Coconut

{{Short description|Species of plant in the palm family}} {{good article}} {{About|the plant}} {{redirect|Coconut tree|other uses|Coconut Tree (disambiguation)}} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{Use dmy dates|date=January 2026}} {{Use American English|date=July 2020}} {{Speciesbox |fossil_range = {{Fossil range|55|0}}Early Eocene – Recent |image = Cocos_nucifera_-_Köhler–s_Medizinal-Pflanzen-187.jpg |image2 = Coconut 4.jpg |display_parents = 4 |genus = Cocos |parent_authority = L. |species = nucifera |authority = L. |synonyms = * ''Coccus'' {{Au|Mill.}} * ''Calappa'' {{Au|Steck}} * ''Coccos'' {{Au|Gaertn.}} |synonyms_ref = <ref name="WCSP">{{cite web |url=https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:666160-1 |title=''Cocos nucifera'' L. |year=2025 |work=World Checklist of Selected Plant Families |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |access-date=22 November 2025}}</ref> |range_map = Cocos nucifera origin native range map.svg |range_map_caption = Possible native range prior to domestication }}

The '''coconut''' ('''''Cocos nucifera''''') is a member of the palm family (Arecaceae) and the only living species of the genus '''''Cocos'''''.<ref name="WCSP"/> The term "coconut" (or the archaic "'''cocoanut'''")<ref name="COD">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Coconut |encyclopedia=Concise Oxford Dictionary |editor=Pearsall, J. |year=1999 |edition=10th |location=Oxford |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=0-19-860287-1}}</ref> can denote the whole '''coconut palm''' tree or the large hard fruit. Originally native to the Central Indo-Pacific, they are ubiquitous in coastal tropical regions.

The coconut tree provides food, fuel, cosmetics, folk medicine and building materials. The inner flesh of the mature fruit forms a regular part of the diets of many people in the tropics and subtropics. Coconut endosperm contains a large quantity of a liquid, "coconut water". Mature coconuts can be processed for oil and coconut milk from the flesh, charcoal from the hard shell, and coir from the fibrous husk. Dried coconut flesh is called copra, and the oil and milk derived from it are commonly used in cooking and in soaps and cosmetics. Sweet coconut sap can be made into drinks or fermented into palm wine or coconut vinegar. The hard shells, fibrous husks and long pinnate leaves are used to make products for furnishing and decoration.

The coconut has cultural and religious significance for Austronesian peoples, appearing in their mythologies, songs, and oral traditions. It has religious significance in South Asian cultures, where it is used in Hindu rituals including weddings and worship.

''Cocos''-like fossils have been recovered from New Zealand and India. Genetic studies identify the coconut's center of origin as the Central Indo-Pacific, where it has its greatest genetic diversity. It was domesticated by Austronesian peoples in Island Southeast Asia and spread during the Neolithic via their seaborne migrations as far east as the Pacific Islands, and as far west as Madagascar. The species played a critical role in their long sea voyages by providing a portable source of food and water, as well as building materials for outrigger boats. Coconuts were spread much later along the coasts of the Indian and Atlantic Oceans by South Asian, Arab, and from the 16th century by European sailors. Based on these introductions, the species can be divided into Pacific and Indo-Atlantic types. The Indo-Atlantic type was introduced to the Americas during the colonial era in the Columbian exchange, while Austronesian sailors appear to have introduced Pacific coconuts to Panama in pre-Columbian times.

Trees can grow up to {{convert|30|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=off}} tall and can yield up to 75 fruits per year, though fewer than 30 is more typical. They are intolerant to cold and prefer copious precipitation and full sunlight. Many insect pests and diseases affect commercial production. In 2024, world production of coconuts was 65.5 million tonnes, with 73% of the total produced by Indonesia, India, and the Philippines.

==Description ==

''Cocos nucifera'' is a large palm, growing up to {{convert|30|m|ft|abbr=off|sigfig=1}} tall, with pinnate leaves {{convert|4|-|6|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} long, and pinnae {{convert|60|-|90|cm|ft|0}} long; old leaves break away cleanly, leaving the trunk smooth.<ref name="Pradeepkumar">{{cite book |last1=Pradeepkumar |first1=T. |last2=Sumajyothibhaskar |first2=B. |last3=Satheesan |first3=K. N. |year=2008 |title=Management of Horticultural Crops |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VHmokNZXbHUC&pg=PA539 |series=Horticulture Science Series |volume=11 |publisher=New India Publishing |pages=539–587 |isbn=978-81-89422-49-3}}</ref> On fertile soil, a tall coconut palm tree produces around 80 fruits per year; new varieties may be able to yield as many as 150 per year.<ref name="Sarian">{{cite news |last=Sarian |first=Zac B. |date=18 August 2010 |title=New coconut yields high |url=http://www.mb.com.ph/articles/272929/new-coconut-yields-high |work=The Manila Bulletin |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111119033447/http://mb.com.ph/articles/272929/new-coconut-yields-high |archive-date=19 November 2011 |access-date= 21 April 2011}}</ref> In India, average production is over 8,000 nuts per hectare per year.<ref name="Ravi">{{cite news |last=Ravi |first=Rajesh |date=16 March 2009 |title=Rise in coconut yield, farming area put India on top |url=http://www.financialexpress.com/news/rise-in-coconut-yield-farming-area-put-india-on-top/434818/0 |work=The Financial Express |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515043307/http://www.financialexpress.com/news/rise-in-coconut-yield-farming-area-put-india-on-top/434818/0 |archive-date=15 May 2013 |access-date=21 April 2011}}</ref> Tall varieties produce their first fruit in 6 to 10 years, and live for 60 to 100 years; dwarf varieties become productive more quickly, but have a shorter lifespan.<ref name="Elzabroek"/>

=== Inflorescence ===

The coconut is monoecious, meaning that both male and female flowers grow on the same tree, in its case in the same inflorescence.<ref name="Thampan 1981">{{cite book |last=Thampan |first=P.K. |year=1981 |title=Handbook on Coconut Palm |publisher=Oxford & IBH Publishing, for Department of Agriculture & Cooperation, Government of India |location=New Delhi, Bombay, and Calcutta |url=https://ia800107.us.archive.org/17/items/in.ernet.dli.2015.201473/2015.201473.Hand-Book.pdf |pages=10–11 |access-date=29 November 2025}}</ref><ref name="Kew Coconut palm">{{cite web |title=Cocos nucifera: Coconut palm |url=https://www.kew.org/plants/coconut-palm |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |access-date=29 November 2025}}</ref> It is possible that the species in addition occasionally has bisexual flowers.<ref>{{cite book |last=Willmer |first=Pat |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UVGi6W8QdO4C&pg=PA57 |title=Pollination and Floral Ecology |date=25 July 2011 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-12861-0 |page=57}}</ref> The female flower is much larger than the male flower.<ref name="Kew Coconut palm"/> Mature trees grow continuously, producing leaves, flowers, and fruit all year round. It takes some 14 months for each flower primordium to develop into an inflorescence, botanically a spadix inside a sheathing spathe. A healthy tree can produce up to 15 inflorescences per year, staggered so that there is always a mature one with others in different stages of development.<ref name="Agriculture Institute 2024">{{cite web |title=Flowering and Fruiting Patterns of Coconut Trees |url=https://agriculture.institute/post-harvest-mgt-value-addition/flowering-fruiting-patterns-coconut-trees/ |publisher=Agriculture Institute |access-date=29 November 2025 |date=27 January 2024 |quote=Under optimal growing conditions, healthy mature trees produce new inflorescences every month, creating a continuous cycle of flowering and fruiting that can yield 12 to 15 spadices per year.}}</ref><ref name="Gordon Jackson 2017">{{cite book |last1=Gordon |first1=André |last2=Jackson |first2=J. |title=Food Safety and Quality Systems in Developing Countries |date=2017 |editor=Gordon, André |volume=2 |chapter=Case study: application of appropriate technologies to improve the quality and safety of coconut water |isbn=978-0-12-801226-0 |pages=185–216}}</ref> It takes 11 months from the opening of the female flowers to the time of harvest.<ref name="Ranasinghe 2015">{{cite journal |last1=Ranasinghe |first1=C.S. |last2=Silva |first2=L.R.S. |last3=Premasiri |first3=R.D.N. |title=Major determinants of fruit set and yield fluctuation in coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) |journal=Journal of the National Science Foundation of Sri Lanka |volume=43 |issue=3 |date=24 September 2015 |doi=10.4038/jnsfsr.v43i3.7955 |page=253 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Coconut palms are largely cross-pollinated, although most dwarf varieties are self-pollinating.<ref name="Lutz"/>

<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=180 heights=180> File:Sea View from himsori bangladesh (cropped).jpg|Habit File:Coconut tree leave.jpeg|Leaves File:Cocos nucifera (11124377083).jpg|Inflorescence unfurling with male and female flowers File:JfBohol7038naturefvf 39.JPG|Tree with fruit File:Coconut germinating on Black Sand Beach, Island of Hawaii.JPG|Seed germinating in sand, Hawaii </gallery>

=== Fruit ===

{| class="wikitable floatright" |+ Composition of a Bido coconut<ref name="Novarianto 2022"/> |- ! colspan=2 | Component ! colspan=2 | Mass/kg |- | colspan=3 | Husk || 2.033 |- | colspan=3 | Nut || 1.125 |- | rowspan=3 | of which || Shell || 0.359 |- | Juice || 0.492 |- | Meat || 0.477 |- | colspan=3 | Total || 3.158 |}

Botanically, the coconut fruit is a drupe, not a true nut.<ref name="botany">{{cite web |date=December 2014 |title=Coconut botany |url=http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/horticulture/horti_pcrops_coconut_botany.html |access-date=14 December 2017 |website=Agritech Portal |publisher=Tamil Nadu Agricultural University}}</ref> Like other fruits, it has three layers: the exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp. The exocarp is the glossy outer skin, usually yellow-green to yellow-brown in color. The mesocarp is composed of a fiber, called coir, which has many traditional and commercial uses. The exocarp and the mesocarp make up the "husk" of the coconut, while the endocarp makes up the hard coconut "shell". The endocarp is around {{convert|4|mm|in|abbr=off|frac=8}} thick and has three distinctive germination pores (micropyles) on the distal end. Two of the pores are plugged (the "eyes"), while one is functional.<ref name="Ledo">{{cite journal |last1=Lédo |first1=Ana da Silva |last2=Passos |first2=Edson Eduardo Melo |last3=Fontes |first3=Humberto Rolemberg |last4=Ferreira |first4=Joana Maria Santos |last5=Talamini |first5=Viviane |last6=Vendrame |first6=Wagner A. |last7=Lédo |first7=Ana da Silva |last8=Passos |first8=Edson Eduardo Melo |last9=Fontes |first9=Humberto Rolemberg |last10=Ferreira |first10=Joana Maria Santos |last11=Talamini |first11=Viviane |last12=Vendrame |first12=Wagner A. |display-authors=5 |year=2019 |title=Advances in Coconut palm propagation |journal=Revista Brasileira de Fruticultura |volume=41 |issue=2 |doi=10.1590/0100-29452019159 |doi-access=free |article-number=e-159}}</ref><ref name="Armstrong">{{cite web |last1=Armstrong |first1=W. P. |title=Edible Palm Fruits |url=https://www2.palomar.edu/users/warmstrong/ecoph10.htm |access-date=20 April 2021 |website=Wayne's Word: An On-Line Textbook of Natural History |publisher=Palomar College |archive-date=2 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180902172839/https://www2.palomar.edu/users/warmstrong/ecoph10.htm }}</ref>

The interior of the endocarp is hollow and is lined with a thin brown seed coat, some {{convert|0.2|mm|in|abbr=on|frac=64}} thick. The endocarp is initially filled with a liquid endosperm (the coconut water). The liquid contains many free cell nuclei (it is multinucleate) dividing by mitosis, without cell boundaries. As development continues, cellular layers of endosperm deposit along the walls of the endocarp up to {{convert|11|mm|in|abbr=on|frac=8}} thick, starting at the far end. They eventually form the edible solid endosperm ("coconut meat") which hardens over time. The small cylindrical embryo is embedded in the solid endosperm directly below the functional pore. During germination, the embryo pushes out of the functional pore and forms a haustorium inside the central cavity. This absorbs the solid endosperm to nourish the seedling.<ref name="Ledo"/><ref name="duke">{{cite web |year=1983 |title=''Cocos nucifera'' L. (Source: James A. Duke. 1983. Handbook of Energy Crops; unpublished) |url=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Cocos_nucifera.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150603080303/http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Cocos_nucifera.html |archive-date=3 June 2015 |access-date=4 June 2015 |publisher=Purdue University, NewCROP – New Crop Resource}}</ref><ref name="Sugimuma">{{cite journal |last1=Sugimuma |first1=Yukio |last2=Murakami |first2=Taka |year=1990 |title=Structure and Function of the Haustorium in Germinating Coconut Palm Seed |url=https://www.jircas.go.jp/sites/default/files/publication/jarq/24-1-001-014_0.pdf |journal=JARQ |volume=24 |pages=1–14}}</ref>

