Chital

{{Short description|Species of deer}} {{Use British English|date=December 2019}} {{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}} {{Speciesbox | name = Chital | image = 066 Chital in Ranthambore National Park Photo by Giles Laurent.jpg | image_caption = Buck in Ranthambore National Park | image2 = Spotted deer (Axis axis) female.jpg | image2_caption = Doe in Kanha National Park in Madhya Pradesh | fossil_range = Middle Pleistocene-Present<ref name=Suraprasit2016/> | status = LC | status_system = IUCN3.1 | status_ref = <ref name=iucn>{{cite iucn |title=''Axis axis'' |name-list-style=amp |author=Duckworth, J.W. |author2=Kumar, N.S. |author3=Anwarul Islam, M. |author4=Sagar Baral, H. |author5=Timmins, R. |date=2015 |article-number=e.T41783A22158006 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-4.RLTS.T41783A22158006.en |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref> | taxon = Axis axis | authority = (Erxleben, 1777) | range_map = Chital range map.png | range_map_caption = Distribution of chital (2011)<ref name=iucn /> | synonyms_ref = <ref name="sri">{{cite book |title=South Asian Mammals: their Diversity, Distribution, and Status |last1=Srinivasulu |first1=C. |last2=Srinivasulu |first2=B. |publisher=Springer |location=New York |url={{Google Books |id=PEsIul417ewC |plainurl=yes |page=357}} |date=2012 |pages=357–358 |isbn=978-1-4614-3449-8}}</ref><ref name=MSW3 /> | synonyms = {{collapsible list |''Axis major'' {{small|Hodgson, 1842}} |''A. minor'' {{small|Hodgson, 1842}} |''Cervus axis ceylonensis''{{small| (J. B. Fischer, 1829)}} |''C. a. indicus'' {{small|(J. B. Fischer, 1829)}} |''C. a. maculatus'' {{small|(Kerr, 1792)}} |''C. a. zeylanicus'' {{small|(Lydekker, 1905)}} |''C. nudipalpebra'' {{small|(Ogilby, 1831)}} |''Rusa axis zeylanicus'' {{small|(Lydekker, 1905)}} }} }}

The '''chital''' ('''''Axis axis'''''; {{IPAc-en|tʃ|iː|t|əl}}), also called '''spotted deer''' and '''axis deer''', is a deer species native to the Indian subcontinent. It was first described by Johann Christian Polycarp Erxleben in 1777. A moderate-sized deer, male chital reach {{cvt|90|cm}} and females {{cvt|70|cm}} at the shoulder. While males weigh {{cvt|70|-|90|kg}}, females weigh around {{cvt|40|-|60|kg}}. It is sexually dimorphic; males are larger than females, and antlers are present only on males. The upper parts are golden to rufous, completely covered in white spots. The abdomen, rump, throat, insides of legs, ears, and tail are all white. The antlers, three-pronged, are nearly {{cvt|1|m}} long.

==Etymology== The vernacular name "chital" (pronounced {{IPAc-en|tʃ|iː|t|əl}})<ref>{{Dictionary.com|Chital|access-date=24 December 2019}}</ref> comes from ''cītal'' ({{langx|hi|चीतल}}), derived from the Sanskrit word ''{{IAST|citrala}}'' (चित्रल), meaning "variegated" or "spotted".<ref>{{cite book |last=Platts |first=J. T. |author-link=John Thompson Platts |year=1884 |chapter=चीतल ćītal |title=A Dictionary of Urdu, Classical Hindi, and English |location=London |publisher=W. H. Allen & Co |chapter-url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/platts_query.py?qs=%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B2&matchtype=default |page=470}}</ref> The name of the cheetah has a similar origin.<ref>{{MerriamWebsterDictionary|Cheetah|access-date=10 March 2016}}</ref> Variations of "chital" include "cheetal" and "cheetul".<ref>{{Cite Merriam-Webster|Chital |access-date=24 December 2019}}</ref> Other common names for the chital are Indian spotted deer (or simply the spotted deer) and axis deer.<ref name=iucn />

