Rapeseed oil

{{Short description|Type of vegetable oil}} {{redirect|Canola|other uses|Canola (disambiguation)}} {{distinguish|grape seed oil}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2022}} {{Use American English|date=March 2025}} {{cs1 config|name-list-style=vanc|display-authors=3}} thumb|Canola oil '''Rapeseed oil''' is one of the oldest known vegetable oils. There are both edible and industrial forms produced from rapeseed, the seed of several cultivars of the plant family Brassicaceae (mustards). The term "rapeseed" applies to oilseeds from the species ''Brassica napus'' and ''Brassica rapa'', while the term '''canola''' refers to specific rapeseed varieties bred to produce oil for use in human and animal foods.<ref name="ins-can">{{cite web |title=The Biology of ''Brassica napus'' L. (Canola/Rapeseed) |url=https://inspection.canada.ca/en/plant-varieties/plants-novel-traits/applicants/directive-94-08/biology-documents/brassica-napus |publisher=Plant and Biotechnology Risk Assessment Unit Plant Health Science Division, Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Government of Canada |access-date=18 September 2025 |date=22 December 2017}}</ref> Canola is a portmanteau (from "Canada", "Oil", and "Low Acid") developed by Canadian plant researchers in mid 1970s and grown in Canada.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026 |title=Canola History |url=https://www.northerncanola.com/canola/Canola-History/ |website=Northern Canola Growers Association}}</ref> In manufacturing, the edible varieties of canola are required to contain less than 2% erucic acid in Canada, the United States, European Union, and many other countries.<ref name=ins-can/><ref name="CFR21"/><ref>{{CELEX|id=32019R1870R(01)|text=Corrigendum to Commission Regulation (EC) No 2019/1870 of 7 November 2019 amending and correcting Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006 as regards maximum levels of erucic acid and hydrocyanic acid in certain foodstuffs}}</ref>

Canola is produced as ''low erucic acid rapeseed (LEAR) oil'' and is generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA).<ref name="CFR21">{{cite web |title=21 CFR 184.1555 "Rapeseed oil"|date=1 April 2010 |publisher=US Food and Drug Administration |url=https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=184.1555 |access-date=19 April 2020}} ([https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-21/chapter-I/subchapter-B/part-184/subpart-B/section-184.1555 ecfr.gov version])</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Rapeseed oil, Low erucic acid |url=https://www.hfpappexternal.fda.gov/scripts/fdcc/index.cfm?set=FoodSubstances&id=RAPESEEDOILLOWERUCICACID |publisher=US Food and Drug Administration |access-date=18 September 2025 |date=13 February 2025}}</ref>

In commerce, non-food varieties are typically called '''colza oil'''.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Velíšek|first=Jan |date=2013 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-IdyAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA102 |title=The Chemistry of Food |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-1-118-38383-4 |page=102}}</ref> In 2022, Canada, Germany, China, and India were the leading producers of rapeseed oil, accounting together for 41% of the world total.

== History == The name for rapeseed comes from the Latin word {{lang|la|rapum}} meaning turnip. Turnip, rutabaga (swede), cabbage, Brussels sprouts, and mustard are related to rapeseed. Rapeseed belongs to the genus ''Brassica''. ''Brassica'' oilseed varieties are some of the oldest plants cultivated, with documentation of its use tracing back to India from 4,000 years ago, and use in China and Japan 2,000 years ago.<ref name="Snowdon">{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-3-540-34388-2_2 |chapter=Oilseed Rape |title=Oilseeds |series=Genome Mapping and Molecular Breeding in Plants |date=2007 |last1=Snowdon |first1=Rod |last2=Lühs |first2=Wilfried |last3=Friedt |first3=Wolfgang |volume=2 |pages=55–114 |isbn=978-3-540-34387-5 }}</ref>{{rp|55}} Its use in Northern Europe for oil lamps is documented to have started in the 13th century.<ref name="Snowdon"/> Rapeseed oil extracts were first put on the market in 1956–1957 as food products, but these had several unacceptable properties. That form of rapeseed oil had a distinctive taste and a greenish colour due to the presence of chlorophyll, and still contained a higher concentration of erucic acid.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1016/B978-1-78242-089-7.00015-4 |chapter=The use of antioxidants in the preservation of edible oils |title=Handbook of Antioxidants for Food Preservation |date=2015 |last1=Fan |first1=Liuping |last2=Eskin |first2=N.A. Michael |pages=373–388 |isbn=978-1-78242-089-7 }}</ref> thumb|Canola field

