Cadastre

{{Short description|Register of real estate boundaries}} [[File:FR schloss kinsky.jpg|thumb|Cadastral map from 1827 in Austria (Franziszeischer cadastre)]] thumb|A modern cadastral map for Eastern England

A '''cadastre''' or '''cadaster''' ({{IPAc-en|k|ə|ˈ|d|æ|s|t|ə|r|}} {{respell|kə|DAS|tər|}}) is a comprehensive recording of the real estate or real property's metes-and-bounds of a country.<ref name=CTdata/><ref name="Henssen1995">Jo Henssen, ''Basic Principles of the Main Cadastral Systems in the World,'' [https://www.oicrf.org/documents/40950/43224/Basic+principles+of+the+main+cadastral+systems+in+the+world.pdf/bac81508-8e55-8a23-019d-d83cdb359c6a]</ref> Often it is represented graphically in a '''cadastral map''', though historical written accounts, such as the Domesday Book in England in 1086, were early examples of cadastre.

In most countries, legal systems have developed around original administrative systems and use the cadastre to define the dimensions and location of land parcels described in legal documentation. {{anchor|Parcel}}A '''land parcel''' or '''cadastral parcel''' is defined as "a continuous area, or more appropriately volume, that is identified by a unique set of homogeneous property rights".<ref name="dale">{{cite book|first1=Peter|last1= Dale |first2= John|last2= McLaughlin|date= 2000|title=Land Administration|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198233909.001.0001|isbn=9780198233909|publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref>

Cadastral surveys document the boundaries of land ownership, by the production of documents, diagrams, sketches, plans (''plats'' in the US), charts, and maps. They were originally used to ensure reliable facts for land valuation and taxation. Cadastral survey information is often a base element in Geographic Information Systems (GIS) or Land Information Systems (LIS) used to assess and manage land and built infrastructure. Such systems are also employed on a variety of other tasks, for example, to track long-term changes over time for geological or ecological studies, where land tenure is a significant part of the scenario.

The cadastre is a fundamental source of data in disputes and lawsuits between landowners. Land registration and cadastre are both types of land recording and complement each other.<ref name="Henssen1995" /> Under his code, Napoleon established a comprehensive cadastral system for France that is regarded as the forerunner of most modern versions.

By allowing for the clear assignment of rights to property, and demarcating and delimiting parcels of land, cadasters have been credited with strengthening the financial independence of land owners, facilitating economic risk taking and in turn growth in output and employment, and improving state fiscal capacity (through, for example, improved tax collection and more properly valued real estate markets).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=D’Arcy |first1=Michelle |last2=Nistotskaya |first2=Marina |last3=Olsson |first3=Ola |date=2024 |title=Cadasters and Economic Growth: A Long-Run Cross-Country Panel |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/730551 |journal=Journal of Political Economy |volume=132 |issue=11 |pages=3785–3826 |language=en |doi=10.1086/730551 |issn=0022-3808|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

[[File:KM Bozen Bl 1.jpg|thumb|Cadastral map of Bozen, Tirol, Brixner Kreis Nr 1, 1858]]

== Etymology and definition {{anchor|Etymology|Definition}} == The word ''cadastre'' came into English through French from the Greek {{grc-tr|κατάστιχον}} ({{lang|grc|κατάστιχον}}), a list or register, from {{grc-tr|κατὰ στίχον}} ({{lang|grc|κατὰ στίχον}})&mdash;literally, "(organised) line by line".<ref>{{cite web |title=Lexico powered by Oxford |url=https://www.lexico.com/definition/cadastral |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191230174759/https://www.lexico.com/definition/cadastral |url-status=dead |archive-date=December 30, 2019 |website=Lexico |publisher=Dictionary.com and Oxford University Press |access-date=30 December 2019}}</ref>

A cadastre commonly includes details of the ownership, the tenure, the precise location, the dimensions (and area), the cultivations if rural, and the value of individual parcels of land. Cadastres are used by many nations around the world, some in conjunction with other records, such as a title register.<ref name="CTdata">"Cadastral Template - Field Data C4" (lists nations), CadastralTemplate.org, January 2008, webpage: [http://www.cadastraltemplate.org/fielddata/c4.htm CT-C4] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120730121044/http://www.cadastraltemplate.org/fielddata/c4.htm |date=2012-07-30 }}: also has term "cadastral survey" and other land records.</ref>

The International Federation of Surveyors defines cadastre as follows:<ref>FIG (1995) "The FIG Statement on the Cadastre", FIG Policy Statement, The International Federation of Surveyors (FIG), FIG PUBLICATION No 11, 1995,{{OCLC|38375638}} [http://www.fig.net/resources/publications/figpub/pub11/figpub11.asp fig.net]</ref> <blockquote> A Cadastre is normally a parcel-based, and up-to-date land information system containing a record of interests in land (e.g. rights, restrictions and responsibilities). It usually includes a geometric description of land parcels linked to other records describing the nature of the interests, the ownership or control of those interests, and often the value of the parcel and its improvements. </blockquote>

