Brumby

{{short description|Feral horse in Australia}} {{Other uses}} {{Good article}} {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}} {{Use Australian English|date=May 2011}} {{Infobox horse |name= Brumby |image=Brumbies.jpg |image_caption=Brumbies near the Sandover Highway in the Northern Territory, 2006 |image_alt=A small group of dark-colored horses standing near a dirt road |features = |altname= |nickname= |country= England |group1= |std1= }}

A '''brumby''' is a free-roaming feral horse in Australia. Although found in many areas around the country, the best-known brumbies are found in the Australian Alps region. Today, most of them are found in the Northern Territory, with the second-largest population in Queensland. A group of brumbies is known as a "mob" or "band".<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9NRAVHvyqGM| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211116/9NRAVHvyqGM| archive-date=2021-11-16 | url-status=live|title=Australia's wild desert horses: 'This environment tests them to their limits'|last=Mellor|first=Leonie|date=19 September 2018|work=ABC 7.30|access-date=6 November 2019|type=News Report|quote=...wild horses, in what's referred to as bands. Groups of up to a dozen with a protective stallion...}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

Brumbies are the descendants of escaped or lost horses, dating back in some cases to those belonging to the early European settlers. Today they live in many places, including some National Parks, notably Alpine National Park in Victoria, Barrington Tops National Park and Kosciuszko National Park in NSW, and Carnarvon National Park in Queensland. Occasionally they are mustered and tamed for use as campdrafters, working stock horses on farms or stations, but also as trail horses, show horses, Pony Club mounts and pleasure horses.<ref>Dobbie, W. R., Berman, D. M., & Braysher, M. L. (1993). ''Managing Vertebrate Pests: Feral horses''. Canberra: Australia Government Publishing Service.</ref>

They are the subject of some controversy – regarded as a pest and threat to native ecosystems by environmentalists and the government,<ref name="AGDEH 2004" /><ref>{{cite news |title=Guns cocked as brumbies run wild |first=Malcolm|last=Holland|url=http://www.heraldsun.com.au/news/guns-cocked-as-brumbies-run-wild/story-e6frf7jo-1225841125272 |newspaper=Herald Sun |date=15 March 2010 |access-date=20 December 2010}}</ref> but also valued by others as part of Australia's heritage, or even as a biotic component of the Anthropocene ecosystem.<ref name="Sleep" /> Supporters have been working to prevent inhumane treatment or extermination, and rehoming brumbies who have been captured.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guyfawkesheritagehorse.com/ |title=The Guy Fawkes Heritage Horse Association Inc. |last=Foster |first=Helen and Digby |year=2010 |publisher=self |access-date=4 January 2010 |location=Dorrigo, NSW}}</ref>

==History== ===Origin of the term=== The term ''brumby'' refers to a feral horse in Australia.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.askoxford.com:80/concise_oed/brumby?view=uk |archive-url= https://archive.today/20120729060435/http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/brumby?view=uk |url-status= dead |archive-date= 29 July 2012 |title = Definition of "Brumby" |work= Compact Oxford English Dictionary |publisher= Oxford University Press |access-date=4 January 2010}}</ref> Earlier nineteenth-century terms for wild horses in rural Australia included ''clear-skins'' and ''scrubbers''.<ref>Morris, p. 58</ref>

The earliest known use of ''brumby'' in speech (1862, recorded 1896) is on the plains around the Barwon River and Narran River in northern New South Wales.<ref>[http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article14063420 "BRUMBY", The Sydney Morning Herald 18 Aug 1896 Page 7]</ref> The two oldest known appearances in print (from Walgett, New South Wales, in 1871<ref>[http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article18757902 WALGETT, The Maitland Mercury and Hunter River General Advertiser, 10 October 1871, page 3]</ref> and St George, Queensland, in 1874)<ref>[http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article215602214 ST. GEORGE ANNUAL RACES, Dalby Herald And Western Queensland Advertiser, 25 April 1874, page 3]</ref> are both from this area, and the next two – letters to ''The Queenslander'' in 1874<ref>[http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article18333812 ''A Voice from the Border''], ''The Queenslander'' (Brisbane, Qld.: 1866–1939), 12 Dec 1874, p. 9.</ref> and 1875<ref name=":0">[http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article18335255 Buzzes from Borderland, The Queenslander, 20 March 1875, page7]</ref> – are from a self-described 'slayer of brumbies' living in Boobera, near Goondiwindi, just to the east. In the first two articles ''brumby'' is used in metaphors with the connotation of an inferior animal and the two letters from Boobera describe the brumby problem and depict the hardships of the brumby shooter.

Altogether in the ten years from the first (1871) appearance, a Trove search of Australian newspapers found just 23 more articles in newspapers and an almanac containing ''brumby'', meaning a wild horse, plus five instances where one of these articles was copied into another newspaper. Four of these instances were of an article "Brumbie Shooting"<ref>[http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article142155555 BRUMBIE SHOOTING, The Australasian (Melbourne, Vic. : 1864 - 1946), Sat 27 Nov 1875, Page 7]</ref> from ''Munro's Port Curtis Almanac and Miners' and Settlers' Companion for 1876''. In all 15 of the 24 articles referred to brumby shooting or hunting.

