injured in Harlem when a man "open[ed] fire on responding officers, who fired 46 times in response".<ref name=times_8_12_10 /> "In the Harlem episode, unlike the Bell and Diallo cases, a gun was shot before any officers fired, according to the police account. So, Professor O'Donnell said, in the Harlem case, 'there really is a shot,' and not just the threat of gunfire."<ref name=times_8_12_10 /> *2009: A man threatening officers with a rifle was shot 59 times in what was ruled a "suicide-by-cop"<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna32290956|title=6 officers fired 59 shots in 'suicide by cop' case|website=NBC News |date=5 August 2009|publisher=}}</ref> in Chattanooga, Tennessee. *2006: Five officers fired 50 shots at Sean Bell in Queens, New York, including 31 by one detective—who reloaded his weapon during the incident.<ref name=villagevoice_dec_5_06/><ref name=times_8_12_10 /><ref>New York Post; November 26, 2006; A Queens bachelor party turned into a bloodbath early yesterday when five cops opened fire on a car with 50 shots - killing the groom-to-be, wounding his two friends and leaving furious relatives demanding answers from the NYPD.</ref> *2006: Three officers fired 26 shots at a pit bull that had bitten a chunk out of an officer's leg in the Bronx, New York, in July.<ref>{{cite news |last=Santos |first=Fernanda |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/24/nyregion/24pitbull.html |title=4 Officers Hurt (One by Pit Bull) as Police Fire 26 Shots to Kill Dog in Bronx |work=The New York Times |date=July 24, 2006}}</ref> *2006: Police in Lakeland, Florida, fired 110 rounds at a suspect, Angilo Freeland, who had killed an officer earlier, hitting him 68 times. Polk County Sheriff Grady Judd told the ''Orlando Sentinel'', "That's all the bullets we had".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.snopes.com/crime/cops/judd.asp|title=Suspect Shot 68 Times by Police|first=David|last=Mikkelson|date=26 December 2006 |publisher=}}</ref> *2005: Eight officers fired 43 shots at Brian Allen, an armed man in Queens, New York, killing him.<ref>{{cite news |last=Rashbaum |first=William K. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/01/08/nyregion/08shot.html |title=Police Say Man They Shot Terrorized 2 Co-Workers |work=The New York Times|date=January 8, 2005}}</ref> *2005: June, six Los Angeles County, California sheriff's deputies fired more than 50 shots into the car in which drunken driving suspect Carl Williams was driving after his car rammed a police vehicle following a chase. One deputy had to reload his weapon during the incident.<ref name=abc>Baram, Marcus. ''[http://www.abcnews.go.com/US/LegalCenter/story?id=2681947 How Common Is Contagious Shooting?]'' ABC News. Nov. 27, 2006.</ref> *2004: "When 44-year-old drug suspect Winston Hayes' SUV lurched forward, he hit a police car, deputies unloaded their weapons, firing 120 shots. Four bullets ended up hitting Hayes, who survived, one hit a deputy sheriff, 11 hit patrol cars, and 11 hit five homes in the neighborhood (one of them ended up tearing a hole in a homeowner's hat)." —ABC News.<ref name=abc/> *1999: Four officers fired 41 shots at Amadou Diallo, an unarmed man in the Bronx, New York, on February 4, 1999.<ref name=times_8_12_10 /><ref name=nyt0399>{{cite news |last=McFadden |first=Robert D. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/03/26/nyregion/four-officers-indicted-for-murder-in-killing-of-diallo-lawyer-says.html?exprod=permalink&partner=permalink |title=Lawyer Says 4 Officers Accused of Second-Degree Murder |work=The New York Times |date=March 26, 1999|access-date=2006-11-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last=Saletan|first=William|author-link=William Saletan |url=http://www.slate.com/id/2154631/?GT1=8805 |magazine=Slate |title=Catch and Shoot. The perils of 'contagious shooting' |date=November 30, 2006 |access-date=December 1, 2006}}</ref> *1998: New Jersey State Police fired 11 shots at Daniel Reyes and three other basketball players in their car in April.<ref>{{cite news |last=Hanley |first=Robert |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/06/02/nyregion/troopers-version-of-shooting-is-disputed.html |title=Troopers' Version of Shooting Is Disputed |work=The New York Times |date=June 2, 2000}}</ref> *1970: May 4. Kent State shootings:<ref name="shooting time">{{cite web|url=http://www.kent.edu/about/history/May4/memorials.cfm|title=May 4th Memorials|publisher=Kent State University|access-date=February 24, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100508152812/http://www.kent.edu/about/history/May4/memorials.cfm|archive-date=May 8, 2010}}</ref><ref name="timetrial">{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,917769-1,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107163659/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,917769-1,00.html|archive-date=November 7, 2012|title=TRIALS: Last Act at Kent State|date=September 8, 1975|magazine=Time|access-date=August 18, 2011}}</ref> "It appeared to go on, as a solid volley, for perhaps a full minute or a little longer".