Papilio polytes

{{Short description|Species of butterfly}} {{Speciesbox | name = Common Mormon | image = Common mormon (Papilio polytes romulus) female form stichius Kuang Si.jpg | image2 = Common mormon (Papilio polytes romulus) female form stichius underside Luang Prabang.jpg | image2_caption = both female ''P. p. romulus'' form ''stichius'', Laos | status = LC | status_system = IUCN3.1 | status_ref = <ref name="biodiversitylibrary.org">{{cite book |last1=Collins |first1=N. Mark |last2=Morris |first2=Michael G. |title=Threatened Swallowtail Butterflies of the World: The IUCN Red Data Book |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/98674#page/7/mode/1up |year=1985 |publisher=IUCN |location=Gland & Cambridge |isbn=978-2-88032-603-6 |via=Biodiversity Heritage Library}}</ref> | taxon = Papilio polytes | authority = Linnaeus, 1758 | subdivision_ranks = Subspecies | subdivision = Many, see text | range_map = Distribution-of-Papilio-polytes.svg | range_map_caption = Range of ''P. polytes''. }}

'''''Papilio polytes''''', the '''common Mormon''',<ref name=Smetacek/><ref name=funet/> is a common species of swallowtail butterfly widely distributed across Asia.<ref name=Smetacek>{{Cite book|title=A Synoptic Catalogue of the Butterflies of India |last1=Varshney |first1=R.K. |last2=Smetacek|first2=Peter|publisher=Butterfly Research Centre, Bhimtal & Indinov Publishing, New Delhi|year=2015|isbn=978-81-929826-4-9|location=New Delhi|pages=7|doi=10.13140/RG.2.1.3966.2164}}</ref><ref name=funet>{{cite web |last=Savela |first=Markku |url=http://www.nic.funet.fi/pub/sci/bio/life/insecta/lepidoptera/ditrysia/papilionoidea/papilionidae/papilioninae/papilio/#polytes |title=''Papilio polytes'' Linnaeus, 1758 |website=Lepidoptera and Some Other Life Forms |access-date=July 3, 2018}}</ref>

This butterfly is known for the mimicry displayed by the numerous forms of its females which mimic inedible red-bodied swallowtails, such as the common rose and the crimson rose.

==Names== The common name is an allusion to the polygamy formerly practiced by members of the Mormon sect according to Harish Gaonkar, of the Natural History Museum in London:<ref>[http://reimangardens.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=display&nodeID=5677&newsID=191 Asian Mormon Butterflies] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928224611/http://reimangardens.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=display&nodeID=5677&newsID=191 |date=2007-09-28 }} Accessed November 2006</ref> {{blockquote|... the origins of giving common English names to organisms, particularly butterflies for tropical species started in India around the mid 19th century ... The naming of Mormons evolved slowly. I think the first to get such a name was the Common Mormon (''Papilio polytes''), because it had three different females, a fact that could only have been observed in the field, and this they did in India. The name obviously reflected the ... Mormon sect in America, which as we know, practiced polygamy.}}

The scientific name is constructed from the Latin word for butterfly, ''papilio'', and the Greek word for many, ''poly''.<ref>[http://www.reimangardens.iastate.edu/documents/papiliopolytes_052305105434.pdf Papilio polytes PDF] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060901181355/http://www.reimangardens.iastate.edu/documents/papiliopolytes_052305105434.pdf |date=September 1, 2006}}</ref>

==Range== Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Maldives, Myanmar, Thailand, Singapore, southern and western China (including Hainan and Guangdong provinces), Taiwan, Hong Kong, Japan (Ryukyu Islands), Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Andamans, Nicobars, eastern and Peninsular Malaysia, Brunei, Indonesia (except Moluccas and Irian Jaya), Philippines, and Northern Marianas (Saipan).<ref name=Smetacek/><ref name=funet/>

