{{Short description|Steep hill of pyroclastic fragments around a volcanic vent}} {{For|peaks named "Cinder Cone"|List of peaks named Cinder Cone}} {{Use American English|date=March 2021}} thumb|upright=1.2|Schematic of the internal structure of a typical cinder cone
A '''cinder cone''' or '''scoria cone'''<ref>{{cite book |last1=Allaby|first1=Michael |title=A Dictionary of Geology and Earth Sciences |year=2013 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=9780199653065 |edition=4th |chapter=cinder cone}}</ref> is a steep, conical landform of loose pyroclastic fragments, such as volcanic ash, clinkers, or scoria that has been built around a volcanic vent.<ref name="Poldervaart1971a">{{cite book |last=Poldervaart|first=A. |year=1971 |chapter=Volcanicity and forms of extrusive bodies |editor1-first=J|editor1-last=Green |editor2-first=NM|editor2-last=Short |pages=1–18 |title=Volcanic Landforms and Surface Features: A Photographic Atlas and Glossary |publisher=Springer-Verlag |location=New York |isbn=978-3-642-65152-6}}</ref><ref name="usgs">{{USGS |date=2007-02-24 | url=https://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Products/Pglossary/CinderCone.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070429163808/http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Products/Pglossary/CinderCone.html |archive-date=2007-04-29 |url-status=dead|title=Photo glossary of volcano terms: Cinder cone}}</ref> The pyroclastic fragments are formed by explosive eruptions or tall Hawaiian-style lava fountains from a single, typically cylindrical, vent.
As the gas-charged lava is blown violently into the air, it breaks into small fragments that solidify and fall as either scoria which is also referred to cinder and clinker around the vent to form a cone that is often symmetrical, with slopes between 30° and 40° and a nearly circular base.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Clarke|first1=Hilary |last2=Troll|first2=Valentin R. |last3=Carracedo|first3=Juan Carlos |date=2009-03-10|title=Phreatomagmatic to Strombolian eruptive activity of basaltic cinder cones: Montaña Los Erales, Tenerife, Canary Islands |url=https://sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0377027308006070 |journal=Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research |series=Models and products of mafic explosive activity |language=en |volume=180 |issue=2 |pages=225–245 |doi=10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2008.11.014 |bibcode=2009JVGR..180..225C |issn=0377-0273|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Most cinder cones have a bowl-shaped crater at the summit.<ref name="Poldervaart1971a"/>
== Mechanics of eruption == thumb|upright=1.75|385px|Cross-section diagram of a cinder cone or scoria cone Cinder cones range in size from tens to hundreds of meters tall.<ref name="usgs" /> They are composed of loose pyroclastic material (cinder or scoria), which distinguishes them from ''spatter cones'', which are composed of agglomerated volcanic bombs.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fisher |first1=R.V. |last2=Schmincke |first2=H.-U. |title=Pyroclastic rocks |date=1984 |publisher=Springer-Verlag |location=Berlin |isbn=3540127569 |page=96}}</ref>
The pyroclastic material making up a cinder cone is usually basaltic to andesitic in composition.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Jackson |editor1-first=Julia A. |title=Glossary of geology. |date=1997 |publisher=American Geological Institute |location=Alexandria, Virginia |isbn=0922152349 |edition=Fourth |chapter=cinder cone}}</ref> It is often glassy and contains numerous gas bubbles "frozen" into place as magma exploded into the air and then cooled quickly. Lava fragments larger than 64 mm across, known as volcanic bombs, are also a common product of cinder cone eruptions.<ref name="usgs" />
The growth of a cinder cone may be divided into four stages. In the first stage, a low-rimmed scoria ring forms around the erupting event. During the second stage, the rim is built up and a talus slope begins to form outside the rim. The third stage is characterized by slumping and blasts that destroy the original rim, while the fourth stage is characterized by the buildup of talus beyond the zone where cinder falls to the surface (the ''ballistic zone'').{{sfn|Fisher|Schmincke|1984|p=150}}
During the waning stage of a cinder cone eruption, the magma has lost most of its gas content. This gas-depleted magma does not fountain but oozes quietly into the crater or beneath the base of the cone as lava.<ref name=usgs2>{{USGS|title=Red Mountain Volcano – A Spectacular and Unusual Cinder Cone in Northern Arizona|url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2002/fs024-02/|author1=Susan S. Priest |author2=Wendell A. Duffield |author3=Nancy R. Riggs |author4=Brian Poturalski |author5=Karen Malis-Clark |year=2002|id=USGS Fact Sheet 024-02|access-date=2012-05-18}}</ref> Lava rarely issues from the top (except as a fountain) because the loose, uncemented cinders are too weak to support the pressure exerted by molten rock as it rises toward the surface through the central vent.<ref name="usgs" /> Because it contains so few gas bubbles, the molten lava is denser than the bubble-rich cinders.<ref name=usgs2 /> Thus, it often burrows out along the bottom of the cinder cone, lifting the less dense cinders like corks on water, and advances outward, creating a lava flow around the cone's base.<ref name=usgs2 /> When the eruption ends, a symmetrical cone of cinders sits at the center of a surrounding pad of lava.<ref name=usgs2 /> If the crater is fully breached, the remaining walls form an amphitheater or horseshoe shape around the vent.