The fruits have two distinctive forms. Wild ''niu kafa'' coconuts feature an elongated triangular fruit with a thicker husk and a smaller amount of endosperm. These make the fruits more buoyant, ideal for ocean dispersal. Domesticated ''niu vai'' Pacific coconuts are rounded in shape with a thinner husk, more endosperm, and more coconut water.<ref name="Lebrun"/><ref name="Shukla"/><ref name="Lutz"/>

A full-sized fruit weighs about {{convert|1.4|kg|lboz|abbr=off}} depending on variety.<ref name="Paull"/><ref name="postharvest"/> The 21st century Bido variety from Indonesia averages {{convert|3.158|kg|lboz|abbr=off}} per fruit.<ref name="Novarianto 2022">{{cite journal |last1=Novarianto |first1=H. |last2=Mawardi |first2=S. |last3=Tulalo |first3=M. A. |title=The Bido variety is an essential genetic material for coconut breeding |journal=IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science |volume=974 |issue=1 |date=1 January 2022 |doi=10.1088/1755-1315/974/1/012056 |article-number=012056 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2022E&ES..974a2056N }}</ref>

[[File:Coconut half exocarp removed.jpg|thumb|upright|Fruit with husk partly removed, showing hard thin shell of endocarp (left), coir fibre of exocarp (right)]]

Coconuts are exported without husks; de-husked nuts from Côte d'Ivoire average around 575 grams, while de-husked nuts from the Dominican Republic average nearly 700 grams.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gerbaud |first1=Pierre |last2=Audibert |first2=Olivier |last3=Bourdeix |first3=Roland |title=Close-up: Coconut |url=https://agritrop.cirad.fr/562361/1/ID562361.pdf |access-date=29 November 2025 |work=FRuiTROP |issue=193 |publisher=CIRAD |date=October 2011}}</ref> Coconuts sold domestically in coconut-producing countries are typically not de-husked. Immature coconuts (6 to 8 months from flowering) are sold for coconut water and softer jelly-like coconut meat (known as "green coconuts", "young coconuts", or "water coconuts"), where the original coloration of the fruit is more pleasing.<ref name="Paull">{{cite book |last1=Paull |first1=Robert E. |url=https://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/oc/freepubs/pdf/F_N-45.pdf |title=Coconut: Postharvest Quality-Maintenance Guidelines |last2=Ketsa |first2=Saichol |date=March 2015 |publisher=College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawai{{okina}}i at Mānoa}}</ref><ref name="postharvest">{{cite book |url=http://agriculture.gov.gy/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/Coconut.pdf |title=Coconut: Postharvest Care and Market Preparation |date=May 2004 |publisher=Ministry of Fisheries, Crops and Livestock, New Guyana Marketing Corporation, National Agricultural Research Institute |series=Technical Bulletin No. 27}}</ref>

Whole mature coconuts (11 to 13 months from flowering) sold for export, however, typically have the husk removed to reduce weight and volume for transport. This results in the naked coconut "shell" with three pores, remnants of the three carpels of the flower, more familiar in countries where coconuts are not grown locally. De-husked coconuts are easier for consumers to open, but have a shorter postharvest storage life of around two to three weeks at temperatures of {{convert|12|to|15|°C|°F|abbr=on}} or up to 2 months at {{convert|0|to|1.5|°C|°F|abbr=on}}. In comparison, mature coconuts with a husk can be stored for three to five months at room temperature.<ref name="Paull"/><ref name="postharvest"/>

=== Roots ===

The palm tree has neither a taproot nor root hairs, but a fibrous root system.<ref name="Thampan 1981"/> This consists of many thin roots that grow outward from the plant near the surface. Only a few penetrate deep into the soil for stability. This is known as a fibrous or adventitious root system, and is a characteristic of grass species. 2,000–4,000 adventitious roots may grow, each about {{convert|1|cm|in|frac=2|abbr=on}} in diameter. Decayed roots are replaced regularly as the tree grows new ones.<ref name="agro">{{cite book |date=April 2006 |editor=Elevitch, C. R. |chapter=''Cocos nucifera'' (coconut), version 2.1 |url=http://www.agroforestry.net/tti/Cocos-coconut.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020005217/http://agroforestry.net/tti/Cocos-coconut.pdf |archive-date=20 October 2013 |access-date=22 December 2016 |title=Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry |publisher=Permanent Agriculture Resources |location=Hōlualoa, Hawaii}}</ref>

== Taxonomy ==

=== Taxonomic history ===

The Swedish botanist and taxonomist Carl Linnaeus formally described the species ''Cocos nucifera'' in his book ''Species Plantarum'' in 1753.<ref>{{cite book |last=Linnaeus |first=Carl |author-link=Carl Linnaeus |title=Species Plantarum |year=1753 |page=1188}}</ref> The name is accepted by botanists.<ref name="WCSP"/> In 1768, in his book ''The Gardeners Dictionary'', the English botanist Philip Miller redescribed the plant as ''Palma cocos'', a name treated as a synonym.<ref>{{cite book |last=Miller |first=Philip |author-link=Philip Miller |title=The Gardeners Dictionary |edition=8th |volume=2 |year=1768}}</ref><ref name="WCSP"/> In 1891, the German botanist Otto Kuntze gave it the name ''Calappa nucifera'' in his ''Revisio Generum Plantarum'', also treated as a synonym.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kuntze |first=Otto |author-link=Otto Kuntze |title=Revisio Generum Plantarum |volume=2 |page=982 |year=1891}}</ref><ref name="WCSP"/>

=== Etymology ===

The generic name ''Cocos'', and the common name, is derived from the 16th-century Portuguese word ''coco'', meaning 'head' or 'skull' after the three indentations on the coconut shell that give an impression of a face.<ref>{{cite book |last=Dalgado |first=Sebastião |url=https://archive.org/details/glossriolusoas00dalguoft/page/n363/mode/2up |title=Glossário luso-asiático |publisher=Coimbra, Imprensa da Universidade |year=1919 |volume=1 |page=291}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/coco |title=coco |website=Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=3 May 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/coconut |title=coconut |website=Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=3 May 2020 }}</ref><ref name="Losada">{{cite book |last=Losada |first=Fernando Díez |year=2004 |title=La tribuna del idioma |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RxGv6tMX2QcC&pg=PT481 |language=es |publisher=Editorial Tecnologica de CR |page=481 |isbn=978-9977-66-161-2}}</ref> This apparently came from encounters in 1521 by Portuguese and Spanish explorers with Pacific Islanders, when the coconut shell reminded them of ghosts in Portuguese folklore called ''coco'' or ''côca''.<ref name="Losada"/><ref>{{cite book |last=Figueiredo |first=Cândido |year=1940 |title=Pequeno Dicionário da Lingua Portuguesa |language=pt |location=Lisbon |publisher=Livraria Bertrand}}</ref> In the West, the fruit was originally called ''nux indica'', a name used by Marco Polo in 1280 while in Sumatra. His term is a translation from the Arabic of the time, where it was called {{Lang|ar|جوز هندي}} {{Lang|ar-Latn|jawz hindī}}, "Indian nut".<ref name="Elzabroek">{{cite book |last=Elzebroek |first=A. T. G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YvU1XnUVxFQC&pg=PA186 |title=Guide to Cultivated Plants |date=2008 |publisher=CABI |isbn=978-1-84593-356-2 |pages=186–192}}</ref> ''Thenga'', its Tamil/Malayalam name, was used in the detailed description of coconut found in ''Itinerario'' by Ludovico di Varthema published in 1510 and in the later ''Hortus Indicus Malabaricus''.<ref name="Grimwood1">Grimwood, p. 1.</ref>

The specific name ''nucifera'' means "nut-bearing", from the Latin words {{Lang|la|nux}} (nut) and {{Lang|la|fera}} (bearing).<ref>{{cite web |title=National Flower – Nelumbo nucifera |url=http://bsienvis.nic.in/files/National%20Flower_Nelumbo%20nucifera_26.9.14.pdf |access-date=19 February 2021 |publisher=ENVIS Resource Partner on Biodiversity}}</ref>

== Origins ==

=== Fossil history ===

[[File:Miocene coconut.jpg|thumb|Fossil ''Cocos zeylandica'' from the Miocene of New Zealand, approximately the size of a strawberry at {{convert|3.5|cm|in|frac=4|abbr=on}} long|alt=Small blackened fossil]]

The vast majority of ''Cocos''-like fossils have been recovered from only two regions in the world: New Zealand and west-central India. However, ''Cocos''-like fossils are still putative, as they are difficult to identify.<ref name="Nayar2016">{{cite book |last=Nayar |first=N. Madhavan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pWEuDAAAQBAJ |title=The Coconut: Phylogeny, Origins, and Spread |publisher=Academic Press |year=2016 |isbn=978-0-12-809779-3 |pages=51–66}}</ref> The earliest ''Cocos''-like fossil to be found was ''C. zeylandica'', a fossil species with small fruits, around {{convert|3.5|cm|in|frac=4|abbr=on}} × {{convert|1.3|to|2.5|cm|in|frac=8|abbr=on}} in size, from the Miocene (~23 to 5.3 million years ago) of New Zealand. Since then, numerous other fossils of similar fruits of uncertain affinity have been found in New Zealand from the Eocene, Oligocene, and possibly the Holocene.<ref name="Nayar2016"/><ref name="Conran2015">{{cite journal|publisher=Linnean Society|last1=Conran |first1=John G. |last2=Bannister |first2=Jennifer M. |last3=Lee |first3=Daphne E. |last4=Carpenter |first4=Raymond J. |last5=Kennedy |first5=Elizabeth M. |last6=Reichgelt |first6=Tammo |last7=Fordyce |first7=R. Ewan |display-authors=5 |year=2015 |title=An update of monocot macrofossil data from New Zealand and Australia |journal=Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society|volume=178 |issue=3 |pages=394–420 |doi=10.1111/boj.12284 |doi-access=free}}</ref> In the Deccan Traps of west-central India, numerous fossils of ''Cocos''-like fruits, leaves, and stems have been found. They include morphotaxa like ''Palmoxylon sundaran'', ''Palmoxylon insignae'', and ''Palmocarpon cocoides''. ''Cocos''-like fossils of fruits include ''Cocos intertrappeansis'', ''Cocos pantii'', and ''Cocos sahnii''. Some have been tentatively identified as modern ''C. nucifera''. These include two specimens named ''C. palaeonucifera'' and ''C. binoriensis'', both dated by their authors to the Maastrichtian–Danian of the early Tertiary (70 to 62 million years ago). ''C. binoriensis'' has been claimed to be the earliest known fossil of ''C. nucifera''.<ref name="Srivastava2014">{{cite journal |last1=Srivastava |first1=Rashmi |last2=Srivastava |first2=Gaurav |year=2014 |title=Fossil fruit of ''Cocos'' L. (Arecaceae) from Maastrichtian-Danian sediments of central India and its phytogeographical significance |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/261107861 |journal=Acta Palaeobotanica |volume=54 |issue=1 |pages=67–75 |doi=10.2478/acpa-2014-0003 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Nayar2016"/><ref name="Singh2016">{{cite journal |last1=Singh |first1=Hukam |last2=Shukla |first2=Anumeha |last3=Mehrotra |first3=R. C. |year=2016 |title=A Fossil Coconut Fruit from the Early Eocene of Gujarat |url=http://www.geosocindia.org/index.php/jgsi/article/view/88633 |journal=Journal of the Geological Society of India |volume=87 |issue=3 |pages=268–270 |doi=10.1007/s12594-016-0394-9 |bibcode=2016JGSI...87..268S |access-date=10 January 2019 |s2cid=131318482 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Only two other regions have reported ''Cocos''-like fossils, namely Australia and Colombia. In Australia, a ''Cocos''-like fossil fruit, measuring {{convert|10|x|9.5|cm|in|frac=8|abbr=on}}, was recovered from the Chinchilla Sand Formation dated to the latest Pliocene or basal Pleistocene. Rigby (1995) assigned them to modern ''Cocos nucifera'' based on its size.<ref name="Srivastava2014"/><ref name="Nayar2016"/> In Colombia, a single ''Cocos''-like fruit was recovered from the middle to late Paleocene Cerrejón Formation. The fruit, however, was compacted in the fossilization process and it was not possible to determine if it had the diagnostic three pores that characterize members of the tribe Cocoseae. Nevertheless, one study assigned it to ''Cocos'' based on the size and the ridged shape of the fruit.<ref name="Gomez-Navarro2009">{{cite journal |last1=Gomez-Navarro |first1=Carolina |last2=Jaramillo |first2=Carlos |last3=Herrera |first3=Fabiany |last4=Wing |first4=Scott L. |last5=Callejas |first5=Ricardo |year=2009 |title=Palms (Arecaceae) from a Paleocene rainforest of northern Colombia |journal=American Journal of Botany |volume=96 |issue=7 |pages=1300–1312 |doi=10.3732/ajb.0800378 |pmid=21628279 |bibcode=2009AmJB...96.1300G }}</ref>