==Status== Very common. Not threatened.<ref name="biodiversitylibrary.org">{{cite book |last1=Collins |first1=N. Mark |last2=Morris |first2=Michael G. |title=Threatened Swallowtail Butterflies of the World: The IUCN Red Data Book |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/98674#page/7/mode/1up |year=1985 |publisher=IUCN |location=Gland & Cambridge |isbn=978-2-88032-603-6 |via=Biodiversity Heritage Library}}</ref>

==Description== [[File:Pandiyana aristolochiae polytes helenus.png|thumb|right|Comparison between similar-looking species - ''A. pandiyana'', ''A. aristolochiae'', ''P. polytes'' and ''P. helenus'']] Jet black butterfly with row of white spots along the middle part of hindwing. 90–100 mm.<ref name="bingham">{{Source-attribution|sentence=yes|{{cite book |last1=Bingham |first1=C.T. |author-link=Charles Thomas Bingham |title=The Fauna of British India, Including Ceylon and Burma |url=https://archive.org/stream/butterflies02bingiala#page/60/mode/2up/ |volume=II |edition=1st |publisher= Taylor and Francis, Ltd. |location=London |year=1907|pages=61–63}}}}</ref><ref name=MooreIndica>{{Cite book|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/103496#page/235/mode/1up|title=Lepidoptera Indica. Vol. V|last=Moore|first=Frederic|author-link=Frederic Moore|publisher=Lovell Reeve and Co.|year=1901–1903|location=London|pages=223–232}}</ref>

===Male=== The male has one morph. It is a dark-coloured swallow-tailed butterfly. The upper forewing has a series of white spots decreasing in size towards the apex. The upper hindwing has a complete discal band of elongated white spots. It may or may not have marginal red crescents. The males are generally smaller in size than the females but not always. Both male and all forms of the female of ''P. polytes'' can vary considerably in size depending on climatic region.<ref name="bingham"/> <gallery> File:Common mormon (Papilio polytes romulus) male Pak Long.jpg|male form romulus, Laos File:Common mormon (Papilio polytes romulus) male underside Pak Long.jpg|male form romulus, Laos File:Male mormon cyrus.jpg|Male, underside File:Papilio polytes-Thekkady-2016-12-02-001.jpg|Male, topside File:Newly Emerged Male and Female.jpg|Newly emerged male (left) and female, Sri Lanka File:Common Mormon Female.jpg|Female, Sri Lanka Papilio polytes mating in Kadavoor.jpg| Mating; female form ''stichius'' </gallery>

===Female===

The female of the common Mormon is polymorphic. In the Indian subcontinent, it has several forms or morphs. These are as follows:<ref name="bingham"/> '''Form ''cyrus''''' This form is similar to the male, differing in that it always has strongly marked red crescents. It is the least common of the three forms. It is normally abundant where the common rose or crimson rose do not occur, such as in Himachal Pradesh around Shimla; although a few specimens of form ''romulus'' have also been caught alongside.<ref name="bingham"/>

'''Form ''stichius''''' This female form of the common Mormon mimics the common rose very closely. This is the commonest form wherever the common rose flies.<ref name="bingham"/> '''Form ''romulus''''' This female form mimics the crimson rose and is common over its range. It is not such a close mimic as the previous form being duller than its model. It is easy to differentiate the mimics from models by the colour of their body—the models are red-bodied and the mimics are black-bodied.<ref name="bingham"/>

Karl Jordan gives a full account of ''polytes'' forma in Seitz (pages 60–63).<ref>Seitz, A. Band 9: Abt. 2, Die exotischen Großschmetterlinge, Die indo-australischen Tagfalter, 1927, 1197 Seiten 177 Tafeln {{PD-notice}}</ref>

<gallery> Common mormon (Papilio polytes cyrus) female underside.jpg|Female form ''cyrus'' UN File:Papilio polytes-Thekkady-2016-12-03-001.jpg|Female form ''stichius'' UP Common mormon (Papilio polytes stichius) female underside.jpg|Female form ''stichius'' UN File:Common Mormon Papilio polytes Female Form Romulus by kadavoor.jpg|Female form ''romulus'' UP Common mormon (Papilio polytes romulus) female underside.jpg|Female form ''romulus'' UN Common mormon (Papilio polytes romulus) female form romulus in flight Babai bridge.jpg|Female form ''romulus'' in flight UP </gallery>

===Gynandromorphs=== This species has considerable genetic variability and is known to produce gynandromorphs, genetic aberrations which are part male and part female.