== Occurrence == [[File:CindersFromCone.JPG|thumb|upright=1.14| Cinders at a cinder cone in San Bernardino Valley, Arizona]] Basaltic cinder cones are the most characteristic type of volcano associated with intraplate volcanism.{{sfn|Fisher|Schmincke|1984 |p=14}} They are particularly common in association with alkaline magmatism, in which the erupted lava is enriched in sodium and potassium oxides.{{sfn|Fisher|Schmincke|1984|p=198}}
Cinder cones are also commonly found on the flanks of shield volcanoes, stratovolcanoes, and calderas.<ref name="usgs" /> For example, geologists have identified nearly 100 cinder cones on the flanks of Mauna Kea, a shield volcano located on the island of Hawaii.<ref name="usgs" /> Such cinder cones likely represent the final stages of activity of a mafic volcano.<ref name=MonroeWicander1992_98>{{cite book |last1=Monroe |first1=James S. |last2=Wicander |first2=Reed |title=Physical geology : exploring the Earth |date=1992 |publisher=West Pub. Co |location=St. Paul |isbn=0314921958 |page=98}}</ref> However, most volcanic cones formed in Hawaiian-type eruptions are spatter cones rather than cinder cones, due to the fluid nature of the lava.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Macdonald |first1=Gordon A. |last2=Abbott |first2=Agatin T. |last3=Peterson |first3=Frank L. |title=Volcanoes in the sea : the geology of Hawaii |date=1983 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |location=Honolulu |isbn=0824808320 |edition=2nd |pages=16–17}}</ref>
The most famous cinder cone, Paricutin, grew out of a corn field in Mexico in 1943 from a new vent.<ref name="usgs" /> Eruptions continued for nine years, built the cone to a height of {{convert|424|m|ft|sp=us}}, and produced lava flows that covered {{convert|25|km2|mi2|abbr=on}}.<ref name="usgs" />
The Earth's most historically active cinder cone is Cerro Negro in Nicaragua.<ref name="usgs" /> It is part of a group of four young cinder cones NW of Las Pilas volcano. Since its initial eruption in 1850, it has erupted more than 20 times, most recently in 1995 and 1999.<ref name="usgs" />
Satellite images suggest that cinder cones occur on other terrestrial bodies in the Solar System.<ref name="wood" /> On Mars, they have been reported on the flanks of Pavonis Mons in Tharsis,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bleacher|first1=J.E.|first2=R.|last2=Greeley|first3=D.A.|last3=Williams|first4=S.R.|last4=Cave|first5=G.|last5=Neukum|year=2007|title=Trends in effusive style at the Tharsis Montes, Mars, and implications for the development of the Tharsis province|journal=J. Geophys. Res.|volume=112|issue=E9|page=E09005|doi=10.1029/2006JE002873|bibcode=2007JGRE..112.9005B}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Keszthelyi|first1=L.|first2=W.|last2=Jaeger|first3=A.|last3=McEwen|first4=L.|last4=Tornabene|first5=R.A.|last5=Beyer|first6=C.|last6=Dundas|first7=M.|last7=Milazzo|year=2008|title=High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) images of volcanic terrains from the first 6 months of the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter primary science phase|journal=J. Geophys. Res.|volume=113|issue=E4|page=E04005|doi=10.1029/2007JE002968|bibcode=2008JGRE..113.4005K|citeseerx=10.1.1.455.1381}}</ref> in the region of Hydraotes Chaos<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Meresse|first1=S|last2=Costard|first2=F|last3=Mangold|first3=N.|last4=Masson|first4=Philippe|last5=Neukum|first5=Gerhard|title=Formation and evolution of the chaotic terrains by subsidence and magmatism: Hydraotes Chaos, Mars|journal=Icarus|volume=194|issue=2|page=487|year=2008|doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2007.10.023|bibcode=2008Icar..194..487M|author6=the HRSC Co-I Team}}</ref> on the bottom of the Coprates Chasma,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Brož|first1=Petr|last2=Hauber|first2=Ernst|last3=Wray|first3=James J.|last4=Michael|first4=Gregory|title=Amazonian volcanism inside Valles Marineris on Mars|journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters|year=2017|volume=473|pages=122–130|doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2017.06.003|url=https://zenodo.org/record/889306|bibcode=2017E&PSL.473..122B}}</ref> or in the volcanic field Ulysses Colles.<ref name="Ulysses">{{cite journal|last1=Brož|first1=P|first2=E|last2=Hauber|year=2012|title=A unique volcanic field in Tharsis, Mars: Pyroclastic cones as evidence for explosive eruptions|journal=Icarus|volume=218|issue=1|pages=88–99|doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2011.11.030|bibcode=2012Icar..218...88B}}</ref> It is also suggested that domical structures in Marius Hills (on the Moon) might represent lunar cinder cones.<ref name="mesic">{{cite journal|last1=Lawrence|first1=SJ|last2=Stopar|first2=Julie D.|year=2013|title=LRO observations of morphology and surface roughness of volcanic cones and lobate lava flows in the Marius Hills|journal=J. Geophys. Res. Planets|volume=118|issue=4|pages=615–34|doi=10.1002/jgre.20060|last3=Hawke|first3=B. Ray|last4=Greenhagen|first4=Benjamin T.|last5=Cahill|first5=Joshua T. S.|last6=Bandfield|first6=Joshua L.|last7=Jolliff|first7=Bradley L.|last8=Denevi|first8=Brett W.|last9=Robinson|first9=Mark S.|last10=Glotch|first10=Timothy D.|last11=Bussey|first11=D. Benjamin J.|last12=Spudis|first12=Paul D.|last13=Giguere|first13=Thomas A.|last14=Garry|first14=W. Brent|bibcode=2013JGRE..118..615L|doi-access=free}}</ref>