Canola was bred from rapeseed cultivars of ''B.&nbsp;napus'' and ''B.&nbsp;rapa'' at the University of Manitoba in the early 1970s.<ref>{{cite web |year=2007 |title=Richard Keith Downey: Genetics |url=http://www.science.ca/scientists/scientistprofile.php?pID=348 |access-date=29 December 2008 |publisher=science.ca}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Pederson |first1=Anne-marie |last2=Storgaard |first2=A.K. |date=15 December 2015 |title=Baldur Rosmund Stefansson |encyclopedia=The Canadian Encyclopedia |url=https://thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/baldur-rosmund-stefansson |access-date=4 September 2019}}</ref> Its nutritional profile was then different from present-day oil, as well as containing much less{{Fix|text=more?}} erucic acid.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Barthet |first=V. |title=Canola |encyclopedia=The Canadian Encyclopedia |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/canola |access-date=29 December 2008 |url-status=live |archive-date=27 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227121228/http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/en/article/canola/}}</ref> This work was performed at the National Research Council of Canada laboratories in Saskatoon using gas liquid chromatography.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lawrence |first=Katherine |title=From Rapeseed to Canola: The Billion Dollar Success Story |publisher=National Research Council Plant Biotechnology Institute |year=1992 |location=Saskatoon, Saskatchewan |page=41}}</ref> Canola was originally a trademark name of the Rapeseed Association of Canada; the name is a portmanteau of "can" from Canada and "ola" referring to "oil".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wrigley |first1=Colin W. |last2=Corke |first2=Harold |last3=Seetharaman |first3=Koushik |last4=Faubion |first4=Jonathan |date=17 December 2015 |title=Encyclopedia of Food Grains |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-1-78539-762-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ce7tBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA238 |page=238}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Canola Council of Canada |date=2025 |title=About Canola |url=https://www.canolacouncil.org/about-canola/|access-date=25 October 2025}}</ref> Canola is now a generic term for edible varieties of rapeseed oil in North America and Australasia;<ref name="gc">{{cite web |date=21 April 2021 |title=Has canola become a generic trademark? |website=genericides.org |url=https://www.genericides.org/trademark/canola |access-date=13 May 2021 |archive-date=20 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211020171658/https://www.genericides.org/trademark/canola }}</ref> the change in name also serves to distinguish it from natural rapeseed oil, which has much higher erucic acid content.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kazaz |first1=Sami |last2=Miray |first2=Romane |last3=Lepiniec |first3=Loïc |last4=Baud |first4=Sébastien |title=Plant monounsaturated fatty acids: Diversity, biosynthesis, functions and uses |journal=Progress in Lipid Research |date=January 2022 |volume=85 |article-number=101138 |doi=10.1016/j.plipres.2021.101138 |pmid=34774919 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-03782169/file/PLR_BAUDetal.pdf }}</ref>

A genetically engineered rapeseed that is tolerant to the herbicide Roundup (glyphosate) was first introduced to Canada in 1995 (Roundup Ready). A genetically modified variety developed in 1998 is considered to be the most disease- and drought-resistant canola variety to date. In 2009, 90% of the Canadian crop was herbicide-tolerant.<ref name="Beckie">{{cite journal |last1=Beckie |first1=Hugh J |last2=Harker |first2=K Neil |last3=Légère |first3=Anne |last4=Morrison |first4=Malcolm J |last5=Séguin-Swartz |first5=Ginette |last6=Falk |first6=Kevin C |title=GM Canola: The Canadian Experience |journal=Farm Policy Journal |volume=8 |issue=1 |date=Autumn 2011 |pages=43–49 |url=https://www.canolacouncil.org/download/2042/canola-watch/14597/20110309_fpj_aut11_beckie-et_-al_-2 |s2cid=13980244 }}</ref> In 2005, 87% of the canola grown in the US was genetically modified.<ref name="NCFAP2006">Johnson, Stanley R. et al [http://www.ncfap.org./documents/2007biotech_report/Quantification_of_the_Impacts_on_US_Agriculture_of_Biotechnology_Executive_Summary.pdf Quantification of the Impacts on US Agriculture of Biotechnology-Derived Crops Planted in 2006] National Center for Food and Agricultural Policy, Washington DC, February 2008. Retrieved 12 August 2010.</ref> In 2011, out of the 31 million hectares of canola grown worldwide, 8.2&nbsp;million (26%) were genetically modified.<ref name="ISAAA">{{cite web |title=Biotech Canola – Annual Update 2011 |publisher=International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-Biotech Applications |url=http://www.isaaa.org/resources/publications/biotech_crop_annual_update/download/04%20Canola%202012.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130530172912/http://www.isaaa.org/resources/publications/biotech_crop_annual_update/download/04%20Canola%202012.pdf |archive-date=30 May 2013 |access-date=26 May 2013 }}</ref>