==History== {{See also|Surveying#History|Cartography#History|Topographic mapping#History}} thumb|A cadastre text written in Akkadian on a terracotta tablet; from the 18th century BC in Sippar, Iraq, and held by the Ancient Orient Museum, Istanbul [[File:Katastermarke südtirol 2018.jpg|thumb|Cadastre survey marker from the South Tyrol mountains, 2018]] Some of the earliest cadastres were ordered by Roman Emperors to recover state owned lands that had been appropriated by private individuals, and thereby recover income from such holdings. One such cadastre was done in AD 77 in Campania, a surviving stone marker of the survey reads "The Emperor Vespasian, in the eighth year of his tribunician power, so as to restore the state lands which the Emperor Augustus had given to the soldiers of Legion II Gallica, but which for some years had been occupied by private individuals, ordered a survey map to be set up with a record on each 'century' of the annual rental".<ref name="Kain">{{cite book|title=The Cadastral Map in the Service of the State: A History of Property Mapping|author=Roger J. P. Kain and Elizabeth Baigent|publisher=The University of Chicago Press|year=1992}}</ref><ref>Le_cadastre_d'Orange</ref> In this way Vespasian was able to reimpose taxation formerly uncollected on these lands.<ref name="Kain"/>

With the fall of Rome, the use of cadastral maps effectively discontinued. Medieval practice used written descriptions of the extent of land rather than using more precise surveys. Only in the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries did the use of cadastral maps resume, beginning in the Netherlands. With the emergence of capitalism in Renaissance Europe, the need for cadastral maps reemerged as a tool to determine and express control of land as a means of production. This took place first privately in land disputes and later spread to governmental practice as a means of more precise tax assessment.<ref name="Kain"/>

==Surveys== {{excerpt|Cadastral surveying}} [[File:Bureau_of_Land_Management_Cadastral_Survey_Marker_Arizona.jpg|thumb|BLM cadastral survey marker from 1992 in San Xavier, Arizona]]

==Map== {{see also|Plat}} A ''cadastral map'' is a map that shows the boundaries and ownership of land parcels. Some cadastral maps show additional details, such as survey district names, unique identifying numbers for parcels, certificate of title numbers, positions of existing structures, section or lot numbers and their respective areas, adjoining and adjacent street names, selected boundary dimensions and references to prior maps.

James C. Scott, in ''Seeing Like a State'', argues that all maps, but particularly cadastral maps, are designed to make local situations legible to an outsider, and in doing so, enable states to collect data on their subjects. He sees the origins of this in Early Modern Europe, where taxation became more complex. Cadastral maps, he argues, are always a great simplification, but they in themselves help change reality.<ref>J.C. Scott, ''Seeing Like a State: How certain schemes to improve the human condition have failed'' (Yale University Press, 1999). ISBN 978-0-300-07815-2.</ref>

==Documentation== Cadastral documentation comprises the documentary materials submitted to cadastre or land administration offices for renewal of cadastral recordings. Cadastral documentation is kept in paper and/or electronic form.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.geoportal.sk/en/kataster/|title=Slovak Geoportal, retrieved 2016-08-02}}</ref> Jurisdiction statutes and further provisions specify the content and form of the documentation,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cuzk.cz/English/Cadastre-of-Real-Estate/Registration-into-the-Cadastre-of-Real-Estate/Registration-into-the-Cadastre-of-Real-Estate.aspx|title=ČÚZK - Registration into the Cadastre of Real Estate}}</ref> as well as the person(s) authorized to prepare and sign the documentation, including concerned parties (owner, etc.), licensed surveyors and legal advisors. The office concerned reviews the submitted information; if the documentation does not comply with stated provisions, the office may set a deadline for the applicant to submit complete documentation.<ref>[https://www.fig.net/resources/proceedings/fig_proceedings/fig2015/papers/ts07b/TS07B_shala_meha_et_al_7691.pdf Shala, X., Meha, M. and Ahmedi, S. (2015) Case Study of the Reforms on Laws for the Cadaster in the Republic of Kosovo. FIG Working Week 2015, Sofia, Bulgaria, 17-21 May 2015; retrieved 2016-08-04]</ref><ref> [http://www.journal-hfb.usab-tm.ro/romana/Lucrari/Volum%2016(2)/48Rosu%20Dan_2.pdf Roşu D. C., Ciolac Valeria, Colţan O. N. (2016) Some aspects of cadastral documentation necessary registration agricultural land in land book ''Journal of Horticulture, Forestry and Biotechnology'' 20 (2) 231-233]</ref>