==Taxonomy and phylogeny== The chital was first described by Johann Christian Polycarp Erxleben in 1777 as ''Cervus axis''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Erxleben |first=J. C. P. |author-link=Johann Christian Polycarp Erxleben |date=1777 |chapter=''Axis'' |title=Systema Regni Animalis per Classes, Ordines, Genera, Species, Varietates cvm Synonymia et Historia Animalivm |language=la |page=312 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/iochristpolycerx00erxl/page/312}}</ref> In 1827, Charles Hamilton Smith placed the chital in its own subgenus ''Axis'' under the genus ''Cervus''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cuvier |first=G. |author-link=Georges Cuvier |date=1827 |title=The Animal Kingdom arranged in Conformity with its Organization |publisher=William Clowes |location=London |volume=5 |page=312 |url={{Google Books |id=VexZAAAAcAAJ |plainurl=yes |page=312}}}}</ref><ref name=MSW3>{{MSW3 Artiodactyla |id=14200345 |page=661 |heading=Species ''Axis axis''}}</ref> ''Axis'' was elevated to generic status by Colin P. Groves and Peter Grubb in 1987.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Groves |first1=C. P. |author1-link=Colin Groves |last2=Grubb |first2=P. |author2-link=Peter Grubb (zoologist) |year=1987 |chapter=Relationships of living deer |title=Biology and Management of the Cervidae |editor=Wemmer, C. M. |publisher=Smithsonian Institution Press |location=Washington, D.C. |pages=21–59 |isbn=978-0-87474-980-9}}</ref> The genus ''Hyelaphus'' was considered a subgenus of ''Axis''.<ref name=sri /> However, a morphological analysis showed significant differences between ''Axis'' and ''Hyelaphus''.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Meijaard, E. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Groves, C.P. |year=2004 |title=Morphometrical relationships between South-east Asian deer (Cervidae, tribe Cervini): evolutionary and biogeographic implications |journal=Journal of Zoology |volume=263 |issue=2 |pages=179–196 |url=https://www.academia.edu/16340041 |doi=10.1017/S0952836904005011}}</ref> A phylogenetic study later that year showed that ''Hyelaphus'' is closer to the genus ''Rusa'' than ''Axis''. ''Axis'' was revealed to be paraphyletic and distant from ''Hyelaphus'' in the phylogenetic tree; the chital was found to form a clade with the barasingha (''Rucervus duvaucelii'') and the Schomburgk's deer (''Rucervus schomburgki''). The chital was estimated to have genetically diverged from the ''Rucervus'' lineage in the Early Pliocene about {{mya|5}}. The following cladogram is based on a 2006 phylogenetic study:<ref name="Gilbert2006">{{cite journal |author1=Gilbert, C. |author2=Ropiquet, A. |author3=Hassanin, A. |title=Mitochondrial and nuclear phylogenies of Cervidae (Mammalia, Ruminantia): Systematics, morphology, and biogeography |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |date=2006 |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=101–117 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2006.02.017 |pmid=16584894 |bibcode=2006MolPE..40..101G |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7194962}}</ref>

{{clade | style=font-size:90%;line-height:100%; |label1= |1={{clade |1=''Cervus'', fallow deer (''Dama dama''), Père David's deer (''Elaphurus davidianus'') and ''Rusa'' |2={{clade | label1=''Rucervus'' |1= {{clade |1=Barasingha |2=Schomburgk's deer }} |label2=''Axis'' |2= {{clade |1='''Chital''' |2=Indian hog deer (''A. porcinus'') }} }} }} |2=Muntjacs (''Muntiacus'') }}

Fossils of extinct ''Axis'' species dating to the early to Middle Pliocene were excavated from Iran in the west to Indochina in the east.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Di Stefano |first1=G. |last2=Petronio |first2=C. |year=2002 |name-list-style=amp |title=Systematics and evolution of the Eurasian Plio-Pleistocene tribe Cervini (Artiodactyla, Mammalia) |journal=Geologica Romana |volume=36 |issue=311 |page=e334 |url=http://tetide.geo.uniroma1.it/dst/grafica_nuova/pubblicazioni_DST/geologica_romana/Volumi/VOL%2036/GR_36_311_334_DI%20Stefano%20et%20al.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160310214846/http://tetide.geo.uniroma1.it/dst/grafica_nuova/pubblicazioni_DST/geologica_romana/Volumi/VOL%2036/GR_36_311_334_DI%20Stefano%20et%20al.pdf |archive-date=10 March 2016}}</ref> Remains of the chital were found in the Middle Pleistocene deposits of Thailand along with sun bear, ''Stegodon'', gaur, wild water buffalo and other living and extinct mammals.<ref name=Suraprasit2016>{{cite journal |author1=Suraprasit, K. |author2=Jaegar, J.-J. |author3=Chaimanee, Y. |author4=Chavasseau, O. |author5=Yamee, C. |author6=Tian, P. |author7=Panha, S. |title=The Middle Pleistocene vertebrate fauna from Khok Sung (Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand): biochronological and paleobiogeographical implications |journal=ZooKeys |date=2016 |issue=613 |pages=1–157 |doi=10.3897/zookeys.613.8309 |pmid=27667928 |pmc=5027644 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2016ZooK..613....1S}}</ref>