=== Phylogeny ===

A 2016 molecular phylogenomic analysis of the palms places the genus ''Cocos'' among the tribe Cocoseae:<ref>{{cite book |last=Gunn |first=Bee Fong |title=Phylogenomics of the coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) |year=2016 |publisher=Australian National University (PhD thesis) |url=https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstreams/98d7d3c7-600e-4ead-963e-337362a11b0e/download}}</ref>

{{clade |label1=Cocoseae |1={{clade |1=''Bactris'' spiny palms of C. and S. America |2={{clade |1=''Elaeis oleifera'' (American oil palm) of C. and S. America |2={{clade |1={{clade |1=''Beccariophoenix madagascariensis'' (coastal beccariophoenix) of Madagascar |2={{clade |1=''Voanioala gerardii'' (forest coconut) of Madagascar |2=''Jubaeopsis'' (Pondoland palm) of S. Africa }} }} |2={{clade |1={{clade |1=''Jubaea chilensis'' (Chilean wine palm) of central Chile |2=''Butia'' (feather palms) of S. America }} |2={{clade |1={{clade |1=''Attalea'' non-spiny palms of C. and S. America |2={{clade |1=''Parajubaea'' palms of the Northern Andes |2=''Allagoptera'' monoecious palms of S. America }} }} |2={{clade |1='''''Cocos nucifera''''' ('''coconut palm''') |2=''Syagrus'' palms of S. America }} }} }} }} }} }} }}

=== Human dispersal ===

[[File:Wa'a kaulua.jpg|thumb|left|Catamarans allowed Austronesians to colonize the islands of the Indo-Pacific and introduce coconuts as they migrated.<ref name="Mahdi1999">{{cite book |last=Mahdi |first=Waruno |title=Archaeology and Language III: Artefacts languages, and texts |publisher=Routledge |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-415-10054-0 |editor-last=Blench |editor-first=Roger |series=One World Archaeology |volume=34 |pages=144–179 |chapter=The Dispersal of Austronesian boat forms in the Indian Ocean |editor-last2=Spriggs |editor-first2=Matthew}}</ref><ref name="Doran1981">{{cite book |last1=Doran |first1=Edwin B. |title=Wangka: Austronesian Canoe Origins |date=1981 |publisher=Texas A&M University Press |isbn=978-0-89096-107-0}}</ref><ref name="Johns">{{cite journal |last1=Johns |first1=D. A. |last2=Irwin |first2=G. J. |last3=Sung |first3=Y. K. |date=29 September 2014 |title=An early sophisticated East Polynesian voyaging canoe discovered on New Zealand's coast |journal=PNAS |volume=111 |issue=41 |pages=14728–14733 |bibcode=2014PNAS..11114728J |doi=10.1073/pnas.1408491111 |pmc=4205625 |pmid=25267657 |doi-access=free}}</ref>]]

Genetic studies identify the coconut's center of origin as the Central Indo-Pacific, where it has its greatest genetic diversity.<ref name="Perera">{{cite book |last1=Vollmann |first1=Johann |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y_heb_lB3qoC&pg=PA370 |title=Oil Crops |last2=Rajcan |first2=Istvan |date=18 September 2009 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-0-387-77594-4 |pages=370–372}}</ref><ref name="agro"/><ref name="Baudouin2008">{{cite journal |last1=Baudouin |first1=Luc |last2=Lebrun |first2=Patricia |date=26 July 2008 |title=Coconut (''Cocos nucifera'' L.) DNA studies support the hypothesis of an ancient Austronesian migration from Southeast Asia to America |journal=Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution |volume=56 |issue=2 |pages=257–262 |doi=10.1007/s10722-008-9362-6 |s2cid=19529408}}</ref><ref name="Gunn2011">{{cite journal |last1=Gunn |first1=Bee F. |last2=Baudouin |first2=Luc |last3=Olsen |first3=Kenneth M. |last4=Ingvarsson |first4=Pär K. |date=22 June 2011 |title=Independent Origins of Cultivated Coconut (''Cocos nucifera'' L.) in the Old World Tropics |journal=PLOS One |volume=6 |issue=6 |article-number=e21143 |bibcode=2011PLoSO...621143G |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0021143 |pmc=3120816 |pmid=21731660 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Its cultivation and spread was closely tied to migrations of the Austronesian peoples who carried coconuts to the islands they settled.<ref name="Baudouin2008"/><ref name="Gunn2011"/><ref name="Crowther2016">{{cite journal |last1=Crowther |first1=Alison |last2=Lucas |first2=Leilani |last3=Helm |first3=Richard |last4=Horton |first4=Mark |last5=Shipton |first5=Ceri |last6=Wright |first6=Henry T. |last7=Walshaw |first7=Sarah |last8=Pawlowicz |first8=Matthew |last9=Radimilahy |first9=Chantal |last10=Douka |first10=Katerina |last11=Picornell-Gelabert |first11=Llorenç |last12=Fuller |first12=Dorian Q. |last13=Boivin |first13=Nicole L. |display-authors=5 |date=14 June 2016 |title=Ancient crops provide first archaeological signature of the westward Austronesian expansion |journal=PNAS |volume=113 |issue=24 |pages=6635–6640 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1522714113 |pmc=4914162 |pmid=27247383 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2016PNAS..113.6635C }}</ref><ref name="Brouwers2011">{{cite web |last1=Brouwers |first1=Lucas |date=1 August 2011 |title=Coconuts: not indigenous, but quite at home nevertheless |url=https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/thoughtomics/httpblogsscientificamericancomthoughtomics20110801coconuts-not-indigenous-but-quite-at-home-nevertheless/ |access-date=10 January 2019 |website=Scientific American}}</ref> Linguistic, archaeological, and genetic evidence all points to domestication of Pacific coconuts by Austronesians in Southeast Asia during the Austronesian expansion (c. 3000 to 1500 BCE).<ref name="Lew"/><ref name="Gunn2011"/><ref name="Baudouin2008"/><ref name="scid"/> Drift models based on wind and ocean currents show that coconuts could not have drifted across the Pacific unaided,<ref name=Ward/> implying that dispersal was human-assisted.<ref name="coco">{{cite journal |last1=Gunn |first1=Bee |last2=Baudouin |first2=Luc |last3=Olsen |first3=Kenneth M. |title=Independent Origins of Cultivated Coconut (''Cocos nucifera'' L.) in the Old World Tropics |journal=PLOS One |year=2011 |volume=6 |issue=6 |article-number=e21143 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0021143 |pmid=21731660 |pmc=3120816 |bibcode=2011PLoSO...621143G |doi-access=free}}</ref>

{{multiple image |direction = vertical |width = 300 |image2 = Historical Introduction of Coconuts (Gunn, Baudouin,& Olsen, 2011).png |caption2 = Inferred historical introduction of coconuts from the original centers of diversity in the Indian subcontinent and Island Southeast Asia<ref name="Gunn2011"/><ref name="Lutz">{{cite web |last1=Lutz |first1=Diana |date=24 June 2011|title=Deep history of coconuts decoded |url=https://source.wustl.edu/2011/06/deep-history-of-coconuts-decoded/ |website=The Source |access-date=10 January 2019}}</ref><ref name="Brouwers2011"/> |image1 = Geographical distributions of Indo-Atlantic and Pacific coconut subpopulations.png |caption1 = Geographical distributions of Indo-Atlantic and Pacific coconut subpopulations and their genetic composition<ref name="Gunn2011"/> }}

Coconuts are divided into two subpopulations, a Pacific group from Island Southeast Asia and an Indo-Atlantic group from the south of the Indian subcontinent. The Pacific group is clearly domesticated, with dwarf habit, self-pollination, and ''niu vai'' fruits with large endosperm-to-husk ratios. The distribution of Pacific coconuts corresponds to regions settled by Austronesian voyagers, especially Madagascar. The island's coconuts show genetic admixture between the two subpopulations, indicating that Pacific coconuts interbred with Indo-Atlantic coconuts there.<ref name="Gunn2011"/><ref name="Crowther2016"/> Although archaeological remains from 1000 to 500 BCE suggest that Indo-Atlantic coconuts were later independently cultivated by Dravidian peoples, only Pacific coconuts show clear domestication traits like dwarf habits, self-pollination, and rounded fruits. Indo-Atlantic coconuts, in contrast, have the ancestral traits of tall habits and elongated triangular fruits.<ref name="Lew"/><ref name="Gunn2011"/><ref name="Baudouin2008"/><ref name="scid">{{cite news |title=Deep history of coconuts decoded: Origins of cultivation, ancient trade routes, and colonization of the Americas |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/06/110624142037.htm |access-date=22 April 2021 |work=ScienceDaily |publisher=Washington University in St. Louis |date=24 June 2011}}</ref>

Genetic studies have confirmed pre-Columbian populations of coconuts in Panama. However, it is not native and displays a genetic bottleneck resulting from a founder effect. Coconuts in the Americas are most closely related to those in the Philippines, indicating that the coconuts were not introduced naturally, such as by sea currents, but by early Austronesian sailors to the Americas from at least 4250 BCE.<ref name="Baudouin2008"/><ref name="Brouwers2011"/><ref name=Ward>{{cite journal |last1=Ward |first1=R. G. |last2=Brookfield |first2=M. |year=1992 |title=Special Paper: the dispersal of the coconut: did it float or was it carried to Panama? |journal=Journal of Biogeography |volume=19 |issue=5 |pages=467–480 |doi=10.2307/2845766 |jstor=2845766 |bibcode=1992JBiog..19..467W }}</ref> During the colonial era, Pacific coconuts were introduced to Mexico from the Spanish East Indies via the Manila galleons, starting in the 16th century. In contrast, Indo-Atlantic coconuts were spread by Arab and Persian traders into the East African coast. Indo-Atlantic coconuts were introduced into the Atlantic Ocean by Portuguese ships from colonies in India and Sri Lanka, again starting in the 16th century: first to coastal West Africa, and then to the Caribbean and Brazil.<ref name="Gunn2011"/>

=== Domestication ===

Coconuts can be broadly divided into two fruit types – the ancestral ''niu kafa'' form with a thick-husked, angular fruit, and the ''niu vai'' form with a thin-husked, spherical fruit with a higher proportion of endosperm. The terms are Samoan.<ref name="Gunn2011"/><ref name=Lebrun/><ref name=Harries/>

The ''niu kafa'' form is the wild ancestral type, with thick husks to protect the seed, and an angular, highly ridged shape to promote buoyancy during ocean dispersal. It is the dominant form in the Indo-Atlantic coconuts.<ref name=Lebrun/><ref name="Gunn2011"/> However, they may have been selected to some extent for thicker husks for coir production, which was important in Austronesian material culture as a source for cordage in building houses and boats.<ref name="Lew"/>

<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=180 heights=180 caption="Two major fruit types"> File:Cocos nucifera (coconut) 5 (38507429165).jpg|The ''niu kafa'' form of wild and Indo-Atlantic coconuts, possibly selected for more coir for houses and boats File:Cocos nucifera (coconut) 2 (39384972311).jpg|The ''niu vai'' form of domesticated Pacific coconuts, selected for more meat and water, and less husk </gallery>