Generally from these articles it is evident that ''brumby'' was a new word and therefore probably unfamiliar to newspaper readers at that time (i.e. 1870s). One article mentions ''a mob of scrubbers; or, as they have been called in the latter days, "brumbies"'',<ref>[http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article139769475 A DAY'S RIDE AFTER WILD HORSES, The Australasian, 24 June 1876, page 7]</ref> and another asks, ''do your town-readers know what it is,—or who, or what is a "brumbie"? It simply means a wild horse.<ref name=":0" />'' Other articles follow the word ''brumby'' with the meaning – usually wild horse or unbranded horse, some adding that it is a bush or Queensland word.

The ''Australasian'' magazine from Melbourne in 1880 said that ''brumbies'' was the bush name in Queensland for 'wild' horses.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Country Sketches. A Spring Ride in the Queensland Bush |journal=The Australasian |date=4 December 1880 |volume=XXIX |issue=766 |page=8 |url=https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/page/15062374 |access-date=26 May 2022}}</ref> In 1885, the ''Once a Month'' magazine suggested that ''brumbies'' was a New South Wales term, and the poet Banjo Paterson stated in the introduction for his poem "Brumby's Run" published in the ''Bulletin'' in 1894 that ''brumby'' is the Aboriginal word for a wild horse.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.poetrylibrary.edu.au/poets/paterson-a-b-banjo/brumby-s-run-0026003|title=Australian Poetry Library|access-date=23 November 2018|archive-date=21 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190321150718/https://www.poetrylibrary.edu.au/poets/paterson-a-b-banjo/brumby-s-run-0026003|url-status=dead}}</ref> Its derivation is obscure,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/brumby |title =Definition of "Brumby" |work =Dictionary.com |access-date= 3 January 2010}}</ref> and may have come about from one or more of the following possibilities:

# Horses left behind by Sergeant James Brumby from his property at Mulgrave Place in New South Wales, when he left for Tasmania in 1804.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Campbell |first1=A.W. |title=Australian Dictionary of Biography |date=1966 |publisher=Australian National University |url=https://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/brumby-james-1840 |chapter=James Brumby (1771–1838)}}</ref> # An Aboriginal word ''{{lang|mis|baroomby}}'' meaning "wild" in the language of the Pitjara Indigenous Australians on the Warrego and Nogoa Rivers in southern Queensland.<ref>[http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/resources/parks/guyFawkesHorsesV2App1.pdf The History of theGuy Fawkes River Australian Brumbies and the Brumbies of the Northern Tablelands] Retrieved 2009-12-23</ref> The term is supposed to have spread from that district in about 1864.<ref>Morris, Edward E., (1898, London, Macmillan & Co, reprinted 1973, SUP) ''A dictionary of Austral English'', Sydney University Press, p. 58. {{ISBN|0424063905}}</ref> # A letter in 1896 to the ''Sydney Morning Herald'' says that ''baroombie'' is the word for horse among the Aboriginal people of the Balonne, Nebine, Warrego and Bulloo Rivers.<ref name="Brumby"/><ref>Scrubber to Brumby Brumby shooting</ref> # Baramba, which was the name of a creek and station in the Queensland district of Burnett, established in the 1840s and later abandoned, leaving many of the horses to escape into the wild.<ref name="AE"/> # It has also been suggested that the name derives from the Irish word ''bromach'' or ''bromaigh'', meaning "colt".<ref name="Brumby">{{cite news|url=https://slll.cass.anu.edu.au/sites/default/files/andc/Ozwords%20Oct.%202003.pdf| title=Wild Horses Running Wild |author =Ludowyk, Frederick|work=Ozwords|volume=10|number=2|page=7|date=October 2003|access-date=11 September 2020}}</ref>

===Early horse imports=== Horses first arrived in Australia in 1788 with the First Fleet. They were imported for farm and utility work; recreational riding and racing were not major activities. By 1800, only about 200 horses are thought to have reached Australia. Horse racing became popular around 1810, resulting in an influx of Thoroughbred imports, mostly from England. Roughly 3,500 horses were living in Australia by 1820 and this number had grown to 160,000 by 1850, largely due to natural increase.<ref name="Dobbie">Dobbie, W. R., Berman, D. M., & Braysher, M. L. (1993) "Managing vertebrate pests: Feral horses." Canberra: Australia Government Publishing Service</ref> The long journey by sea from England, Europe and Asia meant that only the strongest horses survived the trip, making for a particularly healthy and strong Australian stock, which aided in their ability to flourish.<ref>McKnight, T. (1976) "Friendly vermin – Survey of feral livestock in Australia." Berkeley: University of California Press</ref>

===Origin of feral herds=== [[File:Brumby-Aramut.jpg|thumb|A brumby that was caught in the Apsley River Gorge|alt=Black-and-white photo of a well-groomed brumby standing sideways to the camera, wearing a Barcoo bridle but no saddle, set up in a squared-up conformation stance, as if at a horse show.]]

Horses were likely confined primarily to the Sydney region until the early 19th century, when settlers first crossed the Blue Mountains and opened expansion inland. Horses were required for travel, and for cattle and sheep droving as the pastoral industry grew. The first report of an escaped horse is in 1804 and by the 1840s, some horses had escaped from settled regions of Australia. It is likely that some escaped because fences were not properly installed, if fences existed at all,<ref name="AGDEH 2004">[http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/invasive-species/publications/factsheet-feral-horse-equus-caballus-and-feral-donkey-equus-asinus Australia Government Department of the Environment and Heritage. (2004) Feral horse. (''Equus caballus'') and feral donkey. (''Equus asinus''): Invasive species fact sheet.] Retrieved 2009-3-1.</ref> but it is believed that most Australian horses became feral because they were released into the wild and left to fend for themselves.<ref>Berger, J. (1986) ''Wild horses of the Great Basin.'' Sydney: University of Chicago Press.</ref> This may have been the result of pastoralists abandoning their settlements and thus, their horses, due to the arid conditions and unfamiliar land that combined to make farming in Australia especially difficult. After World War I, the demand for horses by defence forces declined with the growth in mechanisation, which led to a growth in the number of unwanted animals that were often set free. Throughout the 20th century, the replacement of horses with machines in farming led to further reductions in demand, and may have also contributed to increases in feral populations.<ref name="Nimmo">Nimmo, Dale Graeme; Miller, Kelly K. (2007) Ecological and human dimensions of management of feral horses in Australia: A review. Wildlife Research, 34, 408–17.</ref>