==Description== [[File:Spotted deer (Axis axis) male.jpg|thumb|Male chital in velvet, Kanha National Park]] [[File:Spotted deer crosses road in Tadoba Andhari Tiger Reserve, India in 2016.jpg|thumb|Chital stag in Tadoba Andhari Tiger Reserve]] The chital is a moderately sized deer. Males reach up to {{cvt|90|-|100|cm}} and females {{cvt|65|-|75|cm}} at the shoulder; the head-and-body length is around {{cvt|1.7|m}}. While immature males weigh {{cvt|30|-|75|kg}}, the lighter females weigh {{cvt|25|-|45|kg}}. Mature stags can weigh up to {{cvt|98|-|110|kg}}.<ref name="waring">{{cite journal |last=Waring |first=G.H. |year=1996 |title=Preliminary study of the behavior and ecology of axis deer on Maui, Hawaii |journal=Online Report Presented by the Hawaii Ecosystems at Risk (HEAR) Project |url=http://www.hear.org/AlienSpeciesInHawaii/waringreports/axisdeer.htm |access-date=31 July 2012 |archive-date=16 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230816101430/http://www.hear.org/AlienSpeciesInHawaii/waringreports/axisdeer.htm }}</ref> The tail, {{cvt|20|cm}} long, is marked by a dark stripe that stretches along its length. The species is sexually dimorphic; males are larger than females, and antlers are present only on males.<ref name="texas">{{cite book |last=Schmidly |first=D.J. |date=2004 |title=The Mammals of Texas |edition=Revised |publisher=University of Texas Press |location=Austin, Texas (USA) |pages=263–264 |url=http://www.nsrl.ttu.edu/tmot1/cervaxis.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171231200105/http://www.nsrl.ttu.edu/tmot1/cervaxis.htm |archive-date=31 December 2017 |isbn=978-1-4773-0886-8}}</ref>

The dorsal (upper) parts are golden to rufous, completely covered in white spots. The abdomen, rump, throat, insides of legs, ears, and tail are all white.<ref name="texas" /> A conspicuous black stripe runs along the spine (back bone).<ref name="kays">{{cite book |last1=Kays |first1=R.W. |last2=Wilson |first2=D.E. |date=2009 |title=Mammals of North America |edition=2nd |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, New Jersey (USA) |page=166 |isbn=978-0-691-14092-6}}</ref> The chital has well-developed preorbital glands (near the eyes) with stiff hairs.<ref name="valerius" /> It also has well-developed metatarsal glands and pedal glands located in its hind legs. The preorbital glands, larger in males than in females, are frequently opened in response to certain stimuli.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Groves |first1=C. |last2=Grubb |first2=P. |year=1982 |title=Relationships of living deer |journal=Biology and Management of the Cervidae: A Conference Held at the Conservation and Research Center, National Zoological Park, Smithsonian Institution, Front Royal, Virginia, 1–5 August 1982 |pages=21–59}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Müller-Schwarze |first=D. |year=1982 |title=Evolution of cervid olfactory communication |journal=Biology and Management of the Cervidae: A Conference Held at the Conservation and Research Center, National Zoological Park, Smithsonian Institution, Front Royal, Virginia, 1–5 August 1982 |pages=223–234}}</ref>

[[File:Albino Chital.jpg|thumb|Albino chital in Ranthambore National Park]] Each of the antlers has three lines on it. The brow tine (the first division in the antler) is roughly perpendicular to the beam (the central stalk of the antler).<ref name="texas" /> The antlers, three-pronged, are nearly {{cvt|1|m}} long.<ref name="ables">{{cite book |last=Ables |first=E.D. |date=1984 |title=The Axis Deer in Texas |publisher=Texas A & M University Press |location=Texas, USA |pages=1–86 |isbn=978-0-89096-196-4}}</ref> Antlers, as in most other cervids, are shed annually. The antlers emerge as soft tissues (known as velvet antlers) and progressively harden into bony structures (known as hard antlers), following mineralisation and blockage of blood vessels in the tissue, from the tip to the base.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Fletcher |first=T.J. |year=1986 |title=Reproduction: seasonality |journal=Management and Diseases of Deer: A Handbook for the Veterinary Surgeon |pages=17–18}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kay |first1=R.N.B. |last2=Phillippo |first2=M. |last3=Suttie |first3=J.M. |last4=Wenham |first4=G. |year=1982 |title=The growth and mineralization of antlers |journal=Journal of Physiology |volume=322 |page=4}}</ref> A study of the mineral composition of the antlers of captive barasingha, chital, and hog deer showed that the antlers of the deer are very similar. The mineral content of the chital's antlers was determined to be (per kg) {{cvt|6.1|mg}} copper, {{cvt|8.04|mg}} cobalt, and {{cvt|32.14|mg}} zinc.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pathak |first1=N.N |last2=Pattanaik |first2=A.K |last3=Patra |first3=R.C |last4=Arora |first4=B.M |year=2001 |title=Mineral composition of antlers of three deer species reared in captivity |journal=Small Ruminant Research |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=61–65 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/248444100 |doi=10.1016/S0921-4488(01)00218-8}}</ref>

