{{Short description|Form of manipulation}} {{Multiple issues| {{Essay-like|date=March 2024}} {{Original research|date=January 2026}} }} {{Use dmy dates|date=December 2023}}
'''Breadcrumbing''', also called '''Hansel and Grettelling''',<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Navarro |first1=Raúl |last2=Larrañaga |first2=Elisa |last3=Yubero |first3=Santiago |last4=Villora |first4=Beatriz |date=2020 |title=Ghosting and breadcrumbing: prevalence and association with online dating behavior among young adults |url=https://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=271066946001 |journal=Escritos de Psicología – Psychological Writings |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=46–59 |issn=1138-2635}}</ref> is the practice of sporadically feigning interest in another person in order to keep them interested, despite lacking genuine investment in the relationship.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Khattar |first1=Vivek |last2=Upadhyay |first2=Shreya |last3=Navarro |first3=Raúl |date=2023-02-08 |title=Young Adults' Perception of Breadcrumbing Victimization in Dating Relationships |journal=Societies |language=en |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=41 |doi=10.3390/soc13020041 |issn=2075-4698 |doi-access=free}}</ref> It is regarded as a type of manipulation and can be either deliberate or unintentional. Breadcrumbing may occur in familial relationships, friendships, and workplaces, but is most common in romantic contexts, particularly with the surge of online dating.
Breadcrumbing is an antisocial dating behavior, similar to ghosting.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Willis |first1=Megan L. |last2=Oliver |first2=Eliza |last3=March |first3=Evita |date=2023-06-01 |title=Dating in the dark: Vulnerable narcissism predicts inauthentic self-presentation in online dating |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0736585323000497 |journal=Telematics and Informatics |volume=81 |article-number=101985 |doi=10.1016/j.tele.2023.101985 |issn=0736-5853|url-access=subscription }}</ref> It is referred to by this name because it involves giving a romantic interest a trail of "breadcrumbs", small bits of intermittent communication, to keep them interested without committing to a serious relationship.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Navarro |first1=Raúl |last2=Larrañaga |first2=Elisa |last3=Yubero |first3=Santiago |last4=Víllora |first4=Beatriz |date=January 2020 |title=Psychological Correlates of Ghosting and Breadcrumbing Experiences: A Preliminary Study among Adults |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |language=en |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=1116 |doi=10.3390/ijerph17031116 |doi-access=free |pmid=32050561 |pmc=7037474 |issn=1660-4601}}</ref> This is intended to give the 'breadcrumbee" (the receiver) false hope<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Khattar |first1=Vivek |last2=Upadhyay |first2=Shreya |last3=Navarro |first3=Raúl |date=February 2023 |title=Young Adults' Perception of Breadcrumbing Victimization in Dating Relationships |journal=Societies |language=en |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=41 |doi=10.3390/soc13020041 |doi-access=free |issn=2075-4698}}</ref> so that they will remain invested. Breadcrumbs might include randomly liking posts or sending flirtatious messages, and require little effort from the "breadcrumber" (the sender),<ref name=":2" /> and will often involve a demonstration and then withdrawal of interest.<ref name=":3" />
Whereas with ghosting the aim is to end the relationship, breadcrumbing's goal is to stop a relationship from ending, while keeping it from progressing by not fully committing to it.<ref name=":2" /> According to Stanley's theory of commitment, these objectives are not the same.{{Citation needed|date=May 2026}} This theory splits commitment into two different constructs: personal dedication and constraint commitment. Personal dedication encompasses an individual's drive to advance a relationship, something that may be lacking for breadcrumbers, while commitment constraint involves the potential consequences of ending the relationship (such as financial repercussions) that force a relationship to be maintained, which are also not present in breadcrumbing.<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stanley |first1=Scott M. |last2=Markman |first2=Howard J. |date=1992 |title=Assessing Commitment in Personal Relationships |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/353245 |journal=Journal of Marriage and Family |volume=54 |issue=3 |pages=595–608 |doi=10.2307/353245 |jstor=353245 |issn=0022-2445|url-access=subscription }}</ref> However, Johnson's model of commitment does also include the idea of moral commitment, unlike Stanley's theory. Johnson's model posits that individuals feel morally obliged to maintain and commit to a relationship,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Johnson |first1=Michael P. |last2=Caughlin |first2=John P. |last3=Huston |first3=Ted L. |date=1999 |title=The Tripartite Nature of Marital Commitment: Personal, Moral, and Structural Reasons to Stay Married |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/353891 |journal=Journal of Marriage and Family |volume=61 |issue=1 |pages=160–177 |doi=10.2307/353891 |jstor=353891 |issn=0022-2445|url-access=subscription }}</ref> something that has yet to be applied to breadcrumbing.