==Taxonomy==

''Papilio polytes'' is the nominal member of the ''polytes'' species group. The clade members are:

*''Papilio polytes'' Linnaeus, 1758 *''Papilio ambrax'' Boisduval, 1832 *''Papilio phestus'' Guérin-Méneville, 1830

The subspecies of ''Papilio polytes'' listed alphabetically are:<ref name=Smetacek/><ref name=funet/> * ''P. p. alcindor'' Oberthür, 1879 – Buton, Salayer & Sulawesi * ''P. p. alphenor'' Cramer, [1776] – Philippines * ''P. p. javanus'' Felder, 1862 – Bali, Bangka, Biliton, Java & southern Sumatra * ''P. p. latreilloides'' Yoshino, 2018 – N. Yunnan, N.E. Vietnam * ''P. p. ledebouria'' Eschscholtz, 1821 – Philippines * ''P. p. messius'' Fruhstorfer, 1909 – Lombok * ''P. p. nicanor'' C. & R. Felder, 1865 – Bachan, Halmahera, Morotai, Obi & Ternate * ''P. p. nikobarus'' C. Felder, 1862 – Nicobar Islands * ''P. p. pasikrates'' Fruhstorfer, 1908 – Philippines (Batanes) & Taiwan * ''P. p. perversus'' Rothschild, 1895 – Sangir & Talaud * ''P. p. polycritos'' Fruhstorfer, 1902 – Banggai, Sula Is. * ''P. p. polytes'' Linnaeus, 1758 – Indo-China, China & Taiwan * ''P. p. romulus'' Cramer, [1775] – Nepal, India, Burma & Sri Lanka * ''P. p. rubidimacula'' Talbot, 1932 – W.Yunnan * ''P. p. sakiboso'' Yoshino, 2018 – W. Sichuan * ''P. p. sotira'' Jordan, 1909 – Sumbawa * ''P. p. steffi'' (Page & Treadaway, 2003) – Bongao, Sibutu & Tawitawi in the Philippines * ''P. p. stichioides'' Evans, 1927 – South Andamans * ''P. p. theseus'' Cramer, [1777] – Sumatra & Borneo * ''P. p. timorensis'' C. & R. Felder, 1864 – Babar Islands, Wetar, Leti, & possibly Timor * ''P. p. tucanus'' Jordan, 1909 – Tukangbesi Islands * ''P. p. vigellius'' Fruhstorfer, 1909 – Bawean

==Mimicry== [[File:TS002 Pachliopta hector.jpg|thumb|right|Crimson rose, compare with form ''romulus'']] In India, this butterfly is considered as the classic example of Batesian mimicry in which edible species resemble unpalatable butterflies in order to escape being eaten by predators.

The populations of the mimicking morphs of the common Mormon are much smaller than that of their models - the common or crimson rose. This allows first time predators a much greater chance of preying upon the unpalatable model in the first instance and thus learning of their inedibility.

Larger populations of mimics could result in the edible common Mormon mimics being sampled the first time by predators. If this should happen, the predator may not realise that butterflies of that colour and pattern are protected by the poisons they ingest; thus dramatically reducing the effectiveness of this scheme of protection.

In Sulawesi, although the common rose is abundant, the common Mormon female morph which is found there, mimics a completely different butterfly, ''Atrophaneura polyphontes''.