Hooves measure between {{cvt|4.1|and|6.1|cm}} in length; hooves of the fore legs are longer than those of the hind legs. The toes taper to a point.<ref name="waring" /> The dental formula is {{DentalFormula|upper=0.1.3.3|lower=3.1.3.3}}, same as the elk.<ref name="texas" /> The milk canine, nearly {{cvt|1|cm}} long, falls off before one year of age, but is not replaced by a permanent tooth as in other cervids.<ref name="valerius" /> Compared to the hog deer, the chital has a more cursorial build. The antlers and brow tines are longer than those in the hog deer. The pedicles (the bony cores from which antlers arise) are shorter, and the auditory bullae are smaller in the chital.<ref name="valerius" /> The chital may be confused with the fallow deer. Chital have several white spots, whereas fallow deer usually have white splotches. Fallow also have palmate antlers whereas chital have 3 distinct points on each side. The chital has a prominent white patch on its throat, while the throat of the fallow deer is completely white. The biggest distinction is the dark brown stripe running down the chital's back.<ref name=afn>{{cite book |last=McGlashan |first=A. |date=2011 |title=Al McGlashan's Hunting Australia |publisher=Australian Fishing Network |location=Croydon, London (UK) |pages=76–80 |isbn=978-1-86513-189-4}}</ref> The hairs are smooth and flexible.<ref name=waring />

==Distribution and habitat== [[File:Chital in Sundarbans National Park July 2025 by Tisha Mukherjee 02.jpg|thumb|Chital fawn in Sundarbans National Park]] thumb|A chital herd in Jim Corbett National Park [[File:004 Chital in Keoladeo National Park Photo by Giles Laurent.jpg|alt=Laying down in Keoladeo National Park, India|thumb|Male lying down in Keoladeo National Park]] The chital ranges over 8–30°N in India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka.<ref name=iucn/> The western limit of its range is eastern Rajasthan and Gujarat; its northern limit is the Terai and northern West Bengal, Sikkim to western Assam and forested valleys in Bhutan below an elevation of {{cvt|1100|m}}. It also occurs in the Sundarbans and some eco parks around the Bay of Bengal, but is locally extinct in central and north-eastern Bangladesh.<ref name=iucn/> The Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Sri Lanka are the southern limits of its distribution.<ref name=schaller/> It inhabits deciduous and semi-evergreen forests and open grasslands throughout the Indian peninsula.<ref name=schaller/><ref name=sankar>{{cite journal |author1=Sankar, K. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Acharya, B. |year=2004 |title=Chital (''Axis axis'' Erxleben, 1777) |journal=ENVIS Bulletin |issue=7 |pages=171–180 |url=}}</ref>

===Australia=== The chital was the first species of deer introduced into Australia in the early 1800s. While some of the stock originated from Sri Lanka, the Indian race likely is also represented.<ref>{{cite web |title=Australia's Wild Deer |website=Australian Deer Research Foundation (ADRF) |url=http://adrf.com.au/content/view/35/79/ |access-date=17 February 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Deer in Australia |work=Australian Deer Association |url=http://www.austdeer.com.au/deer-in-australia/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160220190655/http://www.austdeer.com.au/deer-in-australia/ |access-date=17 February 2016 |archive-date=20 February 2016}}</ref>