The ''niu vai'' form is the domesticated form dominant in Pacific coconuts. They were artificially selected by Austronesians for their larger endosperm-to-husk ratio and higher coconut water content, making them more useful as food and water reserves for sea voyages. The decreased buoyancy and increased fragility of this spherical, thin-husked fruit did not matter for a species that had started to be dispersed by humans and grown in plantations.<ref name=Lebrun>{{cite journal |last1=Lebrun |first1=P. |last2=Seguin |first2=M. |last3=Grivet |first3=L. |last4=Baudouin |first4=L. |year=1998 |title=Genetic diversity in coconut (''Cocos nucifera'' L.) revealed by restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) markers |doi=10.1023/a:1018323721803 |journal=Euphytica |volume=101 |pages=103–108 |s2cid=19445166}}</ref><ref name=Shukla>{{cite journal |last1=Shukla |first1=A. |last2=Mehrotra |first2=R. C. |last3=Guleria |first3=J. S. |year=2012 |title=Cocos sahnii Kaul: A ''Cocos nucifera'' L.-like fruit from the Early Eocene rainforest of Rajasthan, western India |journal=Journal of Biosciences |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=769–776 |doi=10.1007/s12038-012-9233-3 |pmid=22922201 |s2cid=14229182 }}</ref> ''Niu vai'' endocarp fragments have been recovered in archaeological sites in the St. Matthias Islands of the Bismarck Archipelago. The fragments are dated to approximately 1000 BCE, suggesting that cultivation and artificial selection of coconuts were already practiced by the Austronesian Lapita people.<ref name="Lew"/>

Coconuts can be broadly divided into two general types based on habit: the "Tall" (var. ''typica'') and "Dwarf" (var. ''nana'') varieties.<ref name=Santos>{{cite web |url=http://www.bioversityinternational.org/fileadmin/bioversity/publications/Web_version/108/ch02.htm#Chapter+1+BOTANY+OF+THE+COCONUT+PALM |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131212200527/http://www.bioversityinternational.org/fileadmin/bioversity/publications/Web_version/108/ch02.htm |title=Chapter 1: Botany of the Coconut Palm |archive-date=12 December 2013|website=bioversityinternational.org}}</ref> The two groups are genetically distinct, with the dwarf variety showing a greater degree of artificial selection for ornamental traits and for early germination and fruiting.<ref name=Harries>{{cite journal |last1=Harries |first1=H. C. |year=1978 |title=The evolution, dissemination and classification of ''Cocos nucifera'' L. |journal=The Botanical Review |volume=44 |issue=3 |pages=265–319 |doi=10.1007/bf02957852|bibcode =1978BotRv..44..265H |s2cid=26636137 }}</ref><ref name=Huang>{{cite journal |last1=Huang |first1=Y.-Y. |last2=Matzke |first2=A. J. M. |last3=Matzke |first3=M. |year=2013 |title =Complete sequence and comparative analysis of the chloroplast genome of coconut palm (''Cocos nucifera'') |journal=PLOS One |volume=8 |issue=8 |article-number=e74736 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0074736 |pmid=24023703 |pmc=3758300 |bibcode =2013PLoSO...874736H |doi-access=free }}</ref> The tall variety is outcrossing while dwarf palms are self-pollinating, which has led to a much greater degree of genetic diversity within the tall group.<ref name="Rivera">{{cite journal |last1=Rivera |first1=R. |last2=Edwards |first2=K. J. |last3=Barker |first3=J. H. |last4=Arnold |first4=G. M. |last5=Ayad |first5=G. |last6=Hodgkin |first6=T. |last7=Karp |first7=A. |title=Isolation and characterization of polymorphic microsatellites in ''Cocos nucifera'' L |journal =Genome |volume =42 |issue =4 |pages =668–675 |year=1999 |pmid =10464790 |doi=10.1139/g98-170}}</ref>

The dwarf coconut cultivars are fully domesticated, unlike the more diverse tall cultivars.<ref name="Bourdeix"/><ref name="Rivera"/> Dwarf coconuts share three genetic markers out of thirteen (rare in tall cultivars), making it likely that they originate from a single domesticated population. Philippine and Malayan dwarf coconuts diverged early into two distinct types. They usually remain genetically isolated when introduced to new regions. Numerous other dwarf cultivars developed after such introductions, hybridizing with tall cultivars. The origin of dwarf varieties is Southeast Asia, which contain the tall cultivars genetically closest to dwarf coconuts.<ref name="Gunn2011"/><ref name="lebrun2013"/><ref name="Bourdeix">{{cite book |last1=Bourdeix |first1=R. |last2=Prades |first2=A. |title=A Global Strategy for the conservation and use of Coconut Genetic Resources 2018–2028 |date=2017 |publisher=Bioversity International |isbn=978-92-9043-984-4 |url=https://www.bioversityinternational.org/e-library/publications/detail/a-global-strategy-for-the-conservation-and-use-of-coconut-genetic-resources-2018-2028/}}</ref><ref name=Rivera/>

Genome sequencing of tall and dwarf varieties reveals that they diverged 2 to 8 million years ago and that the dwarf variety arose through alterations in genes for the metabolism of the plant hormone gibberellin.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Shouchuang |last2=Xiao |first2=Yong |last3=Zhou |first3=Zhi-Wei |last4=Yuan |first4=Jiaqing |last5=Guo |first5=Hao |last6=Yang |first6=Zhuang |last7=Yang |first7=Jun |last8=Sun |first8=Pengchuan |last9=Sun |first9=Lisong |last10=Deng |first10=Yuan |last11=Xie |first11=Wen-Zhao |last12=Song |first12=Jia-Ming |last13=Qamar |first13=Muhammad Tahir ul |last14=Xia |first14=Wei |last15=Liu |first15=Rui |display-authors=5 |date=4 November 2021 |title=High-quality reference genome sequences of two coconut cultivars provide insights into evolution of monocot chromosomes and differentiation of fiber content and plant height |journal=Genome Biology |volume=22 |issue=1 |page=304 |doi=10.1186/s13059-021-02522-9 |pmc=8567702 |pmid=34736486 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Another ancestral variety is the '''''niu leka''''' of Polynesia (the "Compact Dwarfs"). Although it resembles dwarf coconuts (including slow growth), it is genetically distinct and was independently domesticated, likely in Tonga. Other cultivars of ''niu leka'' may exist in other islands of the Pacific, and some are probably descendants of advanced crosses between Compact Dwarfs and Southeast Asian Dwarf types.<ref name="lebrun2013"/><ref name="Bourdeix"/>

== Distribution and habitat ==

Coconuts have a nearly cosmopolitan distribution due to human cultivation and dispersal. However, their original distribution was in the Central Indo-Pacific, in the regions of Maritime Southeast Asia and Melanesia.<ref name="Perera"/>

The coconut palm thrives on sandy soils and is highly tolerant of salinity. It prefers areas with abundant sunlight and regular rainfall of between 1500 mm and 2500 mm per year. It prefers humidity above 60%. If rainfall is less than this, it can survive if its roots can reach the soil water table, but it cannot tolerate waterlogging. It grows from sea level to an altitude of {{Convert|600|m}} in the tropics. It can tolerate a dry season of one month on sandy soils inland, and as much as three months on heavier soils, but the soil must be free-draining. It grows on soils with a pH of 4.5 to 8 (the latter on coral atolls), but prefers a range of 5.5 to 7. Growth is seriously limited by shade. It can resist hurricane-strength winds provided it has developed a good root system.<ref name="sppia">{{cite book |last1=Chan |first1=Edward |first2=Craig R. |last2=Elevitch |date=April 2006 |url=http://www.agroforestry.net/tti/Cocos-coconut.pdf |chapter=Cocos nucifera (coconut): Environmental Preferences and Tolerances |pages=9–10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020005217/http://agroforestry.net/tti/Cocos-coconut.pdf |archive-date=20 October 2013 |url-status=live |editor=C. R. Elevitch |title=Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry |location=Hōlualoa, Hawaii |publisher=Permanent Agriculture Resources}}</ref>

Wild coconuts are restricted to coastal areas in sandy, saline soils. The fruit is adapted for ocean dispersal. Coconuts could not reach inland locations without human intervention to carry seednuts and plant seedlings.<ref name=HCH_2>{{cite journal |last1=Harries |first1=H. C. |year=2012 |title=Germination rate is the significant characteristic determining coconut palm diversity |journal=Annals of Botany |volume =2012 |article-number=pls045 |doi=10.1093/aobpla/pls045 |pmid=23275832 |pmc=3532018 }}</ref>

== Cultivation ==

[[File:Efate East - Very old coconut plantations - panoramio.jpg|thumb|A coconut plantation in Efate, Vanuatu]]

Coconut palms are normally cultivated in hot and wet tropical climates. They need year-round warmth and moisture to grow well and fruit. Coconut palms are hard to establish in dry climates, and cannot grow there without frequent irrigation. In drought conditions, the new leaves do not open well, older leaves may become desiccated, and fruit may be shed.<ref name="sppia"/>

The extent of cultivation in the tropics is threatening a number of habitats, such as mangroves; an example of such damage to an ecoregion is in the Petenes mangroves of the Yucatán.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eoearth.org/article/Petenes_mangroves?topic=49597 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011011735/http://www.eoearth.org/article/Petenes_mangroves?topic=49597 |archive-date=11 October 2012 |title=Petenes mangroves: types and severity of threats |last1=McGinley |first1=Mark |last2=Hogan |first2=C. Michael |series=The Encyclopedia of Earth |publisher=World Wide Fund for Nature |date=19 April 2011 |access-date=17 December 2016 }}</ref> Uniquely among trees, coconut trees can be irrigated with sea water.<ref>{{cite book |last=Carr |first=M. K. V. |title=Advances in irrigation agronomy: plantation crops |date=5 April 2012 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=101}}</ref>

=== Pests and diseases ===

[[File:Coconutlethalyellowing.jpg|thumb|upright|A coconut palm dying of lethal yellowing, a phytoplasma disease]]

Coconuts are susceptible to the phytoplasma disease, lethal yellowing. Yellowing diseases affect plantations in Africa, India, Mexico, the Caribbean and the Pacific Region.<ref name="Bourdeix 2016">{{cite web |last=Bourdeix |first=Ronald |url=https://asiatimes.com/article/future-coconut-threatened-lethal-yellowing-disease/ |title=Clarion call for King Coconut |date=9 December 2016 |website=Asia Times |access-date=14 December 2016}}</ref>

The coconut palm is damaged by the larvae of many Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species which feed on it, including the African armyworm (''Spodoptera exempta'') and ''Batrachedra'' spp.: ''B. arenosella'', ''B. atriloqua'' (feeds exclusively on ''C. nucifera''), ''B. mathesoni'' (feeds exclusively on ''C. nucifera''), and ''B. nuciferae''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yarro |first1=J. G. |last2=Otindo |first2=B. L. |last3=Gatehouse |first3=A. G. |last4=Lubega |first4=M. C. |date=December 1981 |title=Dwarf variety of coconut, ''Cocos nucifera'' (Palmae), a hostplant for the African armyworm, Spodoptera exempta (Wlk.) (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae)|journal=International Journal of Tropical Insect Science |volume=1 |issue=4 |pages=361–362 |doi=10.1017/S1742758400000667 |bibcode=1981IJTIS...1..361Y |s2cid=88007323}}</ref>

The coconut leaf beetle ''Brontispa longissima'' feeds on young leaves, and damages both seedlings and mature coconut palms. In 2007, the Philippines imposed a quarantine in Metro Manila and 26 provinces to stop the spread of the pest and protect the Philippine coconut industry managed by some 3.5 million farmers.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/62343/news/regions/report-26-provinces-quarantined-for-coconut-pest |title=Report: 26 provinces quarantined for coconut pest |publisher=GMA News Online |date=28 September 2007 |access-date=17 December 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220190900/http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/62343/news/regions/report-26-provinces-quarantined-for-coconut-pest |archive-date=20 December 2016 }}</ref>

The fruit may be damaged by eriophyid coconut mites (''Aceria guerreronis''). This mite infests coconut plantations, and can cause economic damage up to 60% of coconut production.<ref name="CABI">{{cite journal |title=''Aceria guerreronis'' (coconut mite) |url=https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/2596 |access-date=22 November 2025 |journal=Invasive Species Compendium |year=2020 |volume=CABI Compendium |page=2596 |publisher=CABI |doi=10.1079/cabicompendium.2596 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The immature seeds are infested and damaged by larvae.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=McDonald |first=Sharon Angella |title=Infestation patterns of the coconut mite, ''Eriophyes guerreronis'' (Keifer) (Acari: Eriophyidae), on coconuts and resulting yield loss in eastern Jamaica |date=9 July 1997 |access-date=22 November 2025 |degree=Master of Science |publisher=Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University |url=http://hdl.handle.net/10919/36916 |hdl=10919/36916}}</ref> Chemical control is possible, but since it needs to be repeated frequently it is impracticable on grounds of cost, environmental harm, and pesticide residues in coconut meat and coconut water.<ref name=Lindquist>{{cite book|author1=Lindquist, E.E.|author2=Bruin, J.|author3=Sabelis, M.W.|title=Eriophyoid Mites: Their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MVmTn4ghwo0C&pg=PA561 |year=1996 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-053123-6 |pages=561–569}}</ref>