A single gene, doublesex, regulates the complex wing patterns, colors and structures required for this mimicry.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://news.uchicago.edu/article/2014/03/07/single-gene-called-doublesex-controls-wing-mimicry-butterflies|title=A single gene called doublesex controls wing mimicry in butterflies|date=2014-03-07|work=UChicago News|access-date=2017-11-03|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2014/03/06/3957234.htm|title=Single gene controls butterfly wing pattern|date=2014-03-06|website=www.abc.net.au|language=en-AU|access-date=2017-11-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kunte|first1=K.|last2=Zhang|first2=W.|last3=Tenger-Trolander|first3=A.|last4=Palmer|first4=D. H.|last5=Martin|first5=A.|last6=Reed|first6=R. D.|last7=Mullen|first7=S. P.|last8=Kronforst|first8=M. R.|date=2014-03-05|title=doublesex is a mimicry supergene|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=507|issue=7491|pages=229–32|doi=10.1038/nature13112|pmid=24598547|bibcode=2014Natur.507..229K|s2cid=4448793}}</ref>

==Habitat== The common Mormon prefers lightly wooded country, but is present everywhere and high up into the hills. It is a regular visitor to gardens, being especially abundant in orchards of its food plants—oranges and limes. It is most common in the monsoon and post-monsoon months.

== Behavior == [[File:Common Mormon - Papilio polytes.jpg|thumb|left|Female form ''romulus'' seen laying an egg on ''Murraya paniculata'']]

The common Mormon is fond of visiting flowers and its long proboscis permits it to feed from flowers having long corollar tubes. It is particularly fond of ''Lantana'', ''Jatropha'', ''Ixora'', and ''Mussaenda'' in city gardens. In the forests, the common Mormon remains low keeping within ten feet off the floor and its prefer to visit ''Asystasia'', ''Peristrophe'', and ''Jasminum'' for nectar.

The male common Mormon is a very common visitor to gardens where he will be seen hovering over flowers when the sun is shining. It is a restless insect, zigzagging fast and straight close to the ground, settling down only when it halts to feed.

The mimic female Mormons, ''stichius'' and ''romulus'' are very convincing mimics due to their habits, especially the flight patterns, being very similar to those of the rose models. However, lacking the protection of inedibility, they tend to be more easily disturbed than the roses and fly off erratically.

Only the males take part in mud puddling, usually in cool shaded spots rather than in open areas. They have been known to collect on saline soils to extract minerals.<ref>Pola, M., García-París, M. (2005). Marine puddling in ''Papilio polytes'' (Lepidoptera Papilionidae). ''Florida Entomologist'' 88: 211-213.</ref>

Both sexes bask in the sun on shrubs close to the ground. They hold their wings flat against the substratum. The forewing is lowered to cover part of the hindwing and is a typical stance of the common Mormon.

Common Mormons spend the night settled on vegetation with their wings held open, usually quite close to the ground.

==Life cycle== <gallery> File:Papilio polytes Mating.jpg|Mating pair with the female displaying ''romulus'' form on top File:Papilio polytes mating in Kadavoor.jpg|Mating pair with the female displaying ''stichius'' form on top File:Common mormon egg.JPG|Common Mormon egg File:Common Mormon Egg Lime Tree.jpg|Egg File:Common mormon (Papilio Polyetes) catapillars.jpg|Different stage instars File:Papilio polytes caterpillar at Kadavoor.jpg|fifth instar File:First Stage of Pupa of Common Mormon Papilio polytes WLB DSC 0395.jpg|pre-pupa caterpillar File:Pupa of Papilio polytes Linnaeus, 1758 – Common Mormon.jpg|Pupa File:Newly Emerged Common Mormon Butterfly.jpg|Newly Emerged Common Mormon Butterfly </gallery>

The females perch on an exposed branch with wings open or closed. They are courted by the males who approach from behind and slowly and elegantly settle into position. thumb|Egg of ''Papilio polytes''

===Eggs=== The eggs are laid singly on top of the leaves. They are round and yellow to light-yellow in colour.<ref name="bingham"/>

===Caterpillar=== [[File:Papilio polytes caterpillar-Kadavoor-2016-03-25-002.jpg|thumb|Bird dropping-like camouflage of early instar caterpillar. Kadavoor, India]] The first few instars of the caterpillar closely resemble those of the lime butterfly.<ref name="bingham" /> They feature white splotches that look like bird droppings that serve as camouflage.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Halloran |first=Kathryn |last2=Wason |first2=Elizabeth |title=Papilio polytes |url=https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Papilio_polytes/ |access-date=2024-11-16 |website=Animal Diversity Web |language=en}}</ref>