===United States=== In the 1860s, chital were introduced to the island of Molokai, Hawaii, as a gift from Hong Kong to King Kamehameha V. By 2021, there were approximately 50,000 to 70,000 Axis deer on Molokai, as opposed to a human population of 7,500 people. During a drought that extended into 2021, hundreds of the deer died of starvation.<ref>{{cite news |last=Jones |first=Caleb |title=Deer native to India starve to death amid drought in Hawaii |work=Associated Press |date=9 February 2021 |url=https://apnews.com/article/science-deer-droughts-coronavirus-pandemic-hawaii-ca975acd65b3f30d9296963263af6f0e |access-date=1 October 2023}}</ref>

Chital were introduced to Lanai island, and soon became plentiful on both islands. Chital were introduced to Maui island in the 1950s to increase hunting opportunities. Because the chital has no natural predators on the Hawaiian islands, the population had been growing 20 to 30% each year, causing serious damage to agriculture and natural areas.<ref>{{cite news |last=McAvoy |first=A. |date=2012 |title=Mystery deer growth pitting hunters against Hawaii |agency=Associated Press |url=https://news.yahoo.com/mystery-deer-growth-pitting-hunters-against-hawaii-173250448.html |access-date=24 May 2012}}</ref> To help control the excess population on Maui, a company called Maui Nui was founded in 2017 to hunt the deer and sell venison.<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Nosowitz |first=D. |title=The Struggle to Contain, and Eat, the Invasive Deer Taking over Hawaii |magazine=Modern Farmer |date=2021 |url=https://modernfarmer.com/2021/05/the-struggle-to-contain-and-eat-the-invasive-deer-taking-over-hawaii/ |access-date=1 October 2023}}</ref> In 2022, the company took 9,526 deer and sold {{cvt|450000|lbs|kg}} of venison. The deer are harvested at night using infrared technology, accompanied by a USDA representative.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Perry |first=B. |date=2024 |title=Kahikolu Project on Maui targets axis deer and widespread environmental impacts |url=https://mauinow.com/2024/06/29/kahikolu-project-targets-axis-deer-and-widespread-environmental-impacts/ |access-date=2024-07-01 |work=Maui Now}}</ref>

Releasing them on the island of Hawaii was planned, but was abandoned after pressure from scientists over damage to landscapes caused by the chital on other islands. In 2012, chital were spotted on the island of Hawaii; wildlife officials think that people had flown them by helicopter and transported them by boat onto the island. In August 2012, a helicopter pilot pleaded guilty to transporting four chital from Maui to Hawaii.<ref>{{cite news |author=McAvoy, A. |date=2012 |title=Alleged animal smugglers used helicopters to fly sheep to Maui, deer to Big Island |agency=Associated Press |url=https://news.yahoo.com/alleged-animal-smugglers-used-helicopters-fly-sheep-maui-053016426.html |access-date=22 August 2012}}</ref> Hawaii law now prohibits "the intentional possession or interisland transportation or release of wild or feral deer."<ref>{{cite news |title=New law prohibits having or releasing feral deer in Hawaii |work=Honolulu Star-Advertiser |url=http://www.staradvertiser.com/news/breaking/159949735.html?id=159949735 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120626141712/http://www.staradvertiser.com/news/breaking/159949735.html?id=159949735 |date=21 June 2012 |access-date=21 June 2012 |archive-date=26 June 2012}}</ref>

In 1932, the chital was introduced to Texas. In 1988, self-sustaining herds were present in 27 counties in Central and South Texas.<ref>{{cite web |author1=Davis, W. B. |author2=Schmidly, D. J. |title=Axis Deer |work=The Mammals of Texas – Online Edition |publisher=Texas Tech University |url=http://www.nsrl.ttu.edu/tmot1/cervaxis.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171231200105/http://www.nsrl.ttu.edu/tmot1/cervaxis.htm |access-date=24 May 2012 |archive-date=31 December 2017}}</ref> The chital is most populous on the Edwards Plateau.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ables |first=E. D. |title=Axis Deer |work=Handbook of Texas Online |publisher=Texas State Historical Association |url=http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/tca03 |access-date=24 May 2012}}</ref>

===Croatia=== Chital of unknown origin were introduced to the islands of Brijuni in 1911. They also live on Rab Island. The population on the islands comprised about 200 individuals as of 2010. Attempts by hunters to introduce the species to the mainland of Croatia were unsuccessful.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Kusak, J. |author2=Krapinec, K. |name-list-style=amp |date=2010 |chapter=23. Ungulates and their management in Croatia |pages=527–539 |title=European Ungulates and their Management in the 21st Century |editor1-last=Apollonio |editor1-first=M. |editor2-last=Andersen |editor2-first=R. |editor3-last=Putman |editor3-first=R. |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-76061-4 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-ycg5PtQPugC&pg=PA527}}</ref>