== Effect of environmental conditions == [[File:SP Crater.jpg|thumb|upright|SP Crater, an extinct cinder cone in Arizona]]
The size and shape of cinder cones depend on environmental properties as different gravity and/or atmospheric pressure might change the dispersion of ejected scoria particles.<ref name="wood">{{cite book|last=Wood|first=C.A.|year=1979|chapter=Cinder cones on Earth, Moon, and Mars|title=Lunar Planet. Sci.|journal=Lunar and Planetary Science Conference|volume=X|pages=1370–72 |bibcode=1979LPI....10.1370W }}</ref> For example, cinder cones on Mars seem to be more than two times wider than terrestrial analogues<ref name="Ulysses" /> as lower atmospheric pressure and gravity enable wider dispersion of ejected particles over a larger area.<ref name="wood" /><ref name="numerical_model">{{cite journal|last1=Brož|first1=Petr|last2=Čadek|first2=Ondřej|last3=Hauber|first3=Ernst|last4=Rossi|first4=Angelo Pio|title=Shape of scoria cones on Mars: Insights from numerical modeling of ballistic pathways|journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters|volume=406|pages=14–23|doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2014.09.002|year=2014|bibcode=2014E&PSL.406...14B|url=https://zenodo.org/record/889387}}</ref> Therefore, it seems that erupted amount of material is not sufficient on Mars for the flank slopes to attain the angle of repose and Martian cinder cones seem to be ruled mainly by ballistic distribution and not by material redistribution on flanks as typical on Earth.<ref name="numerical_model" />
Cinder cones often are highly symmetric, but strong prevailing winds at the time of eruption can cause a greater accumulation of cinder on the downwind side of the vent.<ref name=MonroeWicander1992_98/>
== Monogenetic cones == [[File:Sunset Crater 2.jpg|thumb|upright|Sunset Crater, a young monogenetic cinder cone in Arizona that began forming around the year 1075 CE]] Some cinder cones are monogenetic, forming from a single short eruptive episode that produces a very small volume of lava. The eruption typically last just weeks or months, but can occasionally last fifteen years or longer.<ref name=Schmincke2003>{{cite book |last1=Schmincke |first1=Hans-Ulrich |title=Volcanism |date=2003 |publisher=Springer |location=Berlin |isbn=978-3-540-43650-8 |pages=99–101, 340}}</ref> Parícutin in Mexico, Diamond Head, Koko Head, Punchbowl Crater, Mt Le Brun from the Coalstoun Lakes volcanic field, and some cinder cones on Mauna Kea are monogenetic cinder cones. However, not all cinder cones are monogenetic, with some ancient cinder cones{{Example needed|date=December 2024}} showing intervals of soil formation between flows that indicate that eruptions were separated by thousands to tens of thousands of years.<ref name=Schmincke2003/>
Monogenetic cones likely form when the rate of magma supply to a volcanic field is very low and the eruptions are spread out in space and time. This prevents any one eruption from establishing a system of "plumbing" that would provide an easy path to the surface for subsequent eruptions. Thus each eruption must find its independent path to the surface.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McGee |first1=Lucy E. |last2=Smith |first2=Ian E. M. |last3=Millet |first3=Marc-Alban |last4=Handley |first4=Heather K. |last5=Lindsay |first5=Jan M. |title=Asthenospheric Control of Melting Processes in a Monogenetic Basaltic System: a Case Study of the Auckland Volcanic Field, New Zealand |journal=Journal of Petrology |date=October 2013 |volume=54 |issue=10 |pages=2125–2153 |doi=10.1093/petrology/egt043|doi-access=free |hdl=10533/238075 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Monogenetic fields |url=https://volcano.oregonstate.edu/monogenetic-fields |website=Volcano World |date=15 April 2010 |publisher=Oregon State University |access-date=17 December 2021}}</ref>
== See also == * {{annotated link|List of cinder cones}} * {{annotated link|Volcanic cone}} * {{annotated link|Capulin Volcano National Monument}}
== References == {{clear right}} {{Reflist|33em}}
==External links== * {{commons and category inline}}
{{Volcanoes}}
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Category:Cinder cones * Category:Volcanic landforms