A 2010 study conducted in North Dakota found glyphosate- or glufosinate-resistance transgenes in 80% of wild natural rapeseed plants, and a few plants that were resistant to both herbicides. This may reduce the effectiveness of the herbicide tolerance trait for weed control over time, as the weed species could also become tolerant to the herbicide. However, one of the researchers agrees that "feral populations could have become established after trucks carrying cultivated GM seeds spilled some of their load during transportation". She also notes that the GM canola results they found may have been biased as they only sampled along roadsides.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gilbert |first1=Natasha |title=GM crop escapes into the American wild |journal=Nature |date=6 August 2010 |doi=10.1038/news.2010.393 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Genetically modified canola attracts a price penalty compared to non-GM canola; in Western Australia, it is estimated to be 7.2% on average.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Paull |first=John |year=2019 |title=Genetically Modified (GM) Canola: Price Penalties and Contaminations |journal=Biomedical Journal of Scientific & Technical Research |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=1–4 |doi=10.26717/BJSTR.2019.17.002965 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

== Production== {| class="wikitable floatright" style="width:12em; text-align:center;" |+ Rapeseed oil production <br />{{small|2023, millions of tonnes}}<br/> |- |{{CAN}}||4.4 |- |{{CHN}}||4.3 |- |{{GER}}||4.2 |- |{{IND}}||4.1 |- |{{FRA}}||1.9 |- |{{RUS}}||1.6 |- | '''World'''||31.4 |- |colspan=2|{{small|Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations}}<ref name="faostat">{{cite web|url=https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL|title=Production of rapeseed oil (canola) in 2023, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity/Year (pick lists)|date=2026|publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT)|access-date=16 January 2026}}</ref> |}

In 2023, world production of rapeseed oil was 31 million tonnes, led by Canada, China, Germany, and India as the largest producers each with more than four million tonnes, accounting for 54% of the total when combined (table).

== Production process ==

Canola oil is made at a processing facility by slightly heating and then crushing the seed.<ref name="steps">{{cite web |date=2016 |title=Steps in Oil and Meal Processing |url=http://www.canolacouncil.org/oil-and-meal/what-is-canola/how-canola-is-processed/steps-in-oil-and-meal-processing/ |access-date=30 April 2016 |publisher=Canola Council of Canada}}</ref> Almost all commercial canola oil is then extracted using hexane solvent,<ref>{{cite web |last=Crosby |first=Guy |date=2017 |title=Ask the Expert: Concerns about canola oil |url=https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/2015/04/13/ask-the-expert-concerns-about-canola-oil/ |access-date=23 April 2017 |work=The Nutrition Source |publisher=Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health}}</ref> which is recovered at the end of processing. Finally, the canola oil is refined using water precipitation and organic acid to remove gums and free fatty acids, filtering to remove color, and deodorizing using steam distillation.<ref name="steps" /> The average density of canola oil is {{cvt|0.92|g/ml|lb/USgal lb/impgal}}.<ref>{{cite web |date=December 2001 |title=Section 3.1: Leaking Tank Experiments with Orimulsion and Canola Oil |url=http://response.restoration.noaa.gov/book_shelf/959_tank.pdf |work=NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS OR&R 6 |publisher=National Ocean Service}}</ref>

Cold-pressed and expeller-pressed canola oil are also produced on a more limited basis. About 44% of a seed is oil, with the remainder as a canola meal used for animal feed.<ref name="steps" /> About {{Convert|23|kg|lb|0|abbr=on}} of canola seed makes {{Convert|10|litre|USgal|2|abbr=on}} of canola oil. Canola oil is a key ingredient in many foods. Its reputation as a healthful oil has created high demand in markets around the world,<ref name="what">{{cite web |date=2016 |title=What is canola oil? |url=http://www.canolacouncil.org/oil-and-meal/canola-oil/ |access-date=30 April 2016 |publisher=Canola Council of Canada}}</ref> and overall it is the third-most widely consumed vegetable oil, after soybean oil and palm oil.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ash |first=Mark |date=15 March 2016 |title=Soybeans & Oil Crops |url=http://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/crops/soybeans-oil-crops/canola.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160423085647/https://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/crops/soybeans-oil-crops/canola.aspx |archive-date=23 April 2016 |access-date=30 April 2016 |publisher=Economic Research Service, US Department of Agriculture}}</ref>

The oil has many non-food uses and, like soybean oil, is often used interchangeably with non-renewable petroleum-based oils in products,<ref name="what" /> including industrial lubricants, biodiesel, candles, lipsticks, and newspaper inks.{{cn|date=October 2024}}