The concept of cadastral documentation emerged late in the English language, as the institution of cadastre developed outside English-speaking countries. In a Danish textbook, one out of fifteen chapters regards the form and content of documents concerning subdivision and other land matters.<ref>Pedersen, V. E. (1951) Matrikelvæsen. København, Den kgl. Veterinær- og Landbohøjskole (Cadastral Service. Copenhagen. Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University)</ref> Early textbooks of international scope focused on recordings in terms of land registration and technical aspects of cadastral survey, yet note that 'cadastral surveying has been carried out within a tight framework of legislation'.<ref name="Dale1">Dale. P. F. & McLaughlin, J. D. (1988) ''Land Information Management. - An introduction with special reference to cadastral problems in Third World countries,'' Oxford University Press (p. 28)</ref><ref name="dale" /> With the view of assessing transaction costs, a European project: Modelling real property transactions (2001&ndash;2005) charted procedures for the transfer of ownership and other rights in land and buildings.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://costg9.plan.aau.dk/|title=COST G9: Modelling Real Property Transactions}}</ref> Cadastral documentation is described, e.g. for Finland as follows '8. Surveyor draws up cadastral map and cadastral documents … 10. Surveyor sends cadastral documents to cadastral authority.' <ref>Vitikainen, A. (2007) Transaction costs concerning real property - The case of Finland. Pp 101 - 118 in Zevenbergen, J., Frank, A., Stubkjær, E. (Eds) Real property transactions: procedures, transaction costs and models. Amsterdam, IOS Press. Page 109</ref> In Australia, similar activities are referred to as 'lodgement of plans of subdivision at land titles offices' <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cadastraltemplate.org/Australia.php|title=Australia - CSDILA icon|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827012020/http://www.cadastraltemplate.org/australia.php|archive-date=2016-08-27}}</ref>

==Management== Cadastre management has been used by the software industry since at least 2005.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.esri.com/library/brochures/pdfs/gis-for-cad-mgmt.pdf|title=GIS for Cadastre Management, ESRI® GIS Technology in Europe}}</ref><ref>[https://tax.thomsonreuters.com/aumentum/cadastre/ Streamline Cadastral Data Management, Thomson Reuters, Aumentum Cadastre]</ref> It mainly refers to the use of technology for management of cadastre and land information in geographic information systems, spatial data infrastructures and software architecture, rather than to general management issues of cadastral and other land information agencies.<ref name="Dale1"/>

==Cadastres in different jurisdictions== {{Urs|date=August 2024}}

===United Kingdom=== In Scotland there is a Cadastral Map: Land Registration etc (Scotland) Act 2012. In 1836, Colonel Robert Dawson of the Royal Engineers proposed that a cadastre be implemented in light of his experiences on secondment to the Tithe Commission.

In England, Wales and Northern Ireland there is a system of land registration with similar functions, but the word "cadastre" is not used.

===North America=== In the United States, cadastral survey within the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) maintains records of all public lands. Such surveys often require detailed investigation of the history of land use, legal accounts, and other documents.

The Public Lands Survey System is a cadastral survey of the United States originating in legislation from 1785, after international recognition of the United States. The Dominion Land Survey is a similar cadastral survey conducted in Western Canada, begun in 1871 after the creation of the Dominion of Canada in 1867. Both cadastral surveys are made relative to principal meridian and baselines. These cadastral surveys divided the surveyed areas into townships. Some much earlier surveys in Ohio created 25 square mile townships when the design of the system was being explored. Later, the design became square land areas of approximately 36 square miles (six miles by six miles). These townships are divided into sections, each approximately one-mile square. Unlike in Europe, this cadastral survey largely preceded settlement and as a result greatly influenced settlement patterns. Properties are generally rectangular, boundary lines often run on cardinal bearings, and parcel dimensions are often in fractions or multiples of chains. Land descriptions in Western North America are principally based on these land surveys.

==Extensions== {{Expand section|date=August 2024}}

Extensions of the conventional cadastre concept include the '''3D cadastre''', considering the vertical domain;<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Döner |first=Fatih |date=2021-07-01 |title=Analysis of literature on 3D cadastre |journal=International Journal of Engineering and Geosciences |language=en |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=90–97 |doi=10.26833/ijeg.703244 |issn=2548-0960|doi-access=free |bibcode=2021IJEG....6...90D }}</ref> and the '''multipurpose cadastre''', considering non-parcel data.<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Sim |first=Ching Yen |title=Investigation of data models and related requirements affecting the implementation of a multipurpose cadastre system in Malaysia |date=31 Oct 2012 |access-date=2024-08-30 |degree=MSc(R) |publisher=University of Glasgow |url=https://theses.gla.ac.uk/3705/ |pages=15–19}}</ref>