=== Cultivars ===

[[File:Young coconut of Srilanka.jpg|thumb|upright=0.6|King coconut, a shorter cultivar of Sri Lanka]]

Coconut has many commercial and traditional cultivars. They can be sorted mainly into tall, dwarf, and hybrid cultivars (hybrids between talls and dwarfs).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Parthasarathy |first1=V. I. |last2=Geethalakshmi |first2=P.U. |last3=Niral |first3=V. I. |title=Analysis of coconut cultivars and hybrids using isozyme polymorphism |journal=Acta Botanica Croatica |date=15 April 2004 |volume=63 |issue=1 |pages=69–74 |url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/file/5620}}</ref> Varieties are often regional, such as Ceylon Tall, Jamaica Tall, Java Tall, and Malayan Tall.<ref name="Elzabroek"/>

Dwarf varieties of Pacific coconuts have been cultivated by Austronesian peoples since ancient times. These varieties were selected for slower growth, sweeter coconut water, and often brightly colored fruits.<ref name="lebrun2013">{{cite book |last1=Lebrun |first1=P. |last2=Grivet |first2=L. |last3=Baudouin |first3=L. |title=Current Advances in Coconut Biotechnology |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|year=2013 |isbn=978-94-015-9283-3 |editor1-last=Oropeza |editor1-first=C. |pages=83–85 |chapter=Use of RFLP markers to study the diversity of the coconut palm |editor2-last=Verdeil |editor2-first=J.K. |editor3-last=Ashburner |editor3-first=G. R. |editor4-last=Cardeña |editor4-first=R. |editor5-last=Santamaria |editor5-first=J. M.}}</ref> Dwarf varieties include Dwarf Green and Dwarf Orange.<ref name="Elzabroek"/>

Varieties have been selected for diverse traits: for example, King coconut is a Sri Lankan variety with a relatively low sugar content, while Macapuno has soft jelly-like flesh that fills the whole central cavity; it is used to make sweet desserts.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sukendah |last2=Volkaert |first2=Hugo |last3=Sudarsono |year=2009 |title=Isolation and Analysis of DNA Fragment of Genes Related to Kopyor Trait in Coconut Plant |url=https://jurnal.ugm.ac.id/ijbiotech/article/view/7814/6055 |journal=Indonesian Journal of Biotechnology |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=1169–1178}}</ref><ref name="Florida Gardener">{{cite web |title=Coconut Varieties |url=http://www.floridagardener.com/palms/coconutpalm.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151020105211/http://www.floridagardener.com/palms/coconutpalm.htm |archive-date=20 October 2015 |access-date=19 May 2016 |publisher=floridagardener.com }}</ref>

Maypan is an F1 hybrid bred in Jamaica in the 1970s to resist lethal yellowing.<ref>[http://www.avxl82.dsl.pipex.com/CICLY/main.html Centre for Information on Coconut Lethal Yellowing (CICLY)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090605224039/http://www.avxl82.dsl.pipex.com/CICLY/main.html |date=5 June 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Harries |first1=H.C. |last2=Romney |first2=D.H. |year=1974 |title=Maypan: an F1 hybrid coconut variety for commercial production in Jamaica |journal=World Crops |volume=26 |pages=110–111}}</ref> However, Maypan resistance soon began to fail, possibly as early as the 1980s, and certainly by the 2000s.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Broschat |first1=T. K. |last2=Harrison |first2=N. A. |last3=Donselman |first3=H. |title=Losses to Lethal Yellowing Cast Doubt on Coconut Cultivar Resistance |journal=Palms |year=2002 |volume=46 |issue=4 |pages=185–189 |url=https://palms.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/vol46n4p185-189.pdf}}</ref><ref name="Lebrun Baudouin 2007">{{cite journal |last1=Lebrun |first1=P. |last2=Baudouin |first2=L. |last3=Myrie |first3=W. |last4=Berger |first4=A. |last5=Dollet |first5=M. |title=Recent lethal yellowing outbreak: why is the Malayan Yellow Dwarf Coconut no longer resistant in Jamaica? |journal=Tree Genetics & Genomes |volume=4 |issue=1 |date=14 November 2007 |issn=1614-2942 |doi=10.1007/s11295-007-0093-1 |pages=125–131 |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11295-007-0093-1 |access-date=23 November 2025|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Some other coconut varieties have natural resistance to lethal yellowing with alleles at microsatellites, with ''Vanuatu tall'' and ''Sri-Lanka green dwarf'' as the most resistant cultivars, while ''West African tall'' is especially susceptible.<ref name="Microsatellite">{{cite book |year=2017 |publisher=Springer |first2=S. |first1=M. |last2=Jain |number=17 |last1=Ahuja |title=Biodiversity and Conservation of Woody Plants |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-66426-2 |series=Sustainable Development and Biodiversity |volume=17 |isbn=978-3-319-66425-5 |s2cid=518220 |page=23}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |publisher=Springer |year=2020 |first5=Julianne |first4=Quang |first3=Roland |first2=Mike |first1=Steve |last5=Biddle |last4=Nguyen |last3=Bourdeix |last2=Foale |last1=Adkins |editor-first1=Steve |editor-first2=Mike |editor-first3=Roland |editor-first4=Quang |editor-first5=Julianne |editor-last1=Adkins |editor-last2=Foale |editor-last3=Bourdeix |editor-last4=Nguyen |editor-last5=Biddle |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-44988-9 |title=Coconut Biotechnology: Towards the Sustainability of the 'Tree of Life' |isbn=978-3-030-44987-2 |s2cid=220051653 |pages=128, 132}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |issue=4 |year=2010 |volume=6 |first6=A. |first5=S. |first4=P. |first3=J.|first2=K. |first1=K. |last6=Sangare |last5=Dery |last4=Lebrun |last3=Konan |last2=Koffi |last1=Konan |title=Microsatellite gene diversity in coconut (''Cocos nucifera'' L.) accessions resistants to lethal yellowing disease |journal=African Journal of Biotechnology |url=https://www.ajol.info/index.php/ajb/article/view/56209}}</ref>

=== Breeding ===

Conventional plant breeding is of limited use with coconut because there is no wild coconut species to supply additional genetic diversity; the generation time is long; there is much heterozygosity; artificial pollination to conduct crosses produces only a few seeds; and vegetative reproduction (cloning) is unreliable. Coconut breeding objectives can include copra content, production of female flowers, oil content, aroma of coconut meat and water, softness and sweetness of endosperm, drought tolerance, resistance to root wilt, and resistance to eriophorid mites.<ref name="Nair 2016">{{cite book |last1=Nair |first1=Raman V. |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305552308 |title=Advances in plant breeding strategies: agronomic, abiotic and biotic stress traits |last2=Jerard |first2=B. A. |last3=Thomas |first3=Regi J. |publisher=Springer International |year=2016 |pages=257–279 |chapter=Coconut breeding in India}}</ref>

Hybrids provide higher precocity and productivity with the number of fruits than other breeds, but they produce fruits with low market acceptance for the water quality of the fruit. Intravarietal crosses in Dwarf coconut (dwarf coconuts bred together) have been tested to provide better water quality for the coconut water market than the hybrids.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Santos |first1=Pedro Henrique Araújo Diniz |last2=Venâncio |first2=Thiago Motta |last3=dos Santos |first3=Pedro Henrique Dias |last4=Ramos |first4=Helaine Christine Cancela |last5=Arêdes |first5=Fernanda Abreu Santana |last6=Azevedo |first6=Alinne Oliveira Nunes |last7=Boechat |first7=Marcela Santana Bastos |last8=de Souza Filho |first8=Gonçalo Apolinário |last9=Ramos |first9=Semiramis Rabelo Ramalho |last10=Mirisola |first10=Luiz Angelo |last11=Aragão |first11=Wilson Menezes |last12=Pereira |first12=Messias Gonzaga |display-authors=5 |year=2020 |title=Genotyping-by-sequencing technology reveals directions for coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) breeding strategies for water production |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10681-020-02582-1 |journal=Euphytica |volume=216 |issue=3 |pages=1–9 |article-number=45 |doi=10.1007/s10681-020-02582-1 |bibcode=2020Euphy.216...45S |access-date=22 November 2025|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== Harvesting ===

{{multiple image | align = left | direction = horizontal | width1 = 100 | width2 = 120 | width3 = 83 | image1 = Coconut notches.jpg | image2 = CoconutHarvestCazones.JPG | image3 = Coconut harvest.jpg | header = Harvesting techniques | footer = Left: climbing using notches cut into the trunk, Philippines Center: using ropes and pulleys, Mexico Right: using a loop of cloth around the ankles, Maldives }}

The two most common harvesting methods are by climbing<ref name="tp2"/> and by using poles.<ref name="cpg"/>

Climbing is the more widespread, but it is more dangerous and requires skilled workers.<ref name="tp2">{{cite web |title=Harvesting and Post-harvest Management |website=Coconut Handbook |date=28 December 2016 |url=https://coconuthandbook.tetrapak.com/chapter/harvesting-and-post-harvest-management |publisher=Tetra Pak |access-date=18 April 2021}}</ref> Manually climbing trees is traditional in most countries and requires a posture that exerts pressure on the trunk with the feet. Climbers employed on coconut plantations often develop musculoskeletal disorders and risk injury or death from falling.<ref name="Piggott">{{cite book |last1=Piggott |first1=C.J. |title=Coconut Growing |date=1964 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=61}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Tropical Tree and Palm Crops |url=https://www.iloencyclopaedia.org/part-x-96841/agriculture-and-natural-resources-based-industries/tree-bramble-and-vine-crops/item/548-tropical-tree-and-palm-crops |website=Encyclopedia of Occupational Health & Safety |publisher=International Labour Organization |access-date=24 April 2021}}</ref><ref name="George">{{cite journal |last1=George |first1=Bincy M. |last2=Rao |first2=Muddanna S. |last3=Kumar |first3=Arunachalam |last4=Suvarna |first4=Niveditha |last5=D'Souza |first5=Jessica Sushima |title=Health of coconut tree climbers of rural southern India – medical emergencies, body mass index and occupational marks: A quantitative and survey study |journal=Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research |year=2012 |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=57–60 |url=https://www.jcdr.net/articles/pdf/1829/13%20-%203430.(A).pdf}}</ref> For safety, coconut climbers in the Philippines and Guam use a bolo knife tied with a rope to the waist to cut grooves at regular intervals on the coconut trunks. This makes the trunk of the tree more like a ladder, though it reduces the value of timber recovered from the trees and can admit infection.<ref name="fao-timber">{{cite book |title=Coconut wood: Processing and Use |date=1985 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |isbn=92-5-102253-4 |page=27 |url=http://www.fao.org/3/an792e/an792e00.pdf}}</ref><ref name="tp2"/><ref name="Safford">{{cite journal |last=Safford |first=William Edwin |title=The Useful Plants of the Island of Guam |journal=Bulletin of the United States National Museum |date=8 April 1905 |volume=9 |page=243}}</ref> Other methods to make climbing easier include using a system of pulleys and ropes; using pieces of vine, rope, or cloth tied to both hands or feet; using spikes attached to the feet or legs; or attaching coconut husks to the trunk with ropes.<ref name="COGENT"/>

[[File:“Lambanog”- Philippines Coconut Wine.jpg|thumb|Worker in the Philippines using a bamboo bridge network to collect sweet coconut sap from cut flower stalks to make palm liquor ]]

The pole method uses a long pole with a cutting device at the end. In the Philippines, the traditional tool is called the ''halabas'' and is made from a long bamboo pole with a sickle-like blade at its tip. Though safer and faster than climbing, it does not allow workers to examine and clean the crown of coconuts for pests and diseases.<ref name="cpg">{{cite web |title=Coconut Production Guide |url=https://businessdiary.com.ph/3062/coconut-production-guide/#Harvest_Management |website=Business Diary PH |date=30 March 2020 |access-date=18 April 2021}}</ref>