Canola vegetable oils certified as organic are required to be from non-GMO rapeseed.<ref>{{cite web |date=17 February 2015 |title=Canola Oil Myths and Truths |url=http://www.berkeleywellness.com/healthy-eating/food-safety/article/canola-oil-myths-and-truths |access-date=23 April 2017 |publisher=UC Berkeley School of Public Health}}</ref>

== Nutrition and health == {{Nutritional value | name = Canola oil | caption = Canola oil | serving_size = 100 g | kJ = 3700 | carbs = 0 g | fat = 100 g | protein = 0 g | sugars = 0 g | satfat = 7.4 g | transfat = 0.4 g | monofat = 63.3 g | polyfat = 28.1 g | omega3fat = 9.1 g | omega6fat = 18.6 g | fiber = 0 g | starch = 0 g | water = 0 g | calcium_mg = 0 | iron_mg = 0 | phosphorus_mg = 0 | magnesium_mg = 0 | manganese_mg = 0 | sodium_mg = 0 | potassium_mg = 0 | zinc_mg = 0 | vitA_ug = 0 | vitA_iu = 0 | betacarotene_ug = 0 | lutein_ug = 0 | thiamin_mg = 0 | riboflavin_mg = 0 | niacin_mg = 0 | pantothenic_mg = 0 | vitB6_mg = 0 | folate_ug = 0 | vitB12_ug = 0 | vitC_mg = 0 | vitE_mg = 17.5 | vitK_ug = 71.3 | note = [https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/food-details/172336/nutrients Full link to USDA FoodData Central entry] }} ===Nutritional content=== Canola oil is 100% fat, composed of 63% monounsaturated fat, 28% polyunsaturated fat, and 7% saturated fat (table). The ratio of linoleic acid (an omega-6 fatty acid) to alpha-linolenic acid (an omega-3 fatty acid) is 2:1 (table). A {{cvt|100|g}} reference amount of canola oil provides 880 calories of food energy and is a rich source of vitamin E (117% of the Daily Value, DV) and vitamin K (59% DV) (table).

===Health research=== Reviews indicate that consumption of canola oil can reduce blood levels of cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) &ndash; two risk factors for cardiovascular diseases &ndash; and may help reduce body weight.<ref name="rosq">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rosqvist F, Niinistö S |title=Fats and oils - a scoping review for Nordic Nutrition Recommendations 2023 |journal=Food and Nutrition Research |volume=68 |issue= |pages= |date=2024 |pmid=38370114 |pmc=10870979 |doi=10.29219/fnr.v68.10487}}</ref><ref name="voon">{{cite journal |vauthors=Voon PT, Ng CM, Ng YT, Wong YJ, Yap SY, Leong SL, Yong XS, Lee SW |title=Health Effects of Various Edible Vegetable Oil: An Umbrella Review |journal=Advances in Nutrition |volume=15 |issue=9 |article-number=100276 |date=September 2024 |pmid=39053603 |pmc=11374968 |doi=10.1016/j.advnut.2024.100276}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Ghobadi S, Hassanzadeh-Rostami Z, Mohammadian F, Zare M, Faghih S |year=2019 |title=Effects of Canola Oil Consumption on Lipid Profile: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Clinical Trials |journal=Journal of the American College of Nutrition |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=185–196 |pmid=30381009 |doi=10.1080/07315724.2018.1475270 |s2cid=53177789}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Raeisi-Dehkordi H, Amiri M, Humphries KH, Salehi-Abargouei A |year=2019 |title=The Effect of Canola Oil on Body Weight and Composition: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Clinical Trials |url=https://academic.oup.com/advances/article/10/3/419/5365770 |journal=Advances in Nutrition |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=419–432 |doi=10.1093/advances/nmy108 |pmc=6520036 |pmid=30809634}}</ref>

In 2006, canola oil was given a qualified health claim by the United States Food and Drug Administration for lowering the risk of coronary heart disease, resulting from its significant content of unsaturated fats; the allowed claim for food labels states:<ref>{{cite web |author=Schneeman, B.O. |date=6 October 2006 |title=Qualified Health Claims, Letter of Enforcement Discretion U.S. Food and Drug Administration: Unsaturated Fatty Acids from Canola Oil and Reduced Risk of Coronary Heart Disease |publisher=US Food and Drug Administration |url=https://www.fda.gov/food/ingredientspackaginglabeling/labelingnutrition/ucm072958.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002010725/http://www.fda.gov/Food/IngredientsPackagingLabeling/LabelingNutrition/ucm072958.htm |archive-date=2 October 2013 |access-date=3 September 2008}}</ref><blockquote>"Limited and not conclusive scientific evidence suggests that eating about 1 {{1/2}} tablespoons (19 grams) of canola oil daily may reduce the risk of coronary heart disease due to the unsaturated fat content in canola oil. To achieve this possible benefit, canola oil is to replace a similar amount of saturated fat and not increase the total number of calories you eat in a day. One serving of this product contains [x] grams of canola oil."</blockquote>