{{As of|2023}}, the most current survey – from 2011 – found at least 400,000 horses roamed the continent.<ref name="SenateReportCh2">{{cite web |title=Chapter 2 - Overview of feral horse populations |url=https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Environment_and_Communications/FeralHorses47/Report/Chapter_2_-_Overview_of_feral_horse_populations |website=www.aph.gov.au |publisher=Commonwealth Parliament |access-date=7 December 2024 |language=en-AU}}</ref> It is also estimated that, during non-drought periods, the feral horse population increases at a rate of 20 percent per year.<ref>Eberhardt, L. L.; Majorowicz, A. K.; Wilcox, J. A.(1982). "Apparent rates of increase for two feral horse herds." ''Journal of Wildlife Management,'' 46, 367–374.</ref> Drought conditions and brushfires are natural threats.<ref name="AGDEH 2004"/> Despite population numbers, feral horses are generally considered to be a moderate pest.<ref name="Bomford">Bomford, M., & Hart, Q. (2002). "Non-indigenous vertebrates in Australia." In Biological invasions: Economic and environmental costs of alien plant, animal, and microbe species. David Pimental (Ed.). Boca Raton: CRC Press.</ref> Where they are allowed to damage vegetation and cause erosion, the impact on the environment is significant, and for that reason can be considered a serious environmental threat.<!--this sentence also AGDEH 2004--> However, because they also have cultural and potential economic value, the management of brumbies presents a complex issue.<ref name="AGDEH 2004"/>

Brumbies roaming in the Australian Alps of south-eastern Australia are thought to be descendants of horses which were owned by the pastoralist and pioneer, Benjamin Boyd.<ref name="AE">Chisholm, Alec H. (ed.), The Australian Encyclopaedia, Vol. 2, p. 170, "Brumby", Halstead Press, Sydney, 1963</ref> Feral horses in Barmah National Park mainly originate from stock released by a local horse breeder after 1952, there was no significant long term population of "wild" horses in the park area prior to this date.<ref>{{cite web |author1=Context Pty Ltd |title=History of Wild Horses in the Barmah National Park |url=https://parkweb.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/734687/Wild-Horses-in-the-Barmah-NP-History-Report_.pdf |access-date=14 April 2019 |date=2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190414050025/https://parkweb.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/734687/Wild-Horses-in-the-Barmah-NP-History-Report_.pdf |archive-date=14 April 2019 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Pangaré brumbies=== On the coast south of Geraldton, Western Australia, the brumbies there are known as "Pangare ponies", as they appear to carry the rare Pangaré gene. This colouring is commonly known as ''mealy'' and is seen mainly in a number of old breeds such as British Ponies, Timor Ponies, Haflingers and even Belgian Draught horses. The gene causes lightening in parts of a horse's coat, resulting in a mealy-coloured muzzle, forearms, flanks and the belly. It is sometimes seen in chestnut horses with flaxen-coloured manes and tails.<ref>[http://www.hoofbeats.com.au/greenhorse/greenhorse.html Hoofbeats: Pangare Ponies] Retrieved 2009-12-16</ref>

The Pangaré brumbies appear to have adapted well to their coastal environment, where they are consuming saltbush, which they do not appear to be damaging. The Department of Environment and Conservation and the Outback Heritage Horse Association of Western Australia (OHHAWA) are monitoring these particular brumbies to ensure the careful management of these unusual feral horses.<ref>[http://ohhawa.wildhorses-wa.com/horsenews_stories12.htm Wild horses of WA: The Pangare Ponies] Retrieved 2009-12-16 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100603215827/http://ohhawa.wildhorses-wa.com/horsenews_stories12.htm |date=3 June 2010 }}</ref>

==Uses== thumb|This brumby was used as a safe and reliable mount for a rider who was in her 70s.|alt=A bay horse (brown body with black mane and tail) wearing a headcollar, standing in a green paddock with trees in the background

Brumbies have been captured, fitted with GPS tracking collars and used in extensive comparative research into the effect of terrain on the morphology and health of different horses' hooves. They have their paths of movement, diet, watering patterns and mob structure tracked and recorded.<ref>[http://avacms.eseries.hengesystems.com.au/AM/Template.cfm?Section=Brumby_Research_Lecture_09 Equine Veterinarians: Wild Horses Give Us Their Secrets]{{dead link|date=November 2016 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Retrieved 2009-12-16</ref><ref>[http://www.wildhorseresearch.com/ University of Queensland: Australian Brumby Research Unit] Retrieved 2011-08-15</ref>

Captured brumbies can be trained as stock horses and other saddle horses. Encouraging viewing of feral herds may also have potential as a tourist attraction. Brumbies are sometimes sold into the European horse meat market after their capture, and contribute millions of dollars to the Australian economy. Approximately 30% of horses for meat export originates from the feral population. The hides and hair of these horses are also used and sold.<ref name="Dobbie" />