According to the UN Economic Commission for Europe, a "'''Marine Cadastre''' describes the location and spatial extent of rights, restrictions and responsibilities in the marine environment".<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Wouters |first=Rik |title=Marine Cadastre: A support to the Blue Economy? |url=https://unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/hlm/sessions/docs2015/day_2_presentations/2.6c.3b__Rik_Wouters_Marine_Cadastre.pdf |website=United Nations Economic Commission for Europe}}</ref> Marine cadastres apply the same governance principles to the water.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Ng'ang'a |first1=Sam |last2=Sutherland |first2=Michael |last3=Cockburn |first3=Sara |last4=Nichols |first4=Sue |date=2004-09-01 |title=Toward a 3D marine cadastre in support of good ocean governance: a review of the technical framework requirements |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S019897150300108X |journal=Computers, Environment and Urban Systems |series=Cadastral Systems III |volume=28 |issue=5 |pages=443–470 |doi=10.1016/j.compenvurbsys.2003.11.002 |bibcode=2004CEUS...28..443N |issn=0198-9715|url-access=subscription }}</ref> They help further conservation and sustainability efforts.<ref name=":0" /> This is especially a concern in Europe's large aquatic market.<ref>{{Cite conference |last1=Balla |first1=Evangelia |last2=Wouters |first2=Rik |date=2017 |title=Marine Cadastre in Europe: state of play |conference=18th Annual World Bank Conference on Land and Poverty 2017 |url=https://research.utwente.nl/en/publications/marine-cadastre-in-europe-state-of-play |language=English}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> In Australia, they are used by many parties to plan around legal, technical, and institutional considerations.<ref>{{Cite conference |last1=Binns |first1=Andrew |last2=Rajabifard |first2=Abbas |last3=Collier |first3=Phil A. |last4=Williamson |first4=Ian |date=2003 |title=Issues in Defining the Concept of a Marine Cadastre for Australia |conference=UNB-FIG Meeting on Marine Cadastre Issues |conference-url=https://fig.net/organisation/comm/4/news/marine_cadastre_2003.asp |url=https://rest.neptune-prod.its.unimelb.edu.au/server/api/core/bitstreams/ac101de6-ba46-5850-97a8-fb6406db8645/content }}</ref> A related concept is that of ''marine spatial data infrastructures''.<ref>{{cite report |author=Michael Sutherland |year=2003 |title=Report on the outcomes of the UNB-FIG Meeting on Marine Cadastre Issues |url=https://fig.net/organisation/comm/4/library/reports/marine_cad_report_draft.pdf }}</ref>

==See also== {{columns-list|colwidth=30em| * Assessor's parcel number * Boundary (real estate) * Cadastral community * Cadastral divisions of Australia * ''Defter'' (Ottoman Empire) * Estate (house) * Forest inventory * Geographic information system (GIS) * Kadaster (Netherlands) * Land administration * Land (economics) * Land grant * Land registry of Bertier de Sauvigny * Land tenure and registration * Real property * Recorder of deeds * Surveying * Web mapping }}

==References== {{Reflist}} * {{EB1911|wstitle=Cadastre}}

==Further reading== * {{cite book |author=National Research Council | title=Procedures and Standards for a Multipurpose Cadastre | publisher=The National Academies Press | doi=10.17226/11803 | url=https://www.nap.edu/catalog/11803/procedures-and-standards-for-a-multipurpose-cadastre | access-date=2022-01-15|isbn=978-0-309-03343-5|doi-access=free|date=1983}} * Tas, Idir (2020). ''Le plan cadastral français : de 1807 à nos jours'', Paris

== External links == {{wiktionary|cadastre|cadastral}} * [http://www.cadastraltemplate.org Cadastral Template Project], linking to descriptions of national cadastres * [http://www.eurogeographics.org/ EuroGeographics], representing National Mapping and Cadastral Agencies * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090514010242/http://www.eurocadastre.org/eng/about.html Permanent Committee on Cadastre in the European Union] * http://www.icisociety.ca/ * Surveyor General Branch http://sgb.nrcan.gc.ca/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220426134816/http://sgb.nrcan.gc.ca/ |date=2022-04-26 }} * [http://www.ancpi.ro/pages/home.php?lang=en Cadastre in Romania] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170813150108/http://www.ancpi.ro/pages/home.php?lang=en |date=2017-08-13 }} * [https://hunting-app.toposports.com/land-ownership-parcels/property-line-maps.html?parcel-maps=1#16/45.7861/-108.4958 United States Parcel Map]

{{Types of administrative country subdivision}} {{Authority control}}

Category:Types of map Category:Real estate Category:Geomatics Category:Land registration