=== Erucic acid === {{main|Erucic acid}}

{| class="wikitable floatright" !Compound !Family ! % of total |- |Oleic acid |ω-9 |61%<ref name="ccc">{{cite web |title=Comparison of Dietary Fats Chart |url=http://www.ontariocanolagrowers.ca/Publications/dietarychart.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060923030316/http://www.ontariocanolagrowers.ca/Publications/dietarychart.pdf |archive-date=23 September 2006 |access-date=3 September 2008 |publisher=Canola Council of Canada}}</ref> |- |Linoleic acid |ω-6 |21%<ref name="ccc" /> |- |Alpha-linolenic acid |ω-3 |11%<ref name="ccc" /><br/>9%<ref name="usda">USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 21 (2008)</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=DeFilippis |first1=Andrew P. |last2=Sperling |first2=Laurence S. |title=Understanding omega-3's |journal=American Heart Journal |year=2006 |volume=151 |issue=3 |pages=564–570 |doi=10.1016/j.ahj.2005.03.051 |pmid=16504616 |url= http://www.biovita.fi/suomi/pdf/understanding_omega3.pdf |archive-date=22 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071022174611/http://www.biovita.fi/suomi/pdf/understanding_omega3.pdf}}</ref> |- |Saturated fatty acids | |7%<ref name="ccc" /> |- |Palmitic acid | |4%<ref name="usda" /> |- |Stearic acid | |2%<ref name="usda" /> |- |Trans fat | |0.4%<ref name="usda22">USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 22 (2009)</ref> |- |Erucic acid | |0.01%<ref name="CAN2015">{{cite press release |last=J. Barthet |first=Véronique J. |date=2015 |title=Quality of western Canadian Canola 2015 |location=Canadian Grain Research Laboratory |publisher=Canadian Grain Commission |url=http://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2016/ccg-cgc/A92-14-2015-eng.pdf |issn=1700-2222 |access-date=21 December 2016}}</ref><br/><0.1%<ref name="AUS2016">{{cite press release |last1=D.E. |first1=Seberry |last2=D.W. |first2=McCaffery |last3=T.M. |first3=Kingham |date=2016 |title=Quality of Australian canola 2015–16 |location=Australia |publisher=NSW Department of Primary Industries – Australian Oilseeds Federation |issn=1322-9397 |url=http://www.australianoilseeds.com/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/10873/2015-16_Book.pdf |access-date=21 December 2016 |archive-date=8 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230508150029/http://australianoilseeds.com/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/10873/2015-16_Book.pdf }}</ref><ref name="BRA2011">{{cite thesis |last1=Heidy Aguilera Fuentes |first1=Paula |last2=Jose Ogliaria |first2=Paulo |last3=Carlos Deschamps |first3=Francisco |last4=Barrera Arellano |first4=Daniel |last5=Mara Block |first5=Jane |date=2011 |title=Avaliação da Qualidade de Óleos de Soja, Canola, Milho e Girassol Durante o Armazenamento |location=Florianópolis, Brazil |chapter=Centro de Ciências Agrárias |trans-chapter=Agricultural Science Center |publisher=Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina |oclc=817268651 |language=pt |url=https://repositorio.ufsc.br/bitstream/handle/123456789/95494/297094.pdf |access-date=21 December 2016}}</ref> |}

Although wild rapeseed oil contains significant amounts of erucic acid,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sahasrabudhe |first1=M. R. |year=1977 |title=Crismer values and erucic acid contents of rapeseed oils |journal=Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society |volume=54 |issue=8 |pages=323–324 |doi=10.1007/BF02672436 |s2cid=84400266}}</ref> the cultivars used to produce commercial, food-grade canola oil were bred to contain less than 2% erucic acid,<ref name="CFR21"/> an amount deemed not significant as a health risk. The low-erucic trait was due to two mutations changing the activity of ''LEA1'' and ''KCS17''.<ref name=QTL>{{cite journal |last1=Hu |first1=Jihong |last2=Chen |first2=Biyun |last3=Zhao |first3=Jing |last4=Zhang |first4=Fugui |last5=Xie |first5=Ting |last6=Xu |first6=Kun |last7=Gao |first7=Guizhen |last8=Yan |first8=Guixin |last9=Li |first9=Hongge |last10=Li |first10=Lixia |last11=Ji |first11=Gaoxiang |last12=An |first12=Hong |last13=Li |first13=Hao |last14=Huang |first14=Qian |last15=Zhang |first15=Meili |last16=Wu |first16=Jinfeng |last17=Song |first17=Weilin |last18=Zhang |first18=Xiaojun |last19=Luo |first19=Yujie |last20=Chris Pires |first20=J. |last21=Batley |first21=Jacqueline |last22=Tian |first22=Shilin |last23=Wu |first23=Xiaoming |title=Genomic selection and genetic architecture of agronomic traits during modern rapeseed breeding |journal=Nature Genetics |date=May 2022 |volume=54 |issue=5 |pages=694–704 |doi=10.1038/s41588-022-01055-6 |pmid=35484301 |bibcode=2022NaGen..54..694H |s2cid=248430415 |quote=We found that FAE1 (BnaA08g11130D) and KCS17 (BnaA08g11140D) were the genes associated with fatty acid elongation for erucic acid (C22:1) (–log 10(P) = 10.997) ...}}</ref><ref name=LEA1/>