Wild brumbies are used in brumby training camps by organisations that promote positive interaction between troubled, high-risk youths. These camps usually last several weeks, allowing youths to train a wild brumby to become a quiet, willing saddle horse while improving the youths' self-esteem.<ref>[http://www.kalandanfoundation.com.au/brumby_camps.php Brumby camps] Retrieved 2011-11-06 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023225318/http://www.kalandanfoundation.com.au/brumby_camps.php |date=23 October 2009 }}</ref>

Wild brumbies are also used in the brumby catch and handle event in stockman's challenge competitions, where riders are required to catch a free running brumby from their horse within a time limit of a few minutes. Sectional points are awarded for the stockman's challenge for care and skill in catching the brumby and their ability to teach them to lead. These demanding challenges for riders are held in New South Wales at Dalgety, Tamworth and Murrurundi<ref>[http://www.snowyriverfestival.com/Snowy-River-Stockman-s-Challenge.html Snowy River Festival at Dalgety] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091210081042/http://www.snowyriverfestival.com/Snowy-River-Stockman-s-Challenge.html |date=10 December 2009 }} Retrieved 200-12-16</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ncha.com.au/files/uploaded/file/News%20and%20Media%20releases/MEDIA%20RELEASE%20Stockman's%20Challenege%2011th%20May%202009.pdf |title=NCHA: Stockman's Challenge |access-date= 2009-12-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091003050526/http://www.ncha.com.au/files/uploaded/file/News%20and%20Media%20releases/MEDIA%20RELEASE%20Stockman%27s%20Challenege%2011th%20May%202009.pdf |archive-date=2009-10-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kingoftheranges.com.au/home.php |title=King of the Ranges Stockman's Challenge|access-date=2010-12-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100911142931/http://www.kingoftheranges.com.au/home.php |archive-date=2010-09-11 |publisher=King of the Ranges}}</ref> plus ''The Man From Snowy River Challenge'' in Corryong, Victoria.<ref>[http://www.manfromsnowyriverbushfestival.com.au/ The Man from Snowy River Bush Festival] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100121145439/http://www.manfromsnowyriverbushfestival.com.au/ |date=21 January 2010 }} Retrieved 200-12-16</ref> Several New South Wales show societies, including Walcha, Bellingen and Dorrigo, hold special classes for registered brumbies at their annual agricultural shows.<ref name="The Land Magazine p.3, 19">The Land Magazine, p. 3, 19 June 2008, Rural Press, North Richmond, NSW</ref>

==Environmental impacts== {{see also|Invasive species in Australia|Feral donkeys in Australia|Free-roaming horse management in North America#Introduced vs. reintroduced species}} thumb|The distribution of brumbies in Australia [[File:Alpine Way brumbies.jpg|thumb|Brumbies grazing on Alpine Way near Dead Horse Gap, Kosciuszko National Park]] The Sahul is a biome which has undergone significant changes since the Pleistocene, and the roles once filled by its native megafauna were largely removed. There have been proposal to reassess the potentials of newly introduced biotic components to prompt the continent's ecological productivity, describing equids as ecosystem engineers in the Anthropocene. However, this radical and less studied concept has received mixed reactions and criticisms from scientific communities.<ref name="Sleep">Robert Sleep, 2024, ''[https://theconversation.com/horses-camels-and-deer-get-a-bad-rap-for-razing-plants-but-our-new-research-shows-theyre-no-worse-than-native-animals-221873 Horses, camels and deer get a bad rap for razing plants – but our new research shows they’re no worse than native animals]'', The Conversation</ref><ref>Xavier La Canna, September 12, 2017, "[https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-09-12/should-australia-rethink-eradication-programs-of-feral-animals/8830998 Australia's introduced animals: Eradication programs under the spotlight]", Australian Broadcasting Corporation</ref><ref>Monique Ross and Ben Cheshire, November 4, 2024, [https://www.abc.net.au/news/2024-11-04/grazier-using-wild-donkeys-to-regenerate-land-in-legal-battle/104445766 Meet the defiant grazier using feral donkeys to regenerate his land at Kachana Station in an 'illegal' experiment], Australian Broadcasting Corporation</ref>

On average, 20% of the feral horse population dies each year, mainly from drought, poisonous plants and parasites. Few feral horses reach 20 years of age. The maximum possible rate that feral horse numbers can increase is 20–25% per year.<ref name="Csurhes 2016">{{Citation| publisher = Department of Agriculture and Fisheries: Biosecurity Queensland| last1 = Csurhes| first1 = Steve| last2 = Paroz| first2 = Gina| last3 = Markula| first3 = Anna| title = Invasive animal risk assessment: Feral horse, Equus caballus| date = 2016| url = https://www.daf.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/51961/IPA-Feral-Horses-Risk-Assessment.pdf}}</ref><ref name="Malone">{{Cite news|date=2021-01-12|title=New survey supports need to cull more of Kosciuszko's wild horses, state government says|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-01-13/wild-horse-population-in-kosciuszko-slashed-by-a-quarter/13053240|access-date=2021-02-16|newspaper=ABC News|language=en-AU|last1=Malone|first1=Ursula}}</ref>