===Colombia=== There have been sightings of herds of introduced chital in an interandean valley near the municipality of Puerto Triunfo in Antioquia Department.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Ramírez-Chaves, H. |author2=Roncancio-Duque, N. |author3=Morales-Martínez, D.M. |year=2023 |title=Más allá de los hipopótamos: evidencia de un venado introducido en Colombia |journal=Revista de la Academia Colombiana de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales |volume=47 |issue=185 |pages=882–888 |doi=10.18257/raccefyn.1953 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

==Behaviour and ecology== thumb|Deer herd drinking water Chital are active throughout the day. In the summer, time is spent in rest under shade, and the sun's glare is avoided if the temperature reaches {{Convert|80|F|C}}; activity peaks as dusk approaches. As days grow cooler, foraging begins before sunrise and peaks by early morning. Activity slows down during midday, when the animals rest or loiter about slowly. Foraging recommences by late afternoon and continues till midnight. They fall asleep a few hours before sunrise, typically in the forest which is cooler than the glades.<ref name=schaller>{{cite book |last=Schaller |first=G.B. |date=1984 |title=The Deer and the Tiger: A Study of Wildlife in India |edition=Midway reprinted |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |isbn=978-0-226-73631-0}}</ref> These deer typically move in a single file on specific tracks, with a distance of two to three times their width between them, when on a journey, typically in search of food and water sources.<ref name=texas/> In Gir National Park, chital travel the most in summer of all seasons.<ref name=gir>{{cite thesis |last=Dave |first=C.V. |year=2008 |type=PhD thesis |title=Ecology of Chital (''Axis axis'') in Gir |publisher=Saurashtra University |url=http://etheses.saurashtrauniversity.edu/902/1/dave_c_wildlife%20science_thesis.pdf |pages=21–209 |access-date=13 March 2016 |archive-date=21 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220521191048/http://etheses.saurashtrauniversity.edu/902/1/dave_c_wildlife%20science_thesis.pdf}}</ref> When cautiously inspecting its vicinity, the chital stands motionless and listens with rapt attention, facing the potential danger, if any. This stance may be adopted by nearby individuals, as well. As an antipredator measure, chital flee in groups (unlike the hog deer that disperse on alarm); sprints are often followed by hiding in dense undergrowth. The running chital has its tail raised, exposing the white underparts.<ref name=schaller/> The chital can leap and clear fences as high as {{cvt|1.5|m}} but prefers to dive under them. It stays within {{cvt|300|m}} of cover.<ref name=valerius>{{cite book |last=Geist |first=V. |date=1998 |title=Deer of the World: their Evolution, Behaviour and Ecology |edition=1st |publisher=Stackpole Books |location=Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania |url={{Google Books |plainurl=yes |id=bcWZX-IMEVkC |page=58}} |pages=58–73 |isbn=978-0-8117-0496-0}}</ref>

The chital forms matriarchal herds comprising an adult female and her offspring of the previous and the present year, with individuals of any age and either sex.<ref name=ables/><ref name=wg>{{cite journal |last1=Ramesh |first1=T. |last2=Sankar |first2=K. |last3=Qureshi |first3=Q. |last4=Kalle |first4=R. |year=2010 |title=Group size, sex and age composition of chital (''Axis axis'') and sambar (''Rusa unicolor'') in a deciduous habitat of Western Ghats |journal=Mammalian Biology – Zeitschrift für Säugetierkunde |volume=77 |issue=1 |pages=53–59 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229353967 |doi=10.1016/j.mambio.2011.09.003}}</ref> Small herds are common, though aggregations of as many as 100 individuals have been observed.<ref name=texas/> Groups are loose and disband frequently, save for the juvenile-mother herd.<ref name="de silva">{{cite journal |last1=De Silva |first1=P.K. |last2=De Silva |first2=M. |year=1993 |title=Population structure and activity rhythm of the spotted deer in Ruhuna National Park, Sri Lanka |journal=Developments in Animal and Veterinary Sciences |issue=26 |pages=285–294}}</ref> Herds in Texas have up to 15 members.<ref name=ables/> Large herds in the Nallamala Hills with up to 40 members were observed during monsoon in grasslands.<ref name=ap>{{cite journal |last=Srinivasulu |first=C. |year=2001 |title=Chital (''Axis axis'' Erxleben, 1777) herd composition and sex ratio on the Nallamala Hills of Eastern Ghats, Andhra Pradesh, India |journal=Zoos' Print Journal |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=655–658 |doi=10.11609/jott.zpj.16.12.655-8 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The sex ratio of herds varies seasonally, likely because to the tendency of females to isolate themselves ahead of parturition. Similarly, rutting males leave their herds during the mating season, hence altering the herd composition.<ref name=wg/>

thumb|Herd of deer in Ranthambore National Park Predators of chitals include tigers, leopards, Indian pythons, and dholes. Jungle cats, Bengal foxes and golden jackals target juveniles.<ref name=schaller/>