The erucic acid content in canola oil has been reduced over the years. In western Canada, a reduction occurred from the average content of 0.5% between 1987 and 1996<ref>{{cite press release |last1=DeClercq |first1=D.R. |last2=Daun |first2=J.K. |last3=Tipples |first3=K.H. |date=1997 |title=Quality of Western Canadian Canola 1997 |location=Canadian Grain Research Laboratory |publisher=Canadian Grain Commission |issn=0836-1657 |url=http://publications.gc.ca/collections/Collection/A92-14-1997E.pdf |access-date=21 December 2016}}</ref> to a current content of 0.01% from 2008 to 2015.<ref name="CAN2015" /> Other reports also show a content lower than 0.1% in Australia<ref name="AUS2016" /> and Brazil.<ref name="BRA2011" />

To date, no health effects have been associated with dietary consumption of erucic acid by humans; but tests of erucic acid metabolism in other species imply that higher levels may be detrimental.<ref name="fsa">Food Standards Australia New Zealand (June 2003) [http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/publications/documents/Erucic%20acid%20monograph.pdf Erucic acid in food: A Toxicological Review and Risk Assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181123112106/http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/publications/documents/Erucic%20acid%20monograph.pdf |date=23 November 2018 }} Technical report series No. 21; Page 4 paragraph 1; {{ISBN|0-642-34526-0}}, {{ISSN|1448-3017}}</ref><ref name="Hayes2">{{cite book |doi=10.1201/9781003390008-14 |chapter=Food Safety and Foodborne Toxicants |title=Hayes' Principles and Methods of Toxicology |date=2023 |last1=Wallace |first1=Hayes A |last2=Tetyana |first2=Kobets |volume=1 |pages=701–754 |isbn=978-1-003-39000-8 }}</ref> Canola oil produced using genetically modified plants has also not been shown to explicitly produce adverse effects.<ref name="Hayes1">{{cite book |last1=Reddy |first1=Chada S. |title=Principles and methods of toxicology |last2=Hayes |first2=A. Wallace |publisher=Informa Healthcare |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-8493-3778-9 |editor1-last=Hayes |editor1-first=A. Wallace |edition=5th |location=London, UK |page=640 |chapter=Foodborne Toxicants}}</ref>

Canola oil is generally recognized as safe.<ref name="CFR21"/>

=== Glucosinolates === {{main|Glucosinolates}} Another chemical change in canola is the reduction of glucosinolates.<ref name=QTL/> As the oil is extracted, most of the glucosinolates are concentrated into the seed meal, an otherwise rich source of protein. Livestock have varying levels of tolerance to glucosinolates intake, with some being poisoned relatively easily.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Glucosinolates as undesirable substances in animal feed - Scientific Opinion of the Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain |journal=EFSA Journal |date=January 2008 |volume=6 |issue=1 |page=590 |doi=10.2903/j.efsa.2008.590 |doi-access=free }}</ref>{{Sfn|O'Brien|2008|p=37}} A small amount of glucosinolates also enters the oil, imparting a pungent odor.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zhou |first1=Qi |last2=Tang |first2=Hu |last3=Jia |first3=Xiao |last4=Zheng |first4=Chang |last5=Huang |first5=Fenghong |last6=Zhang |first6=Min |title=Distribution of glucosinolate and pungent odors in rapeseed oils from raw and microwaved seeds |journal=International Journal of Food Properties |date=2018 |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=2296–2308 |doi=10.1080/10942912.2018.1514632 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Further reduction of glucosinolate levels remains important for the use of rapeseed meal in animal feed.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Shahidi |first1=F. |last2=Naczk |first2=M. |title=Canola and Rapeseed |chapter=Removal of Glucosinolates and Other Antinutrients from Canola and Rapeseed by Methanol/Ammonia Processing |date=1990 |pages=291–306 |doi=10.1007/978-1-4615-3912-4_17 |isbn=978-1-4613-6744-4 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jhingan |first1=Srijan |last2=Harloff |first2=Hans-Joachim |last3=Abbadi |first3=Amine |last4=Welsch |first4=Claudia |last5=Blümel |first5=Martina |last6=Tasdemir |first6=Deniz |last7=Jung |first7=Christian |title=Reduced glucosinolate content in oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) by random mutagenesis of BnMYB28 and BnCYP79F1 genes |journal=Scientific Reports |date=2023-02-09 |volume=13 |issue=1 |page=2344 |doi=10.1038/s41598-023-28661-6|pmid=36759657 |pmc=9911628 |bibcode=2023NatSR..13.2344J }}</ref>