Horses were first described as pests in Australia in the 1860s.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110219020053/http://www.feral.org.au/pest-species/horse/ Pest Animal Control CRC. Feral horse. (Equus caballus)] Retrieved 2011-11-06.</ref> Their environmental impact may include soil loss, compaction, and erosion; trampling of vegetation; reduction in the vastness of plants; increased tree deaths by chewing on bark; damage to bog habitats and waterholes; spreading of invasive weeds; and various detrimental effects on population of native species.<ref name="Nimmo" /> In some cases, when feral horses are startled, they may damage infrastructure, including troughs, pipes, and fences.<ref name="Dobbie" /> However, brumbies are also credited for helping keep tracks and trails clear for bush walkers and service vehicles in some areas.<ref>Walcha News, p. 6, 17 July 2008, Rural Press</ref> In recent years, the impact of bushfires has exacerbated the impact of brumbies as native species struggle to adapt to climate change.<ref name=Albeck>{{cite web |last1=Albeck-Ripka |first1=Livia |last2=Abbott |first2=Matthew |title=Majestic Icon or Invasive Pest? A War Over Australia's Wild Horses |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/28/world/australia/brumbies-horses-culling.html |website=The New York Times |access-date=29 June 2020 |date=28 June 2020}}</ref>

In some habitats, hooves of free-roaming horses compact the soil, and when the soil is compacted, air spaces are minimized, leaving nowhere for water to collect.<ref name = Dyring90>Dyring, J. (1990). The impact of feral horses. (''Equus caballus'') on sub-alpine and montane environments. Canberra: University of Canberra Press.</ref> When this occurs, soil in areas where horses are prevalent has a water penetration resistance over 15 times higher than that in areas without horses.<ref>Beever, E. A., and Herrick, J. E. (2006) Effects of feral horses in Great Basin landscapes on soils and ants: direct and indirect mechanisms. Journal of Arid Environments, 66, 96–112.</ref> Trampling also causes soil erosion and damages vegetation, and because the soil cannot hold water, plant regrowth is hindered.<ref name="AGDEH 2004" /> Horse trampling also has the potential to damage waterways and bog habitats. Trampling near streams increases runoff, reducing the quality of the water and causing harm to the ecosystem of the waterway.<ref>Rogers, G. M. (1991) Kaimanawa feral horses and their environmental impacts. New Zealand Journal of Ecology, 15, 49–64, New Zealand Ecological Society, Inc.</ref> Horse excrement and the carcasses that result when feral horses perish add to the negative environmental impact of feral horses in Australia.<ref name="Nimmo" />

Alpine areas, such as those of Kosciuszko National Park, are at particular risk; low-growing alpine flora is highly vulnerable to trampling, and the short summers mean little time for plants to grow and recover from damage. The biodiversity there is high, with 853 species of plant, 21 of which are found nowhere else. Erosion in the limestone karst areas leads to runoff and silting. Sphagnum moss is an important component of highland bogs, and is trampled by horses seeking water.<ref>Kosciuszko National Park Horse Management Plan, pp. 12–13</ref>

Feral horses may also reduce the richness of plant species.<ref name = Dyring90/> Exposure of soil caused by trampling and vegetation removal via grazing, combined with increased nutrients being recycled by horse dung, favour weed species, which then invade the region and overtake native species, diminishing their diversity.<ref name="Nimmo" /> The dispersal of weeds is aided by the attachment of seeds to the horses' manes and tails, and are also transferred via horse dung after consumption of weeds in one location and excrement in another. Although the effects of the weeds that actually germinate after transfer via dung is debated, the fact that a large number of weed species are dispersed via this method is of concern to those interested in the survival of native plant species in Australia.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1 = Campbell |first1 = J. E. |last2 = Gibson |first2 = D. J. |year = 2001 |title = The effect of seeds of exotic species transported via horse dung on vegetation along trail corridors |journal = Plant Ecology |volume = 157 |issue = 1 |pages = 23–35 |doi=10.1023/a:1013751615636|bibcode = 2001PlEco.157...23C |s2cid = 25075261 }}</ref> The effect on plants and plant habitats are more pronounced during droughts, when horses travel greater distances to find food and water. They consume the already threatened and limited vegetation, and their negative influences are more widespread.<ref name="AGDEH 2004" /> Feral horses may also chew the bark of trees, which may leave some trees vulnerable to external threats. This has occurred during drought, among eucalyptus species on the Red Range plateau.<ref>Bark Chewing on Red Range plateau, GFRNP: {{cite web |url=http://www.ecoman.une.edu.au/staff/kvernes/Ashton.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2008-06-24 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070829033319/http://www.ecoman.une.edu.au/staff/kvernes/Ashton.pdf |archive-date=29 August 2007}}</ref> It appears as though feral horses may prefer these species.<ref name="Nimmo" />

===Interaction with other animal species=== The changes in vegetation that result when feral horses overpopulate a region affects bird species by removing plants upon which they feed, as well as altering the habitat of the birds and their prey.<ref name=Levin>{{Cite journal |last1 = Levin |first1 = P. S. |last2 = Ellis |first2 = J. |last3 = Petrik |first3 = R. |last4 = Hay |first4 = M. E. |year = 2002 |title = Indirect effects of feral horses on estuarine communities |journal = Conservation Biology |volume = 16 |issue = 5|pages = 1364–1371 |doi=10.1046/j.1523-1739.2002.01167.x|bibcode = 2002ConBi..16.1364L |s2cid = 84700265 }}</ref> Feral horse grazing is also linked to a decline in reptiles and amphibians due to habitat loss.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1 = Clemann |first1 = N. |year = 2002 |title = A herpetofauna survey of the Victorian alpine region, with a review of threats to these species |journal = Victorian Naturalist |volume = 119 |pages = 48–58 }}</ref> In addition, the grazing and trampling near waterways influences aquatic fauna. In areas frequented by horses, crab densities are higher, increasing the propensity for predation on fish. As a result, fish densities decline as the removal of vegetation renders them more susceptible to predation.<ref name=Levin/>