Modern methods use hydraulic elevators mounted on tractors or ladders.<ref name="Loyola"/> Mechanical coconut climbing devices and robots have been developed in India, Sri Lanka, and Malaysia.<ref name="tp">{{cite book |author=Tetra Pak |title=Coconut Handbook |date=2016 |publisher=Tetra Pak International S.A. |isbn=978-91-7773-948-7 |chapter=The Chemistry of Coconut Milk and Cream |chapter-url=https://coconuthandbook.tetrapak.com/chapter/chemistry-coconut-milk-and-cream}}</ref><ref name="Kumar">{{cite news |last1=Kumar |first1=V. Sajeev |title=New mechanical coconut climbing device developed |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/economy/agri-business/New-mechanical-coconut-climbing-device-developed/article20111199.ece |access-date=18 April 2021 |work=Business Line |date=20 March 2011}}</ref><ref name="Subramanian">{{cite journal |last1=Subramanian |first1=Parvathi |last2=Sankar |first2=Tamil Selvi |title=Development of a novel coconut-tree-climbing machine for harvesting |journal=Mechanics Based Design of Structures and Machines |date=7 April 2021 |volume=51 |issue=5 |pages=2757–2775 |doi=10.1080/15397734.2021.1907756|s2cid=233530078 }}</ref><ref name="COGENT">{{cite web |title=Climbing the coconut palm |url=http://cogentnetwork.org/oldsite/climbing-the-coconut-palm |website=COGENT |access-date=24 April 2021 |archive-date=16 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211216083837/http://cogentnetwork.org/oldsite/climbing-the-coconut-palm }}</ref> The Coconut Maturity Detection Project uses imaging and machine learning to identify mature coconut bunches ready for harvesting.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Geethalaxmi |last2=Anjali |last3=Ashritha |last4=Sharma |first4=Rajan |last5=Bhat |first5=Shilpa Ganapati |date=15 June 2024 |title=Real Time Sustainable Cultivation of Coconut Tree Crops using ML |url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aci&AN=181715044&site=eds-live&scope=site |journal=Grenze International Journal of Engineering & Technology (GIJET) |volume=10 |issue=2,Part 4 |pages=4666–4670 |access-date=22 November 2025}}</ref>

[[File:Tanjong Jara (4280556051) (2).jpg|thumb|A southern pig-tailed macaque trained to harvest coconuts, Malaysia]]

A system of bamboo bridges and ladders directly connecting the tree canopies is used in the Philippines for coconut plantations that harvest coconut sap (not fruits) for coconut vinegar and palm wine production.<ref name="Bello">{{cite journal |last1=Bello |first1=Rolando T. |last2=Pantoja |first2=Blanquita R. |last3=Tan |first3=Maria Francesca O. |last4=Banalo |first4=Roxanne A. |last5=Alvarez |first5=Jaonne V. |last6=Rañeses |first6=Florita P. |title=A study on skills for trade and economic diversification (STED) in the non-traditional coconut export sectors of the Philippines |journal=Employment Working Paper |year=2020 |publisher=International Labor Organization |location=Geneva |page=18 |url=https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_emp/documents/publication/wcms_742455.pdf}}</ref><ref name="Loyola"/> In other areas, as in Papua New Guinea, coconuts are simply collected when they fall to the ground.<ref name="tp2"/>

Some coconut farmers in Thailand and Malaysia use southern pig-tailed macaques to harvest coconuts.<ref name="Bertrand"/> Thailand has been raising and training them to pick coconuts for around 400 years.<ref name="npr">{{cite web |last=Barclay |first=Eliza |date=19 October 2015 |title=What's Funny About the Business of Monkeys Picking Coconuts? |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2015/10/19/448960760/monkeys-pick-coconuts-in-thailand-are-they-abused-or-working-animals |publisher=NPR}}</ref><ref name="vm">{{cite news |title=The truth behind the "widespread" practice of monkeys harvesting coconuts in Thailand impacting on consumers & retailers |url=https://vegworldmag.com/the-truth-behind-the-widespread-practice-of-monkeys-harvesting-coconuts-in-thailand-impacting-on-consumers-retailers/ |access-date=18 April 2021 |work=Vegworld Magazine |date=31 July 2020}}</ref><ref name="Pratruangkrai">{{cite news |last1=Pratruangkrai |first1=Petchanet |title=Focus: Thai coconut farmers reject monkey abuse charges, suffer lost income |url=https://english.kyodonews.net/news/2020/07/438857ee536a-focus-thai-coconut-farmers-reject-monkey-abuse-charges-suffer-lost-income.html |access-date=18 April 2021 |agency=Kyodo News |date=16 July 2020}}</ref> Training schools for pig-tailed macaques still exist in southern Thailand and in the Malaysian state of Kelantan.<ref name="Bertrand">{{cite journal |last=Bertrand |first=Mireille |date=27 January 1967 |title=Training without Reward: Traditional Training of Pig-Tailed Macaques as Coconut Harvesters |journal=Science |volume=155 |issue=3761 |pages=484–486 |doi=10.1126/science.155.3761.484 |pmid=4959310 |bibcode=1967Sci...155..484B}}</ref> People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) objected to the Thailand practice in 2019.<ref name="Loyola">{{cite news |last=Loyola |first=James A. |title=Philippine coconut industry: No monkey business here |url=https://mb.com.ph/2020/07/23/philippine-coconut-industry-no-monkey-business-here/ |access-date=18 April 2021 |work=Manila Bulletin |date=23 July 2020}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable floatright" style="width:12em; text-align:center;" |+ Coconuts (in shell) {{small|2024, millions of tonnes}} |- |{{IDN}} ||18.0 |- |{{IND}} ||14.7 |- |{{PHL}} ||14.5 |- |{{BRA}} ||3.2 |- |{{LKA}} ||1.8 |- ! World !! 65.5 |- |colspan=2|{{small|Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations}}<ref name="faostat">{{cite web |url=https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL |title=Coconut production in 2024, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity/Year (pick lists) |publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database |year=2026 |access-date=6 April 2026}}</ref> |}

=== Production ===

In 2024, world production of coconuts in shells was 65.5 million tonnes, led by Indonesia, India, and the Philippines, together having 72% of the total (table).

In India, four southern states account for most of India's total production: Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala, and Andhra Pradesh.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.coconutboard.gov.in/stat.htm |title=Coconut Cultivation |author1=Coconut Development Board, Government of India |date=n.d. |access-date=8 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151210194230/http://www.coconutboard.gov.in/stat.htm |archive-date=10 December 2015 }}</ref> Though Kerala has the largest number of coconut trees, Tamil Nadu is the most productive per hectare.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.coconutboard.nic.in/cps-tn.htm |title=Coconut Cultivation |author=Coconut Development Board, Government of India |date=n.d. |access-date=8 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208153858/http://www.coconutboard.nic.in/cps-tn.htm |archive-date=8 December 2015 }}</ref> The coconut is the official state tree of Kerala, whose name in the local language Malayalam means "coconut land".<ref>{{cite web |title=Kerala at a glance |url=https://forest.kerala.gov.in/en/kerala-at-a-glance/ |publisher=Kerala Forest Department |access-date=21 November 2025}}</ref>

The main coconut-producing area in the Middle East is the Dhofar region of Oman.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Perera |first1=Lalith |last2=Baudouin |first2=Luc |last3=Bourdeix |first3=Roland |last4=Fadhil |first4=Anwar Bait |last5=Hountondji |first5=Fabien C. C. |last6=Al-Shanfri |first6=Abdulaziz |title=Coconut Palms on the Edge of the Desert: Genetic Diversity of Cocos nucifera L. in Oman |journal=Cord |year=2011 |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=9–19 |url=https://agritrop.cirad.fr/560027/1/120-Article%20Text-198-1-10-20200313.pdf}}</ref> The ancient coconut groves of Dhofar were mentioned by the medieval Moroccan traveller Ibn Battuta in his book ''The Rihla''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/1354-ibnbattuta.html |title=Medieval Sourcebook: Ibn Battuta: Travels in Asia and Africa 1325–1354 |editor-last=Halsall |editor-first=Paul |publisher=Fordham University Center for Medieval Studies |date=21 February 2001 |access-date=14 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513172555/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/1354-ibnbattuta.html |archive-date=13 May 2011 }}</ref>

Sri Lanka established its Coconut Development Authority and Coconut Cultivation Board and Coconut Research Institute in the early British Ceylon period.<ref name="sri">{{cite web |title=Coconut Industry in Sri Lanka |website=Sri Lanka Business|publisher=Sri Lanka Export Development Board |url=https://www.srilankabusiness.com/coconut/about/#:~:text=Coconut%20accounts%20for%20approximately%2012,3600%20million%20nuts%20per%20year. |access-date=3 January 2021 }}</ref>

== Health concerns ==

=== Cardiovascular disease ===

{{further|Coconut oil#Health concerns|Saturated fat#Cardiovascular disease}}

As a rich source of lauric acid and other saturated fats, coconut oil is a dietary risk factor for cardiovascular diseases by elevating blood levels of LDL cholesterol.<ref name="aha">{{cite journal |last1=Neelakantan |first1=N|last2=Seah|first2=JY|last3=van Dam|first3=RM |title=The Effect of Coconut Oil Consumption on Cardiovascular Risk Factors: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Clinical Trials |journal=Circulation |volume=141 |issue=10 |pages=803–814 |date=March 2020 |pmid=31928080 |doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.119.043052 |url=https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.119.043052|quote=Coconut oil should not be viewed as healthy oil for cardiovascular disease risk reduction, and limiting coconut oil consumption because of its high saturated fat content is warranted.|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="spiazzi">{{cite journal |last1=Spiazzi |first1=B.F. |last2=Duarte |first2=A.C. |last3=Zingano |first3=C.P. |display-authors=etal |title=Coconut oil: an overview of cardiometabolic effects and the public health burden of misinformation |journal=Archives of Endocrinology and Metabolism |volume=67 |issue=6 |article-number=e000641 |date=June 2023 |pmid=37364144 |pmc=10660992 |doi=10.20945/2359-3997000000641|quote=The use of coconut oil as a "healthy" component of the western diet is based on the major spread of misconceptions regarding it. The combination of the established knowledge on the negative effects of saturated fats on cardiovascular health and the lack of evidence from clinical trials showing a benefit from coconut oil intake in cardiovascular and metabolic disease advise against the consumption of this oil as a preferential source of dietary fat.}}</ref> Many national clinical associations recommend limiting consumption of coconut oil products, replacing them instead with foods containing unsaturated fats.<ref name=aha/><ref name=spiazzi/><ref name="aus">{{cite web |title=Sorting fact from fiction – seed oils and coconut oil |url=https://www.heartfoundation.org.au/blog/seed-oils-coconut-oil |publisher=National Heart Foundation of Australia |access-date=23 November 2025 |date=23 May 2025}}</ref>

== Uses ==

The coconut palm is grown throughout the tropics for decoration, as well as for its culinary and nonculinary uses; virtually every part of the coconut palm is used by humans in some manner and has significant economic value. The coconut's versatility is noted in some of its names: in Sanskrit, it is ''kalpa vriksha'' ("the tree of the necessities of life"), while in Malay, it is ''pokok seribu guna'' ("the tree of a thousand uses"), and in the Philippines, it is called the "tree of life".<ref>{{cite web |last=Margolis |first=Jason |date=13 December 2006 |url=http://www.theworld.org/?q=node/7280 |title=Coconut fuel |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110831035256/http://www.theworld.org/?q=node%2F7280 |archive-date=31 August 2011 |website=PRI's The World |access-date=10 April 2011}}</ref> It is one of the most useful trees in the world.<ref name="duke"/>

=== Nutrition ===

{{Nutritional value |name=Coconut meat, raw |image=Coconuts - single and cracked open.jpg |water=47 g |kJ=1480 |protein=3.33 g |fat=33.49 g |satfat=29.698 g |monofat=1.425 g |polyfat=0.366 g |carbs=15.23 g |sugars=6.23 g |fiber=9.0 g |calcium_mg=14 |copper_mg=0.435 |iron_mg=2.43 |magnesium_mg=32 |phosphorus_mg=113 |potassium_mg=356 |sodium_mg=20 |zinc_mg=1.10 |manganese_mg=1.500 |selenium_ug=10.1 |vitC_mg=3.3 |thiamin_mg=0.066 |riboflavin_mg=0.020 |niacin_mg=0.540 |pantothenic_mg=0.300 |vitB6_mg=0.054 |folate_ug=26 |vitE_mg=0.24 |vitK_ug=0.2  |tryptophan=0.039 g |threonine=0.121 g |isoleucine=0.131 g |leucine=0.247 g |lysine=0.147 g |methionine=0.062 g |cystine=0.066 g |phenylalanine=0.169 g |tyrosine=0.103 g |valine=0.202 g |arginine=0.546 g |histidine=0.077 g |alanine=0.170 g |aspartic acid=0.325 g |glutamic acid=0.761 g |glycine=0.158 g |proline=0.138 g |serine=0.172 g |note=[https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/food-details/170169/nutrients Link to USDA FoodData Central entry] }} Raw coconut meat is 47% water, 33% fat, 15% carbohydrates, and 3% protein (table). In a reference amount of {{convert|100|g}}, raw coconut flesh supplies 350 calories of food energy, and is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of manganese (65% DV) and copper (48% DV), with various other dietary minerals in moderate amounts (10–18% DV; table). It is a poor source of vitamins. Raw coconut meat has a high content of saturated fatty acids (30% of total fats), with lauric acid as the main saturated fat (15% of total; USDA source in table).