It is not completely clear which genetic changes from plant breeding resulted in the current reduction in this group of chemicals.<ref name=QTL/>

{{collapse top|Comparison of fats and smoke points among vegetable oils}} === Comparison to other vegetable oils === {{Vegetable oils, composition}} {{collapse bottom}}

== Uses == ''B. napus'' is the source for canola as a high quality vegetable oil for human food products, and as a high-protein pomace to feed fish and farm animals.<ref name=ins-can/> Canola oil is favored for its culinary qualities, and is used widely as a salad oil, for shortening, margarine, in deep frying, baking, sandwich spreads, and non-dairy creamers.<ref name=ins-can/>

Apart from its use for human consumption, rapeseed oil is extensively used as a lubricant for machinery, in cosmetics, printing inks, fabrics, plastic products, and pesticides.<ref name=ins-can/> It was widely used in European domestic lighting before the advent of coal (city) gas or kerosene. It was the preferred oil for train pot lamps, and was used for lighting railway coaches in the United Kingdom before gas lighting, and later electric lighting, were adopted. Burned in a Carcel lamp, it was part of the definition of the French standard measure for illumination, the carcel, for most of the nineteenth century. In lighthouses, such as in early Canada, rapeseed oil was used before the introduction of mineral oil. Rapeseed oil was used with the Argand burner because it was cheaper than whale oil.<ref>{{cite web |date=2008-03-31 |title=USQUE AD MARE - Early Lights - Canadian Coast Guard |url=http://www.ccg-gcc.gc.ca/eng/CCG/USQUE_Early_Lights |access-date=2010-03-14 |publisher=Ccg-gcc.gc.ca}}</ref> Rapeseed oil was burned to a limited extent in the Confederacy during the American Civil War.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mallett |first=John W. |title=How the South got chemicals during the war |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2001.05.0289%3Achapter%3D1.23 |journal=Southern Historical Society Papers |volume=31 |page=101}}</ref>

===Biodiesel=== {{main|Biodiesel}}

Rapeseed oil is used as diesel fuel, either as biodiesel, straight in heated fuel systems, or blended with petroleum distillates for powering motor vehicles.<ref name=ins-can/> Biodiesel may be used in pure form in newer engines without engine damage and is frequently combined with fossil-fuel diesel in ratios varying from 2% to 20% biodiesel.

Rapeseed oil is the preferred oil stock for biodiesel production in Europe, Canada, and the United States, partly because rapeseed produces more oil per unit of land area compared to other oil sources, such as soybeans, but primarily because canola oil has a carbon footprint substantially lower than conventional diesel fuel.<ref name="norman">{{cite web |last=Norman |first=Don |title=Canola sector anticipates major biofuel boom |work=The Western Producer |url=https://www.producer.com/news/canola-sector-anticipates-major-biofuel-boom/ |access-date=18 September 2025 |date=29 February 2024}}</ref>