The later instars become dark green in colour. There is a transverse black band with an eye-spot on each side on the 4th and 5th segments. This band, being darker and brighter than that of the lime butterfly caterpillar, is the key distinction between the two.<ref name="bingham"/>

The common Mormon caterpillar also has a black and white oblique band on the 8th and 9th segments, making it resemble that of the blue Mormon. The deep red osmeterium and yellowish-brown head help distinguish it from the blue Mormon caterpillar which has a greenish head.<ref name="bingham"/>

Common Mormon caterpillars are heavily parasitised by chalcidoid wasps, with over a hundred tiny wasps eventually emerging from each Mormon pupa.<ref name="bingham"/>

===Pupa=== thumb|Papilio polytes common Mormon pupa The pupa is located on underside of leaves and twigs. The pupa is light green and unmarked. It has two projections to the front on its head and also one on its thorax. It closely resembles the lime butterfly caterpillar but can be distinguished by: * the projections on the head which have a deeper indentation between them. * the abdomen which protrudes to a small point on each side.<ref name="bingham"/>

==Food plants== The larvae breed on various species of family Rutaceae including: * ''Aegle marmelos'' or bael * ''Atalantia racemosa''<ref>Kunte, K. (2006). Additions to known larval host plants of Indian butterflies. ''Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society'' 103(1):119-120.</ref> * ''Citrus'' spp. (''C. aurantifolia'', ''C. grandis'', ''C. limon'', ''C. medica'', ''C. sinensis'') * ''Glycosmis arborea'' * ''Murraya koenigii'' – curry leaf * ''Murraya paniculata''

==References== {{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading== * {{cite book |last1=Evans |first1=W.H. |author-link=William Harry Evans |title=The Identification of Indian Butterflies |edition=2nd |location=Mumbai, India |publisher=Bombay Natural History Society |year=1932}} * {{cite book |last1=Gay |first1=Thomas |last2=Kehimkar |first2=Isaac David |last3=Punetha |first3=Jagdish Chandra |title=Common Butterflies of India |series=Nature Guides |publisher= World Wide Fund for Nature-India by Oxford University Press |location=Bombay, India |year=1992 |isbn=978-0195631647}} * {{cite book |last=Haribal |first=Meena |title=The Butterflies of Sikkim Himalaya and Their Natural History |location=Gangtok, Sikkim, India |publisher=Sikkim Nature Conservation Foundation |year=1992}} * {{cite book |last=Kunte |first=Krushnamegh |title=Butterflies of Peninsular India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cuPPjOMcu_4C |series=India, A Lifescape |location=Hyderabad, India |publisher=Universities Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-8173713545}} * {{cite book|last=Wynter-Blyth |first=Mark Alexander |author-link=Mark Alexander Wynter-Blyth |title=Butterflies of the Indian Region |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yEkgAQAAMAAJ |year=1957 |location=Bombay, India |publisher=Bombay Natural History Society |isbn=978-8170192329}}

==External links== {{Wikispecies}} {{Wikisource|Mimicry in Butterflies}} *{{Commons category-inline}} *[https://web.archive.org/web/20091126062805/http://srilankaninsects.net/Butterflies/MainPage/ButterfliesMain.htm Butterflies of Sri Lanka] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20110722073510/http://www.bio.nagoya-u.ac.jp/~hori/mimicry.html Mimicry], Nagoya University *[https://www.flickr.com/photos/somnathpaldas2/sets/72157625137235412/detail/ Photos & videos of step by step of common Mormon]

Category:Butterflies described in 1758 Category:Animal taxa named by Carl Linnaeus Category:Butterflies of Borneo Category:Butterflies of Indochina Category:Butterflies of Singapore Category:Lepidoptera of Pakistan polytes Category:Butterflies of Taiwan Category:Butterflies of Sri Lanka Category:Butterflies of Malaysia