A vocal animal, the chital, akin to the North American elk, gives out bellows and alarm barks.<ref name=texas/> Its calls are, however, not as strong as those of elk or red deer; they are mainly coarse bellows or loud growls.<ref name=valerius/> Bellowing coincides with rutting.<ref name=schaller/><ref name="Mishra 1987">Mishra, H. and Wemmer, C. 1987. "The comparative breeding ecology of four cervids in Royal Chitwan National Park, Nepal". Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.</ref> Dominant males guarding females in oestrus make high-pitched growls at less powerful males.<ref name=valerius/> Males may moan during aggressive displays or while resting.<ref name=ables/> Chital, mainly females and juveniles, bark persistently when alarmed or if they encounter a predator. Fawns in search of their mother often squeal. The chital can respond to the alarm calls of several animals, such as the common myna and langurs.<ref name=valerius/>

thumb|Tiger and chital in Kanha National Park Marking behaviour is pronounced in males. Males have well-developed preorbital glands (near the eyes). They stand on their hind legs to reach tall branches and rub the open preorbital glands to deposit their scent there. This posture is also used while foraging. Urine marking is also observed; the smell of urine is typically stronger than that of the deposited scent. Sparring between males begins with the larger male displaying his dominance before the other; this display consists of hissing heading away from the other male with the tail facing him, the nose pointing to the ground, the ears down, the antlers upright, and the upper lip raised. The fur often bristles during the display. The male approaches the other in a slow gait. Males with velvet antlers may hunch over instead of standing erect as the males with hard antlers. The opponents then interlock their horns and push against each other, with the smaller male producing a sound at times which is louder than that produced by sambar deer, but not as much as the barasingha's. The fight terminates with the males stepping backward, or simply leaving and foraging.<ref name=valerius/> Fights are not generally serious.<ref name=schaller/>

Individuals may occasionally bite one another.<ref name=valerius/> Common mynas are often attracted to the chital.<ref name=waring /> An interesting relationship has been observed between herds of chital and troops of the northern plains grey langur. Chital benefit from the langurs' eyesight and ability to post a lookout from trees, while the langur benefit from the chital's strong sense of smell, both of which help keep a check on potential danger.<ref name=schaller/> The chital also benefit from fruits dropped by langurs from trees such as ''Terminalia bellirica'' and ''Phyllanthus emblica''.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Newton |first=P.N. |year=1989 |title=Associations between langur monkeys (''Presbytis entellus'') and chital deer (''Axis axis''): Chance encounters or a mutualism? |journal=Ethology |volume=83 |issue=2 |pages=89–120 |doi=10.1111/j.1439-0310.1989.tb00522.x |bibcode=1989Ethol..83...89N}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Prasad |first1=S. |last2=Chellam |first2=R. |last3=Krishnaswamy |first3=J. |last4=Goyal |first4=S.P. |year=2004 |title=Frugivory of ''Phyllanthus emblica'' at Rajaji National Park, northwest India |journal=Current Science |volume=87 |issue=9 |pages=1188–1190 |url=http://www.iisc.ernet.in/currsci/nov102004/1188.pdf |access-date=22 February 2008 |archive-date=24 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924033753/http://www.iisc.ernet.in/currsci/nov102004/1188.pdf}}</ref> The chital has been observed foraging with sambar deer in the Western Ghats.<ref name=wg/>