=== Other edible rapeseed oils === Some less-processed versions of rapeseed oil are used for flavor in some countries. Chinese rapeseed oil was originally extracted from the field mustard. In the 19th century, rapeseed (''B. rapa'') was introduced by European traders, and local farmers crossed the new plant with field mustard to produce semi-winter rapeseed.<ref>{{cite web |title=Southwest China's Foundational Rapeseed Oil |website=New Cookery Recipes |url=https://newcookeryrecipes.info/southwest-chinas-foundational-rapeseed-oil-%E8%8F%9C%E7%B1%BD%E6%B2%B9%E7%AE%80%E4%BB%8B/ |access-date=6 April 2021 |archive-date=17 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240117173955/https://newcookeryrecipes.info/southwest-chinas-foundational-rapeseed-oil-%E8%8F%9C%E7%B1%BD%E6%B2%B9%E7%AE%80%E4%BB%8B/ }}</ref> Their erucic acid content was reduced to modern "canola" levels by breeding with Canadian low-erucic acid cultivar "ORO".<ref name=LEA1>{{cite journal |last1=Wu |first1=Gang |last2=Wu |first2=Yuhua |last3=Xiao |first3=Ling |last4=Li |first4=Xiaodan |last5=Lu |first5=Changming |title=Zero erucic acid trait of rapeseed (Brassica napus L.) results from a deletion of four base pairs in the fatty acid elongase 1 gene |journal=Theoretical and Applied Genetics |date=February 2008 |volume=116 |issue=4 |pages=491–499 |doi=10.1007/s00122-007-0685-z |pmid=18075728 |quote=Since then almost all of the LEA rapeseed cultivars have been developed in China and other countries by traditional crossing method with the LEA gene source from the ORO (Harvey and Downey 1963).}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hu |first1=Shengwu |last2=Yu |first2=Chengyu |last3=Zhao |first3=Huixian |last4=Sun |first4=Genlou |last5=Zhao |first5=Suolao |last6=Vyvadilova |first6=Miroslava |last7=Kucera |first7=Vratislav |title=Genetic diversity of Brassica napus L. Germplasm from China and Europe assessed by some agronomically important characters |journal=Euphytica |date=March 2007 |volume=154 |issue=1–2 |pages=9–16 |doi=10.1007/s10681-006-9263-8 |bibcode=2007Euphy.154....9H |quote=Using these canola varieties as parents, Chinese breeders have successively developed a series of new varieties adapted to local condition.}}</ref> Chinese rapeseed oil has a distinctive taste and a greenish colour due to the different processing method: seeds are roasted and expeller-pressed to obtain the oil. A centrifuge is used to remove solids, followed by a heating step. The resultant oil is heat-stable and fundamental to Sichuan cuisine.

In India, mustard oil is used in cooking.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sen |first1=Indrani |date=1 November 2011 |title=American Chefs Discover Mustard Oil |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/02/dining/american-chefs-discover-mustard-oil.html |newspaper=The New York Times }}</ref> In the United Kingdom and Ireland, some chefs use a "cabbagey"-tasting rapeseed oil processed by cold-pressing.<ref name="rapeseed">{{cite news |last1=Thring |first1=Oliver |date=12 June 2012 |title=The rise of rapeseed oil |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/wordofmouth/2012/jun/12/rise-of-rapeseed-oil}}</ref>

== Spanish rapeseed poisoning outbreak == {{main|Toxic oil syndrome}} In 1981, there was an oil poisoning outbreak, later known as toxic oil syndrome that was attributed to people consuming what they thought was olive oil but turned out to be rapeseed oil that had been denatured with 2% aniline (phenylamine). The substance was intended for industrial use but had been illegally refined in an attempt to remove the aniline.<ref name=Gepi2002>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Gelpí E, de la Paz MP, Terracini B, Abaitua I, de la Cámara AG, Kilbourne EM, Lahoz C, Nemery B, Philen RM, Soldevilla L, Tarkowski S |date=May 2002 |title=The Spanish toxic oil syndrome 20 years after its onset: a multidisciplinary review of scientific knowledge. |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |publisher=US National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health |volume=110 |issue=5 |pages=457–464 |doi=10.1289/ehp.110-1240833 |pmc=1240833 |pmid=12003748}}</ref> It was then fraudulently sold as olive oil, mainly in street markets, mostly in the Madrid area.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-10-19 |title=Factbox: Fake olive oil scandal that caused Spain's worst food poisoning epidemic in 1981 |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/fake-olive-oil-scandal-that-caused-spains-worst-food-poisoning-epidemic-1981-2021-10-19/ |publisher=Reuters}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |author=Westfall, Sammy |date=October 19, 2021 |title=Victims of a 1981 mass cooking-oil poisoning occupy Madrid museum |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2021/10/19/mass-oil-posioning-protest-suicide-spain/}}</ref>

==Gallery== <gallery> file:CanolaBlooms.JPG|Close-up of canola blooms file:Canola Flower.jpg|Canola flower </gallery>

== See also == {{Commons category|Rapeseed oil}} * Botanol, a flooring material derived from canola oil * List of canola diseases * Triangle of U

== References == {{Reflist}}

==Further reading== * {{cite book |doi=10.1201/9781420061673 |title=Fats and Oils |date=2008 |last1=O'Brien |first1=Richard D. |isbn=978-0-429-14806-4 }}

{{fatsandoils}}{{Brassica}} Category:Lubricants Category:Brassica Category:Cooking oils Category:Vegetable oils