In areas where horses are abundant, macropod populations are less prevalent. This is most likely due to the horses' consumption of vegetation upon which the macropods normally feed.<ref name="Nimmo" /> When horses are removed, signs of the presence of various macropods, specifically the black-footed rock wallaby, increase. Thus, competition with horses may be the reason for the decline in macropod populations in certain areas.<ref>Matthews, D., Bryan, R., and Edwards, G. (2001) Recovery of the black-footed rock-wallaby following horse removal on Finke Gorge National Park, Northern Territory. In Nimmo (2007)</ref>

Brumby populations also may have the potential to pass zoonotic and exotic diseases, such as equine influenza and African horse sickness, to domestic horses and other animals, including humans.<ref>[http://www.burkesbackyard.com.au/factsheets/Conservation-and-the-Environment/Horse-Culling/1157 Burke's Backyard: Horse Culling] Retrieved 2009-12-1-23</ref> They also may carry tick fever, which can be passed to both horses and cattle.<ref name="AGDEH 2004" /> Disease can lead to high fatalities and financial losses among domestic populations, prompting many farmers to call for the regulated management of feral horses.

Like all livestock, brumbies can carry the parasite ''Cryptosporidium parvum'', which can result in serious gastroenteritis in people, from drinking contaminated water.<ref>Environment ACT 2007, Namadgi National Park Feral Horse Management Plan</ref>

There are no known predators of feral horses in Australia, although it is possible that dingoes or feral dogs occasionally take foals.<ref name="Csurhes 2016" /><ref name="Malone" />

==Population management== [[File:Kakadu brumbies.jpg|thumb|Brumbies, Kakadu National Park|alt=A group of horses grazing in a field with a lake in the foreground and a forest in the background]]

Although poor management of feral horses may pose an ecological and environmental threat in some parts of Australia, their management is made difficult by issues of feasibility and public concern. Currently, management attempts vary, as feral horses are considered pests in some states, such as South Australia, but not others, including Queensland.<ref name="Nimmo" /> There is also controversy over removal of brumbies from National Parks. The primary argument in favour of the removal of brumbies is that they impact on fragile ecosystems and damage and destroy endangered native flora and fauna.

Public concern is a major issue in control efforts<ref>Nimmo, D. G., Miller, K., & Adams, R. (2007). "Managing feral horses in Victoria: A study of community attitudes and perceptions". ''Ecological Management & Restoration'' 8 (3), 237–243</ref> as many advocate for the protection of brumbies, including some Aboriginal people who believe feral horses belong to the country.<ref name="Dobbie" /> Other horse interest groups resent the labelling of horses as "feral" and are completely opposed to any measures that threaten their survival.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chapple |first1=R. |year=2005 |title=The politics of feral horse management in Guy Fawkes River National Park, NSW |journal=Australian Zoologist |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=233–246 |doi=10.7882/az.2005.020|doi-access=free}}</ref> While some animal welfare groups such as the RSPCA reluctantly accept culling, other organisations such as Save the Brumbies oppose lethal culling techniques and attempt to organise relocation of the animals instead.<ref name=Houghton>Houghton, Des. [http://www.couriermail.com.au/news/opinion/the-killing-fields/story-e6frereo-1111114841138 "The Killing Fields" ''The Courier Mail'', 9 November 2007. Accessed online 20 December 2010]</ref>

Meanwhile, conservationist groups, such as the Australian Conservation Foundation, favour humane culling as a means of control because of the damage brumby overpopulation can cause to native flora and fauna, but are also generally opposed to various means of extermination.<ref>Senate Select Committee on Animal Welfare. (1991). Culling of large feral animals in the Northern Territory. Canberra: Senate Printing Unit.</ref> This makes management a challenge for policymakers.

===Population control methods=== {{see also|Animal population control}} thumb|Brumbies awaiting their sale and new homes|alt=Four thin horses and a foal in a pen fenced with pipe panels, some eating hay

The traditional method of removal, called brumby running, is reminiscent of Banjo Paterson's iconic poem, ''The Man from Snowy River'' where expert riders rope the brumbies and remove them to a new location.<ref name="AE"/><ref>ABC News: [https://archive.today/20120718042247/http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2007/11/15/2092229.htm "Brumby removal plan sparks community debate"] Retrieved 2009-12-16</ref>

Options for population control include fertility control, ground and helicopter shooting, and mustering and trapping. None of the methods provide complete freedom from suffering for the horses, and the cost of each is very high. The costs include those that are economic, such as research, equipment purchases, and labour expenditures, as well as moral concerns over the welfare of the horses. As a result, more effective and efficient means of control have been called for.<ref name="Dobbie" />

Fertility control is a non-lethal method of population management that is usually viewed as the most humane treatment,<ref name="Killan">Killian, G. L. A., Miller, N. K., Diehl, J., Rhyan, J., and Thain, D. (2004) "Evaluation of three contraceptive approaches for population control of wild horses." ''Proceedings of the 21st Vertebrate Pest Conference,'' 21, 263–268. In Nimmo (2007)</ref> and its use is supported by the RSPCA.<ref name=Houghton/> While it appears as though these treatments are effective in the breeding season immediately following injection, the lasting effects are debated. Because it is costly and difficult to treat animals repeatedly, this method, despite being ideal, is not widely implemented.<ref name="Killan" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nt.gov.au/nreta/wildlife/animals/feral/horse.html/|title=Feral Animals of the Northern Territory|publisher=Northern Territory Government |access-date=20 December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091008072024/http://nt.gov.au/nreta/wildlife/animals/feral/horse.html |archive-date=2009-10-08}}</ref>