===Diet=== thumb|Male feeding in Nagarhole thumbnail|right|Chital grazing Grazers as well as browsers, the chital mainly feed on grasses throughout the year. They prefer young shoots, in the absence of which, tall and coarse grasses are nibbled off at the tips. Browse forms a major portion of the diet only in the winter-October to January-when the grasses are no longer palatable. Browse includes herbs, shrubs, foliage, fruits, and forbs; ''Moghania'' species are often preferred. Fruits eaten by chital in Kanha National Park include those of ''Ficus'' species from January to May, ''Cordia myxa'' from May to June, and ''Syzygium cumini'' from June to July. Individuals tend to group together and forage while moving slowly.<ref name=schaller/> Chital are generally silent when grazing together. Males often stand on their hindlegs to reach tall branches. Water holes are visited nearly twice daily, with great caution.<ref name=valerius/> In the Kanha National Park, mineral licks rich in calcium and phosphorus pentoxide were scraped at by the incisors. Chital also gnaw bones and fallen antlers for their minerals. Males in velvet indulge in such osteophagia to a greater extent.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Barrette |first=C. |date=1985 |title=Antler eating and antler growth in wild Axis deer |journal=Mammalia |volume=49 |issue=4 |doi=10.1515/mamm.1985.49.4.491 |s2cid=85046773}}</ref> Chital in the Sunderbans may be omnivores; remains of Christmas Island red crabs have been found in the rumen of individuals.<ref name=schaller/>

===Reproduction=== [[File:005 Baby chital portrait in Ranthambore National Park Photo by Giles Laurent.jpg|alt=Newborn in Ranthambore National Park|thumb|Newborn in Ranthambore National Park]] thumb|Female with newborn thumb|Chital bucks sparring {{anchor|Breeding}} Breeding takes place throughout the year, with peaks that vary geographically. Sperm is produced year-round, though testosterone levels register a fall during the development of the antlers. Females have regular oestrus cycles, each lasting three weeks. The female can conceive again 2 to 16 weeks after the birth. Males sporting hard antlers are dominant over those in velvet or those without antlers, irrespective of their size. Courtship is based on tending bonds. A rutting male fasts during the mating season while following and guarding a female in heat. The pair engage in several bouts of chasing and mutual grooming before copulation.<ref name=valerius/>

The newborn is hidden for a week after birth, a period much shorter than most other deer. The mother-fawn bond is not very strong, as the two get separated often, though they can reunite easily as the herds are cohesive. If the fawn dies, the mother can breed once again so as to give birth twice that year. The males continue their growth till seven to eight years. The average lifespan in captivity is nearly 22 years. The longevity in the wild, however, is merely five to ten years; due to predation and competition.<ref name=valerius/><ref name=schaller/>

==Conservation status== The chital is listed on the IUCN Red List as least concern "because it occurs over a very wide range within which there are many large populations".<ref name=iucn /> Currently, no range-wide threats to chitals are present, and they live in many protected areas. However, population densities are below ecological carrying capacity in many places due to hunting and competition with domestic livestock. Hunting for the deer's meat has caused substantial declines and local extinctions.<ref name=iucn /> The axis deer is protected under Schedule III of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act (1972)<ref name=sankar /> and under the Wildlife (Preservation) (Amendment) Act, 1974 of Bangladesh.<ref name=iucn /> Two primary reasons for its good conservation status are its legal protection as a species and a network of functioning protected areas.<ref name=iucn />

The chital has been introduced to the Andaman Islands, Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Chile, Mexico, Paraguay, Uruguay, Alabama, Point Reyes National Seashore in California,{{citation needed|date=July 2024}} Florida, Hawaii, Mississippi, and Texas in the United States.<ref name=iucn /> In 1911, it was brought to the acclimatisation station for European zoos at Brijuni Islands in Croatia; it was introduced to Rab and Dugi Otok islands in 1974 and 2012, respectively.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Šprem, N. |author2=Stipoljev, S. |author3=Ugarković, D. |author4=Buzan, E. |year=2021 |title=First genetic analysis of introduced axis deer from Croatia |journal=Mammalian Biology |volume=101 |issue=6 |pages=1121–1125 |doi=10.1007/s42991-021-00164-9 |url=https://www.vsvo.si/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/Sprem2021_Article_FirstGeneticAnalysisOfIntroduc.pdf}}</ref>

With effect of 2 August 2022, the European Union added the chital to the List of invasive alien species of Union concern and banned its import.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022 |title=Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2022/1203 of 12 July 2022 |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:32022R1203&from=CS#ntr2-L_2022186EN.01001001-E0002 |access-date=2022-07-29 |website=Official Journal of the European Union}}</ref>

==See also== * Sri Lankan axis deer

==References== {{Reflist}}

==External links==

{{Artiodactyla|R.1}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q232054}} {{Authority control}}

Category:Articles containing video clips Category:Axis (genus) Category:Fauna of South Asia Category:Introduced mammals of Australia Category:Mammals described in 1777 Category:Mammals of Asia Category:Mammals of Bangladesh * Category:Mammals of India Category:Mammals of Nepal Category:Taxa named by Johann Christian Polycarp Erxleben Category:Taxa named by Charles Hamilton Smith