=== Culinary ===

The many culinary uses of coconuts are largely based on the edible white, fleshy part of the seed (the endosperm), known as "coconut meat".<ref name="Roehl 1996 p. 115"/> The meat of immature coconuts can be eaten as it is or cooked in pastries. Mature coconut meat is tough and is processed before consumption, being made into products like coconut milk,<ref name="Roehl 1996 p. 115"/><ref name="polistico2">{{cite book |author=Edgie Polistico |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-h9MswEACAAJ |title=Philippine Food, Cooking, & Dining Dictionary |publisher=Anvil Publishing |year=2017 |isbn=978-971-27-3170-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Coconut: Pacific food leaflet No. 4 |date=2006 |publisher=Secretariat of the Pacific Community |isbn=978-982-00-0164-0 |url=https://cms.ctahr.hawaii.edu/Portals/159/Images/Resources/IslandStapleFoods/4%20COCONUT%20web.pdf}}</ref><ref name="El Bassam">{{cite book |last1=El Bassam |first1=N. |title=Handbook of Bioenergy Crops: A Complete Reference to Species, Development, and Applications |date=2010 |publisher=Earthscan |isbn=978-1-84977-478-9 |page=159}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Chu |first1=Wai Hon |last2=Lovatt |first2=Connie |title=The Dumpling: A Seasonal Guide |date=2009 |publisher=HarperCollins |isbn=978-0-06-195940-0 |page=8}}</ref> "coconut chips"<ref name="El Bassam"/> or grated and dehydrated as "desiccated coconut".<ref>{{cite web |title=ICC Quality Standard: Desiccated Coconut |url=https://coconutcommunity.org/viewpdf/apcc_quality_standards_for_coconut_products/4 |website=International Coconut Community |publisher=United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UN-ESCAP) |access-date=7 June 2021 |archive-date=16 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211216085337/https://coconutcommunity.org/viewpdf/apcc_quality_standards_for_coconut_products/4 }}</ref><ref name="Ghosh">{{cite book |last1=Ghosh |first1=D.K. |title=Value Addition of Horticultural Crops: Recent Trends and Future Directions |date=2015 |publisher=Springer |chapter=Postharvest, Product Diversification and Value Addition in Coconut |editor1-first=Amit Baran |editor1-last=Sharangi |editor2-first=Suchand |editor2-last=Datta |isbn=978-81-322-2262-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Exporting desiccated coconuts to Europe |url=https://www.cbi.eu/market-information/processed-fruit-vegetables-edible-nuts/desiccated-coconuts/europe |website=CBI |publisher=Centrum tot Bevordering van de Import uit ontwikkelingslanden (CBI), Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs |access-date=7 June 2021}}</ref>

Coconut milk, used for cooking many dishes, is pressed from coconut meat. It can be diluted to create coconut milk beverages such as milk substitutes.<ref name="NIIR">{{cite book |author=NIIR Board of Consultants and Engineers |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UvXKAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA274 |title=The Complete Book on Coconut & Coconut Products (Cultivation and Processing) |date=2006 |publisher=Asia Pacific Business Press |isbn=978-81-7833-007-5 |page=274}}</ref><ref name="tp"/> Coconut milk powder, a protein-rich powder, can be processed from coconut milk.<ref>{{cite journal |journal=Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology |year=2012 |volume=167 |issue=5 |pages=1290–302 |doi=10.1007/s12010-012-9632-9 |title=Production of coconut protein powder from coconut wet processing waste and its characterization |last1=Naik |first1=A. |last2=Raghavendra |first2=S. N. |last3=Raghavarao |first3=K. S. |pmid=22434355 |s2cid=11890199}}</ref> Coconut milk and coconut cream extracted from grated coconut can be added to desserts and savory dishes, or used in curries and stews.<ref name="grimwood">Grimwood, pp. 183–187.</ref><ref name="pca-process">{{cite book |author=Philippine Coconut Authority |title=Coconut Processing Technologies: Coconut Milk |publisher =Department of Agriculture, Republic of the Philippines |series=FPDD Guide No. 2 – Series of 2014 |year=2014 |url=http://www.pca.da.gov.ph/pdf/techno/coconut_milk.pdf |access-date=24 May 2019 |archive-date=6 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201106130020/http://www.pca.da.gov.ph/pdf/techno/coconut_milk.pdf}}</ref> Products made from thickened coconut milk with sugar and eggs, like coconut jam and coconut custard, are widespread in Southeast Asia.<ref name="Duruz">{{cite book |last1=Duruz |first1=Jean |last2=Khoo |first2=Gaik Cheng |title=Eating Together: Food, Space, and Identity in Malaysia and Singapore |date=2014 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-4422-2741-5 |page=45 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JojpBQAAQBAJ&q=kaya%20coconut&pg=PA45}}</ref><ref name="Alford">{{cite book |last1=Alford |first1=Jeffrey |last2=Duguid |first2=Naomi |title=Hot Sour Salty Sweet: A Culinary Journey Through Southeast Asia |date=2000 |publisher=Artisan Books |isbn=978-1-57965-564-8 |page=302 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cUP30wR8-kUC&pg=PA302}}</ref><ref name="thampan 1981 p199">{{cite book |last1=Thampan |first1=Palakasseril Kumaran |title=Handbook on Coconut Palm |date=1981 |publisher=Oxford & IBH |page=199}}</ref> Coconut oil is used for frying and cooking.<ref name="grimwood"/><ref name="kurian">{{cite book |last1=Kurian |first1=Alice |last2=Peter |first2=K.V. |title=Commercial Crops Technology |date=2007 |publisher=New India Publishing |isbn=978-81-89422-52-3 |pages=202–203 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2VFYqwA-Mn4C&pg=PA202}}</ref>

Coconut water can be drunk fresh or used in cooking.<ref name=endosperm>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cjHCoMQNkcgC&q=coconut+endosperm+encyclopedia&pg=PA112 |title=Cocos in The Encyclopedia of Fruit and Nuts |access-date=11 May 2015 |year=2008 |last1=Janick |first1=J. |last2=Paull |first2=R. E. |pages=109–113 |isbn=978-0-85199-638-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Ginataang Manok (Chicken Stewed in Coconut Milk) Filipino Recipe! |url=http://www.savvynana.com/recipe/ginataang-manok-chicken-stewed-coconut-milk-filipino-recipe/ |website=Savvy Nana's |access-date=20 April 2019 |archive-date=16 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211216100142/http://www.savvynana.com/recipe/ginataang-manok-chicken-stewed-coconut-milk-filipino-recipe/ |url-status=usurped }}</ref> It can be fermented to produce a jelly-like dessert known as ''nata de coco''.<ref name="tietze">{{cite book |last1=Tietze |first1=Harald |last2=Echano |first2=Arthur |title=Coconut: Rediscovered as Medicinal Food |date=2006 |publisher=Harald Tietze Publishing |isbn=978-1-876173-57-9 |page=37 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0NAA8_fDI9wC&pg=PA37}}</ref> Coconut vinegar, made from fermented coconut water or sap, is used extensively in Southeast Asian and Goan cuisine.<ref name="polistico2"/>

Coconut sap, fresh or fermented, is drunk as toddy or ''tubâ'' in the Philippines. When left to ferment on its own, it becomes palm wine. Palm wine is distilled to produce ''arrack''.<ref name="lambanog">{{cite web |url=http://www1.american.edu/ted/lambanog.htm |title=Lambanog: A Philippine Drink |author=Porter, Jolene V. |year=2005 |publisher=American University |location=Washington, D.C. |access-date=10 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110222210517/http://www1.american.edu/ted/lambanog.htm |archive-date=22 February 2011}}</ref> The sap can be reduced by boiling to create a sweet syrup, or reduced further to yield coconut sugar. A young, well-maintained tree can produce around {{convert |300 |L |USgal |abbr=off}} of toddy per year, while a 40-year-old tree may yield around {{convert |400 |L |USgal |abbr=on}}.<ref>Grimwood, p. 20.</ref>

=== Oil ===

{| class="wikitable floatright" style="width:13em; text-align:center;" |+ Coconut oil {{small|2023, tonnes}} |- |{{PHL}} ||1,212,900 |- |{{IDN}} ||646,000 |- |{{IND}} ||549,000 |- |{{VIE}} ||182,000 |- |{{MEX}} ||131,000 |- ! World !! 3,122,675 |- |colspan=2|{{small|Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations}}<ref name="faostat OIL">{{cite web |url=https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL |title=Coconut oil production in 2023, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity/Year (pick lists) |publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database |year=2026 |access-date=6 April 2026}}</ref> |}

In 2023, world production of processed coconut oil was 3.1 million tonnes, led by the Philippines with 38% of the total, and Indonesia and India as secondary producers (table).

Coconut oil is used in cooking, especially for frying. It can be used in liquid form like other vegetable oils, or in solid form like butter or lard.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1161/CIR.0000000000000510 |pmid=28620111 |title=Dietary Fats and Cardiovascular Disease: A Presidential Advisory from the American Heart Association |journal=Circulation |volume=136 |issue=3 |pages=e1–e23 |year=2017 |last1=Sacks |first1=Frank M. |last2=Lichtenstein |first2=Alice H. |last3=Wu |first3=Jason H.Y. |last4=Appel |first4=Lawrence J. |last5=Creager |first5=Mark A. |last6=Kris-Etherton |first6=Penny M. |last7=Miller |first7=Michael |last8=Rimm |first8=Eric B. |last9=Rudel |first9=Lawrence L. |last10=Robinson |first10=Jennifer G. |last11=Stone |first11=Neil J. |last12=Van Horn |first12=Linda V. |display-authors=5 |s2cid=367602 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Neela">{{cite journal |last1=Neelakantan |first1=Nithya |last2=Seah |first2=Jowy Yi Hoong |last3=van Dam |first3=Rob M. |title=The effect of coconut oil consumption on cardiovascular risk factors (Systematic review) |journal=Circulation |volume=141 |issue=10 |year=2020 |doi=10.1161/circulationaha.119.043052 |pages=803–814 |pmid=31928080 |s2cid=210195904 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Eyres2016">{{cite journal |last1=Eyres |first1=L |last2=Eyres |first2=MF |last3=Chisholm |first3=A |last4=Brown |first4=RC |title=Coconut oil consumption and cardiovascular risk factors in humans |journal=Nutrition Reviews |date=April 2016 |volume=74 |issue=4 |pages=267–280 |doi=10.1093/nutrit/nuw002 |pmid=26946252 |pmc=4892314}}</ref> Coconut butter is a solidified coconut oil, but the name is also applied to creamed coconut, a specialty product made of coconut milk solids or puréed coconut meat and oil.<ref name="Roehl 1996 p. 115">{{cite book |last=Roehl |first=E. |title=Whole Food Facts: The Complete Reference Guide |publisher=Inner Traditions/Bear |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-89281-635-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H8lwmA52ltIC&pg=PA115 |page=115 }}</ref>