<ref name=1970_NYT_frontpg>{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/big/0504.html | title=4 Kent State Students Killed by Troops | author=John Kifner |work=The New York Times | date=May 4, 1970 | access-date=May 5, 2010}}</ref> The question of why the shots were fired remains widely debated.thumb|Photo taken from the perspective of where the Ohio National Guard soldiers stood when they opened fire on the students [[File:Bullet Hole in Don Drumm Sculpture at Kent State.JPG|thumb|Bullet hole in ''Solar Totem #1'' sculpture<ref>{{cite news |first=Kyle |last= McDonald |title=Full History of Familiar Kent State Sculpture Comes to Light after Decades |url=http://www.recordpub.com/news%20local/2014/04/21/full-history-of-familiar-kent-state-sculpture-comes-to-light-after-decades |work=Record-Courier |date=April 21, 2014 |access-date=May 1, 2014 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> by Don Drumm caused by a .30 caliber round fired by the Ohio National Guard at Kent State on May 4, 1970]]
==Usage== *''The New York Times''; August 12, 2010; Defined as "officers firing because others are doing so… The simplest culturally accepted definition … is that 'cops shoot because other cops shoot.'"<ref name=times_8_12_10 /> *United Press International; November 27, 2006; Police experts had suggested "''contagious shooting''" may have played a role in a deadly New York incident when five officers fired 50 rounds at a man. *''The Baltimore Sun''; May 24, 2006; "If one fire,, the rest fire. It is called ''contagious shooting''," Mamet said. "People start shooting; they don't even know why." *''The New York Times''; March 26, 1999; "Some law enforcement officials said that it was possible that only one or two of the officers perceived a danger, and that the others opened fire simply because their comrades had begun firing—a phenomenon known in law enforcement circles as ''contagious shooting''."<ref name=nyt0399/> *''New York Daily News''; March 10, 1999; "A lawyer for one of four cops who shot Amadou Diallo hinted yesterday that a phenomenon known as "''contagious shooting''"—in which a cop's shot sparks a volley from other officers—may have caused his client to fire 16 shots... According to the NYPD patrol guide, a contagious shooting occurs when "a shot fired by one officer sets off a chain reaction of shooting by other personnel … Thomas Reppetto, head of the Citizens Crime Commission, said the term contagious shooting was used during 1960s riots when a cop would fire at what he thought was a sniper and other officers would follow."
==More views== Besides the above examples, the phenomenon has been observed in other contexts. A former CIA employee and FBI firearms instructor observed it in training. "Consistently, in every class, officers would shoot at their target upon hearing others shoot, even when their particular target board did not contain the called target."<ref name=joyner>{{cite web |url=http://www.policeone.com/pc_print.asp?vid=1996906 |title=Fighting the contagious fire phenomenon |author=Chuck Joyner |publisher=PoliceOne.com |date=29 Jan 2010 |access-date=28 Apr 2013}}</ref> He suggests that one reason it occurs is because of muscle memory: "[T]he targets turn, or the whistle blows, and all the officers shoot together until a cease-fire signal is given."
Law professor Eugene O'Donnell was once quoted describing the notion as "debatable"<ref name=times_8_12_10>{{cite news |first1=Yar |last1=Rivera |first2=Al |last2=Baker |name-list-style = amp |title = Bystander Injured in Harlem Episode Cites 'Contagious Shooting' in Plan to Sue|date = August 12, 2010|page = A27| newspaper =The New York Times |url = https://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/12/nyregion/12shoot.html |access-date = 2010-08-27 }}</ref> although in the same interview he agreed with its existence, saying that in classic cases involving contagious shooting, "a gun was shot before any officers fired", and thus "the officers involved began shooting because of fear or because of the sound of a colleague firing".<ref name=times_8_12_10 />
== See also == * Memetics
==References== {{reflist}}
==External links== *[http://people.howstuffworks.com/contagious-shooting.htm How Stuff Works: Contagious shooting]
Category:Law enforcement terminology Category:Police brutality Category:Victimology Category:1990s neologisms Category:Crowd psychology Category:Popular psychology Category:Gun violence