Shooting by trained marksmen is considered to be the most practical method of control due to its effectiveness. The NSW Department of Primary Industries believe shooting is the preferred method of population control as it does not subject the horses to the stresses of mustering, yarding, and long-distance transportation, all of which are related to 'capture and removal' methods.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/57270/hor-cop.pdf |title=Humane pest animal control |last1=Sharp |first1=Trudy |last2=Saunders |first2=Glen |work=Model code of practice for the humane control of feral horses |publisher=NSW Department of Primary Industries |access-date=19 December 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091028051145/http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/57270/hor-cop.pdf |archive-date=28 October 2009 }}</ref> Horses that are only initially wounded from shooting are tracked and dispatched if they are in accessible, open country. Brumbie advocacy groups do not consider mountain shooting to be humane.<ref>The Australian Veterinary Association (AVA) spoke out about the Guy Fawkes River National Park Brumby cull: http://www.brumbywatchaustralia.com/GFRNP-AVA_speaks.htm {{Webarchive |url=https://archive.today/20060821151551/http://www.brumbywatchaustralia.com/GFRNP-AVA_speaks.htm |date=21 August 2006 }}</ref> Helicopter shootings allow for aerial reconnaissance of a large area to target the densest populations and shooters may get close enough to the target animals to ensure termination.<ref name="Nimmo" /> This method is considered the most effective and cost efficient means of control, but disapproval is high amongst those that believe it is inhumane.<ref name="Bomford" /> Organisations supporting brumbies argue that aerial shooting is unnecessary and that alternative population control methods have not been given adequate trials, while government officials express concern about the need to control rapidly growing populations in order to avoid ecological problems associated with too many feral horses in certain areas.<ref name=Houghton2>Houghton, Des. [http://www.couriermail.com.au/news/opinion/outrage-over-brumbie-hit-squad/story-e6frereo-1225860792702 "Outrage Over Brumbie Hit Squad. ''Courier Mail,''30 April 2010. Accessed 20 December 2010]</ref>

Mustering is a labour-intensive process that results in one of two major outcomes: slaughter for sale, or relocation. It may be assisted by feed-luring in which bales of hay are strategically placed to attract feral horses to a location where capture is feasible. Complicating this process is low demand for the captured horses, making it less desirable than fertility control or shooting, which reduce the population without having to find alternative locations for them.<ref name="Nimmo" />

===Management in national parks=== thumb|Brumbies on the Chandler River, Oxley Wild Rivers National Park|alt=A small group of horses just visible at the end of a field with tall forested hills behind them

{{As of|2023}} the estimated number of brumbies in Kosciuszko National Park is 18,000,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Reardon |first1=Adriane |title=Damage done to precious alpine environments by feral horses 'cannot be overstated', Senate inquiry told |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-08-23/wild-horses-senate-inquiry/102754926 |access-date=8 September 2023 |work=ABC News |date=23 August 2023 |language=en-AU}}</ref> up from 14,000 in 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|last=View|first=The Herald's|date=2021-01-13|title=Brumbies are destroying Kosciuszko National Park and must be removed|url=https://www.smh.com.au/environment/conservation/brumbies-are-destroying-kosciuszko-national-park-and-must-be-removed-20210113-p56tv5.html|access-date=2021-05-27|website=The Sydney Morning Herald|language=en}}</ref> Following intensified removal efforts, horse numbers declined sharply; by 2024 estimates had fallen to 3,000–4,000.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-03-03 |title=Brumby numbers 'way down' in Kosciuszko, aerial shooting paused |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2025-03-03/nsw-environment-minister-wild-horse-numbers/104498518 |access-date=2026-03-10 |work=ABC News |language=en-AU}}</ref>

Between 22 October and 24 October 2000, approximately 600 brumbies were shot in the Guy Fawkes River National Park by the National Parks and Wildlife Service. As a result of the public outcry that followed the NSW Government established a steering committee to investigate alternative methods of control.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.savethebrumbies.org/ |title=Save the Brumbies |access-date=5 October 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090104171749/http://www.savethebrumbies.org/ |archive-date=4 January 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Since the campaign began to remove horses from the national park, over 400 have been passively trapped and taken from the Park, and 200 of these have been re-homed.<ref name="The Land Magazine p.3, 19" />

A particular feral horse of Australia, the Coffin Bay pony, was completely removed from the Coffin Bay National Park and relocated to a neighbouring parcel of land by 2004. This was a result of a public outcry to a previously proposed plan by South Australia's Department of Environment and Natural Resources to cull all animals in the park.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.utas.edu.au/arts/imaging/bagust.pdf |title=Cuddly Koalas, Beautiful Brumbies, Exotic Olives |access-date=1 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402230222/http://www.utas.edu.au/arts/imaging/bagust.pdf |archive-date=2 April 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

A NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service cull during 2006 and 2007 in Kosciuszko National Park, where there were an estimated 1700 horses in 2005,<ref>Kosciuszko National Park Horse Management Plan, p. 1</ref> resulted in a reduction of 64 horses.<ref>Kosciuszko National Park Horse Management Plan, p. 17</ref> The NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service commenced a plan in 2007 to reduce brumby numbers by passive trapping in the Oxley Wild Rivers National Park.<ref>{{cite web|title=Feral Horse Management Plan Draft – Oxley Wild Rivers National Park|date=January 2006|url=http://www.nationalparks.nsw.gov.au/PDFs/draft_pom_feral_horses_oxley.pdf|access-date=2007-11-04|publisher=New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060907154427/http://nationalparks.nsw.gov.au/PDFs/draft_pom_feral_horses_oxley.pdf |archive-date=2006-09-07}}</ref> Over 60 brumbies captured in the Apsley River Gorge have now been re-homed.