=== Non-food uses ===

Among the many non-food uses of coconut palms, the husk and shells can be used for fuel or made into charcoal.<ref>{{cite web |title=Coconut Shell Lump Charcoal |url=http://www.supremecarbon.com/coco.htm |publisher=Supreme Carbon Indonesia |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121229141916/http://www.supremecarbon.com/coco.htm |archive-date=29 December 2012}}</ref> The husks can serve as flotation devices or as an abrasive.<ref name="Skyhorse Publishing">{{cite book |title=The Complete Guide to Edible Wild Plants |publisher=Skyhorse Publishing; United States Department of the Army |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-60239-692-0 |location=New York |page=44 |oclc=277203364}}</ref> The shell, freed from the husk, and heated on warm ashes, exudes an oily material that is used to soothe dental pains in traditional medicine of Cambodia.<ref name="dyphon">{{cite book |last1=Pauline Dy Phon |author1-link=Pauline Dy Phon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=InD2RAAACAAJ |title=Plants Utilised In Cambodia |date=2000 |publisher=Imprimerie Olympic |location=Phnon Penh |pages=165–166}}</ref> Coir fiber from husks is used in ropes, mats, brushes, and sacks, as caulking for boats, and as stuffing for mattresses.<ref>Grimwood, p. 22.</ref> It is used in horticulture in potting compost, especially in orchid mix, and to make brooms in Cambodia.<ref name="dyphon" /> Coconut cups were frequently carved with scenes in relief and mounted with precious metals.<ref>{{cite web |title=Hans van Amsterdam: Coconut Cup with Cover (17.190.622ab) – Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History – The Metropolitan Museum of Art |url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/17.190.622ab |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131015101625/http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/17.190.622ab |archive-date=15 October 2013 |work=metmuseum.org}}</ref> The leaves provide material for baskets and for roofing thatch; they can be woven into mats, cooking skewers, and kindling arrows. Leaves are woven into small pouches that are filled with rice and cooked to make ''pusô'' and ''ketupat''.<ref>Grimwood, p. 19.</ref>

Hawaiians hollowed out coconut trunks to form drums, containers, or small canoes. The "branches" (leaf petioles) are strong and flexible enough to make a switch. The use of coconut branches in corporal punishment was revived in the Gilbertese community on Choiseul in the Solomon Islands in 2005.<ref>Herming, George. (6 March 2006). [http://www.corpun.com/sbj00603.htm Wagina whips offenders] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061027160604/http://www.corpun.com/sbj00603.htm |date=27 October 2006 }}. ''Solomon Star''.</ref> The roots are used to make dye, a mouthwash, and a folk medicine for diarrhea and dysentery.<ref name="Grimwood18">Grimwood, p. 18.</ref> A frayed piece of root can be used as a toothbrush. In Cambodia, the roots are used in traditional medicine.<ref name="dyphon" /> Leftover fiber from coconut oil and coconut milk production, coconut meal, is used as livestock feed. The dried calyx is used as fuel in wood-fired stoves. Coconut water is traditionally used as a growth supplement in plant tissue culture and micropropagation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yong |first1=J. W. |last2=Ge |first2=L. |last3=Ng |first3=Y. F. |last4=Tan |first4=S. N. |year=2009 |title=The chemical composition and biological properties of coconut (''Cocos nucifera'' L.) water |journal=Molecules |volume=14 |issue=12 |pages=5144–5164 |doi=10.3390/molecules14125144 |pmid=20032881 |pmc=6255029 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

== In culture == [[File:A worship at the shrine of the Holy Infant Jesus of Prague, Davao City, Philippines.jpg|thumb|''Palaspas'', woven palm fronds during Palm Sunday celebrations in the Philippines|alt=Group of people with palm fronds]] [[File:Muñeco de coco.jpg|thumb|upright|A "coconut monkey" from Mexico, a common souvenir carved from coconut shells|alt=Coconut carved to look like a monkey]]

[[File:Offerings on the sand, Kuta Beach, Bali.JPG|thumb|upright|A ''canang'', an offering of flowers, rice, and incense in woven coconut leaves from Bali, Indonesia]]

A coconut ({{langx|sa|narikela}}) is used in Hindu rituals.<ref>{{cite web |title=Coconut – Fruit Of Lustre In Indian Culture|url=http://www.esamskriti.com/essay-chapters/Coconut-~-Fruit-of-Lustre-in-Indian-Culture-1.aspx |date=September 2011 |last1=Patil |first1=Vimla|website=eSamskriti |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160514010555/http://www.esamskriti.com/essay-chapters/Coconut-~-Fruit-of-Lustre-in-Indian-Culture-1.aspx |archive-date=14 May 2016 |access-date=18 May 2016}}</ref> Often it is decorated with bright metal foils. It is offered during worship to a Hindu god or goddess. Narali Poornima is celebrated on a full moon day which usually signifies the end of monsoon season in India. The word ''Narali'' is derived from Marathi {{Lang|mar-Latn|naral}}, "coconut". Fishermen give an offering of coconut to the sea to celebrate the beginning of a new fishing season,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.maharashtratourism.net/festivals/narali-poornima.html |title=Narali Purnima |publisher=Maharashtra Tourism |year=2016 |access-date=3 August 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160715223636/http://www.maharashtratourism.net/festivals/narali-poornima.html |archive-date=15 July 2016 }}</ref> in the hope of bountiful catches. Hindus often initiate any new activity by breaking a coconut to ensure the blessings of the gods. The Hindu goddess of well-being and wealth, Lakshmi, is often shown holding a coconut.<ref>Dallapiccola, Anna. ''Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend''. {{ISBN|0-500-51088-1}}.</ref> They are used in Hindu weddings as a symbol of prosperity.<ref>{{cite web |date=9 November 2009 |title=Food Rituals in Hindu Weddings |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/food-rituals-in-hindu-weddings-72454431/ |last=Bramen |first=Lisa |website=Smithsonian Magazine |access-date=25 May 2020}}</ref> The flowers are used sometimes in wedding ceremonies in Cambodia.<ref name="dyphon"/> The coconut has cultural and religious significance for Austronesian peoples, appearing in their mythologies, songs, and oral traditions.<ref name="Nayar">{{cite book |last=Nayar |first=N. Madhavan |title=The Coconut: Phylogeny, Origins, and Spread |date=2017 |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0-12-809778-6 |pages=10–21}}</ref><ref name="Lew">{{cite journal |last=Lew |first=Christopher |title=Tracing the origin of the coconut (''Cocos nucifera'' L.) |url=https://prizedwriting.ucdavis.edu/sites/prizedwriting.ucdavis.edu/files/sitewide/Tracing%20the%20origin%20of%20the%20coconut%20%28Cocos%20nucifera%20L.%29.pdf |journal=Prized Writing 2018–2019 |publisher=University of California, Davis |pages=143–157 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210623220429/https://prizedwriting.ucdavis.edu/sites/prizedwriting.ucdavis.edu/files/sitewide/Tracing%20the%20origin%20of%20the%20coconut%20%28Cocos%20nucifera%20L.%29.pdf |archive-date=23 June 2021 |access-date=22 April 2021}}</ref>

The Zulu Social Aid & Pleasure Club of New Orleans traditionally throws hand-decorated coconuts, one of the most valuable Mardi Gras souvenirs, to parade revelers. The tradition began in the 1910s, and has continued since. In 1987, a "coconut law" was signed by Governor Edwin Edwards exempting from insurance liability any decorated coconut "handed" from a Zulu float.<ref>{{cite news |first=Mike |last=Scott |title=How the Zulu coconut was saved from extinction |date=22 February 2017 |url=https://www.nola.com/300/article_c189dcdb-1ec5-5629-84bb-2a2aaec89457.html |newspaper=The Times-Picayune |access-date=25 May 2020}}</ref>

The coconut is used as a target and prize in the traditional British fairground game coconut shy. The player buys some small balls which are thrown at coconuts balanced on sticks. The aim is to knock a coconut off the stand and win it.<ref name="harries">{{cite journal |last=Harries |first=Hugh C. |year=2004 |title=Fun Made The Fair Coconut Shy|url=http://www.palms.org/palmsjournal/2004/vol48n2p77-82.pdf |journal=Palms |publisher=International Palm Society |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=77–82 |access-date=8 May 2012 |archive-date=23 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120723105002/http://www.palms.org/palmsjournal/2004/vol48n2p77-82.pdf}}</ref>

It was the main food of adherents of the now discontinued Vietnamese Coconut Religion, ''Đạo Dừa''.<ref name="Coconut 1">{{cite web |title=Coconut religion |url=http://vinhthong.info/FAQ/faq_luomlat_CoconutReligion_ConPhung.html |publisher=Vinhthong |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022095309/http://vinhthong.info/FAQ/faq_luomlat_CoconutReligion_ConPhung.html |archive-date=22 October 2013 |access-date=25 May 2013}}</ref>

=== Myths and legends ===

Some South Asian, Southeast Asian, and Pacific Ocean cultures have origin myths in which the coconut plays the main role. In the Hainuwele myth from Maluku, a girl emerges from the blossom of a coconut tree.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195156690.001.0001/acref-9780195156690-e-657 |title=Hainuwele – Oxford Reference |isbn=978-0-19-515669-0 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928002738/http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195156690.001.0001/acref-9780195156690-e-657 |archive-date=28 September 2013 |last=Leeming |first=David |date=17 November 2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press }}</ref> In Maldivian folklore, one of the main myths of origin reflects the dependence of the Maldivians on the coconut tree.<ref name="NIAS Press">Romero-Frias, Xavier (2012) ''Folk tales of the Maldives'', [http://www.niaspress.dk/catalogue2011/Catalogue_2012.pdf NIAS Press] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130528131620/http://www.niaspress.dk/catalogue2011/Catalogue_2012.pdf |date=28 May 2013 }}, {{ISBN|978-87-7694-104-8|978-8776941055}}</ref> In the story of Sina and the Eel, the origin of the coconut is related as the beautiful woman Sina burying an eel, which eventually became the first coconut.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.livingheritage.org.nz/schools/secondary/marcellin/samoa/eel.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121029035259/http://www.livingheritage.org.nz/schools/secondary/marcellin/samoa/eel.php |title=Living Heritage – Marcellin College – Sina and the Eel |archive-date=29 October 2012 |website=livingheritage.org.nz}}</ref>

According to urban legend, more deaths are caused by falling coconuts than by sharks annually, though the truth is actually the reverse.<ref name="flmnh">{{cite web |title=International Shark Attack File |url=http://www.shark.org.au/quotes.html |publisher=Shark Research Institute |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729014133/http://shark.org.au/quotes.html |archive-date=29 July 2013 |access-date=9 January 2014}}</ref>

=== Early history ===

Literary evidence from the ''Ramayana'' and Sri Lankan chronicles indicates that the coconut was present in the Indian subcontinent before the 1st century BCE.<ref name="BlenchSpriggs1998">{{cite book |last1=Blench |first1=Roger |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DWMHhfXxLaIC&q=coconut&pg=PA396 |title=Archaeology and Language: Correlating archaeological and linguistic hypotheses |author2=Matthew Spriggs |publisher=Routledge |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-415-11761-6 |page=396}}</ref> The earliest direct description is given by Cosmas Indicopleustes in his ''Topographia Christiana'' written around 545, where the coconut is called "the great nut of India".<ref name="Rosengarten">Rosengarten, Frederic Jr. (2004). ''The Book of Edible Nuts''. Dover Publications. pp. [https://books.google.com/books?id=7CK8LFCcvtcC&pg=PA65 65–93]. {{ISBN|978-0-486-43499-5}}.</ref> Another early mention is the "One Thousand and One Nights" story of Sinbad the Sailor, who bought and sold a coconut during his fifth voyage.<ref>{{cite web |date=2 November 2009 |title=The Fifth Voyage of Sindbad the Seaman – The Arabian Nights – The Thousand and One Nights – Sir Richard Burton translator |url=http://classiclit.about.com/library/bl-etexts/arabian/bl-arabian-5sindbad.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111225203730/http://classiclit.about.com/library/bl-etexts/arabian/bl-arabian-5sindbad.htm |archive-date=25 December 2011 |access-date=14 February 2012 |publisher=Classiclit.about.com }}</ref>

In March 1521, Antonio Pigafetta described the coconut in his journal in Italian with the word "''cocho''", plural "''cochi''". This followed the first European crossing of the Pacific Ocean during the Magellan circumnavigation. He explained how at Guam "they eat coconuts" ("''mangiano cochi''") and that the natives there "anoint the body and the hair with coconut and beniseed oil" ("''ongieno el corpo et li capili co oleo de cocho et de giongioli''").<ref name="ap">{{cite book |last=Pigafetta |first=Antonio |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=283tAAAAMAAJ&q=cocho&pg=PA100 |title=Magellan's Voyage Around the World, Volume 1 (translated by James Alexander Robertson) |publisher=Arthur H. Clark Company |year=1906 |pages=64–100}}</ref>

== References ==

=== Sources ===

* {{cite book |ref=Grimwood |last1=Grimwood |first1=B. E. |last2=Ashman |first2=F. |year=1975 |title=Coconut Palm Products: Their Processing in Developing Countries |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fY5hLeJ-WW4C&pg=PA1 |isbn=978-92-5-100853-9}}

== External links ==

* {{cookbook-inline|Coconut}}

{{Coconut}} {{Culinary wrappings}} {{Nuts}} {{Non-timber forest products}} {{Arecaceae genera}} {{Taxonbar|from=Q13187}} {{Authority control}}

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