In 2008 the third phase of an aerial culling of brumbies took place, by shooting 700 horses from a helicopter, in Carnarvon Gorge in Carnarvon National Park, Queensland.<ref>ABC News: [https://archive.today/20120719114335/http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2008/08/26/2346230.htm "Cull cuts Carnarvon Gorge brumby numbers"] Retrieved 2009-12-19</ref>

==In national culture== Brumbies feature prominently in Australian cultural history and are frequently referenced in discussions of national identity. Scholars note that contemporary debates about brumby management reflect differing views about heritage, land use and the legacy of colonisation.<ref>{{cite news |last=Elder |first=Catriona |title=The brumby debate will never be settled until we face the role horses played in colonisation |url=https://theconversation.com/the-brumby-debate-will-never-be-settled-until-we-face-the-role-horses-played-in-colonisation-215140 |work=The Conversation |date=16 October 2023 |access-date=2024-11-05}}</ref>

Brumbies, often referred to as "wild bush horses", appear in Banjo Paterson’s poem ''The Man from Snowy River'', which has contributed to their popular image in Australian folklore.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Webby |first=Elizabeth |year=2000 |title=Paterson, Andrew Barton (Banjo) |journal=Australian Dictionary of Biography |url=https://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/paterson-andrew-barton-banjo-7972 |access-date=2024-11-05}}</ref> Paterson and excerpts from the poem have featured on the Australian ten‑dollar banknote since 1993.<ref>{{Cite web |title=$10 Banknote |url=https://www.banknotes.rba.gov.au/australias-banknotes/banknotes-in-circulation/ten-dollar/ |access-date=2024-11-05 |website=Reserve Bank of Australia Banknotes}}</ref> Paterson also wrote ''Brumby’s Run'', inspired by a newspaper report of a New South Wales Supreme Court judge who, on hearing of brumby horses, asked: "Who is Brumby, and where is his run?"<ref>{{cite news |title=Brumby's Run |newspaper=The Australasian |date=4 July 1891 |url=https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/138643873 |access-date=2024-11-05}}</ref>

The ''Silver Brumby'' series by Elyne Mitchell, written for children and young adults, follows the adventures of Thowra, a brumby stallion.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Prentice |first=Jeff |year=2002 |title=A Tribute: Elyne Mitchell, 1913–2002, Matriarch of the High Country |journal=Viewpoint: On Books for Young Adults |volume=10 |issue=3 |url=http://extranet.edfac.unimelb.edu.au/LLAE/viewpoint/sp02bo.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091030030954/http://extranet.edfac.unimelb.edu.au/LLAE/viewpoint/sp02bo.shtml |archive-date=2009-10-30}}</ref> The books were adapted into a feature film, ''The Silver Brumby'', and later into an animated television series.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Silver Brumby |url=https://aso.gov.au/titles/series/silver-brumby/ |website=Australian Screen Online |access-date=2021-06-28}}</ref>

The brumby has also been adopted as a modern cultural emblem. In 1996 it became the symbol of the ACT Brumbies, a Canberra‑based rugby union team competing in Super Rugby.<ref>{{cite web |title=Official site of Brumbies Rugby |publisher=CA Brumbies |year=2007 |url=http://www.brumbies.com.au/ |access-date=2007-10-31}}</ref> Subaru marketed a small coupe utility in Australia under the model name "Brumby", known in other markets as the Shifter, 284 and BRAT.<ref>{{cite web |title=Subaru Brumby model history |url=https://www.uniquecarsandparts.com.au/car_info_subaru_brumby |access-date=2024-11-05}}</ref>

==See also== * Invasive species in Australia * Kaimanawa horse * ''Kosciuszko Wild Horse Heritage Act 2018'' * Mustang

==References== === Citations === {{reflist|30em}}

=== General and cited references === * {{cite book |url=http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/resources/nature/KNPHorseManagementPlanFinal08.pdf|title=Kosciuszko National Park Horse Management Plan|date=December 2008|publisher=NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service, Department of Environment and Climate Change, NSW Government|access-date=11 January 2010|isbn= 978-1-74122-831-1}}

==External links== {{Wiktionary|brumby}} {{Commons category|Brumby (horse)}} * [http://australianbrumbyalliance.org.au/ Australian Brumby Alliance] * [https://archive.today/20050509013736/http://www.brumbywatchaustralia.com/old_index.htm Brumby Watch] * [http://www.guyfawkesheritagehorse.com/ Heritage Horse] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20091202035359/http://www.parliament.nsw.gov.au/prod/parlment/hansart.nsf/V3Key/LA20020626034 National Parks Wild Horse Control] * [http://www.ansi.okstate.edu/breeds/horses/australianbrumby/ Okstate: Australian Brumby] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090104171749/http://www.savethebrumbies.org/ Save The Brumbies Inc]

Category:Fauna naturalised in Australia Category:Feral horses Category:Horse breeds Category:Horse breeds originating in Australia Category:Introduced mammals of Australia Category:Invasive animal species in Australia