== Causes ==
=== Personality === Research has found that some of the main reasons people breadcrumb are because they are seeking attention, do not want to be alone, and/or have low self-esteem.<ref name=":3" /> These reasons are linked to certain personality traits with certain types of people being more likely to breadcrumb, in particular those who score highly on vulnerable narcissism and hold views similar to those with psychological Machiavellianism.<ref name=":1" /> It is suggested that as vulnerable narcissists seek attention and approval from others in order to increase their self-esteem,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zeigler-Hill |first1=Virgil |last2=Clark |first2=C. Brendan |last3=Pickard |first3=Jessica D. |date=August 2008 |title=Narcissistic Subtypes and Contingent Self-Esteem: Do All Narcissists Base Their Self-Esteem on the Same Domains? |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2008.00503.x |journal=Journal of Personality |language=en |volume=76 |issue=4 |pages=753–774 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-6494.2008.00503.x |pmid=18482357 |issn=0022-3506|url-access=subscription }}</ref> breadcrumbing is a way for them to fulfill these needs<ref name=":1" /> without needing to commit to or end the relationship. Machiavellian individuals see other people as dishonest and gullible, leading to them justifying manipulation and taking advantage of others,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Monaghan |first1=Conal |last2=Bizumic |first2=Boris |last3=Williams |first3=Todd |last4=Sellbom |first4=Martin |date=March 2020 |title=Two-dimensional Machiavellianism: Conceptualization, theory, and measurement of the views and tactics dimensions. |url=https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/pas0000784 |journal=Psychological Assessment |language=en |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=277–293 |doi=10.1037/pas0000784 |pmid=31750680 |issn=1939-134X|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rauthmann |first=John F. |date=July 2013 |title=Investigating the MACH–IV With Item Response Theory and Proposing the Trimmed MACH* |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00223891.2012.742905 |journal=Journal of Personality Assessment |language=en |volume=95 |issue=4 |pages=388–397 |doi=10.1080/00223891.2012.742905 |pmid=23186231 |issn=0022-3891|url-access=subscription }}</ref> for example through breadcrumbing.
=== Attachment style === Breadcrumbing and insecure (avoidant or anxious) attachment styles are linked.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Khattar |first1=Vivek |last2=Huete |first2=Nuria |last3=Navarro |first3=Raúl |date=2023-10-25 |title=Attachment insecurity and breadcrumbing engagement in young adults: a cross-sectional, cross-country study in India and Spain |journal=BMC Psychology |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=356 |doi=10.1186/s40359-023-01404-y |doi-access=free |issn=2050-7283 |pmc=10601106 |pmid=37880762}}</ref> One characteristic of individuals with avoidant attachment is keeping a distance from romantic interests to avoid intimacy,<ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Agishtein |first1=Peryl |last2=Brumbaugh |first2=Claudia |date=December 2013 |title=Cultural variation in adult attachment: The impact of ethnicity, collectivism, and country of origin. |journal=Journal of Social, Evolutionary, and Cultural Psychology |language=en |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=384–405 |doi=10.1037/h0099181 |issn=1933-5377|doi-access=free }}</ref> which is a fundamental aspect of breadcrumbing. Individuals with anxious attachment seek validation and they may hope that by leaving gaps between communication (as in through breadcrumbing) the breadcrumbee will pursue them, providing the sought-after validation. They also demonstrate push-and pull behaviours in relationships; they want intimacy but at the same time are afraid of being rejected, and thus push their partner away.<ref name=":4" /> This is an instance in which breadcrumbing may occur unintentionally or without intent to harm.
However, vulnerable narcissism is also linked to insecure attachment styles<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Miller |first1=Joshua D. |last2=Hoffman |first2=Brian J. |last3=Gaughan |first3=Eric T. |last4=Gentile |first4=Brittany |last5=Maples |first5=Jessica |last6=Keith Campbell |first6=W. |date=October 2011 |title=Grandiose and Vulnerable Narcissism: A Nomological Network Analysis: Variants of Narcissism |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2010.00711.x |journal=Journal of Personality |language=en |volume=79 |issue=5 |pages=1013–1042 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-6494.2010.00711.x|pmid=21204843 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> which suggests that Dark Triad traits and breadcrumbing behavior may both be consequences of having an insecure attachment style.
These insecure attachment styles in adults are suggested to be caused in part by negative caregiving experiences during childhood, such as having a parent with depression. However, the correlation between attachment styles and caregiving experience is small and exceptions have been discovered, suggesting that other factors such as genetics play a part.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fraley |first1=R Chris |last2=Roisman |first2=Glenn I |date=2019-02-01 |title=The development of adult attachment styles: four lessons |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352250X18300113 |journal=Current Opinion in Psychology |series=Attachment in Adulthood |volume=25 |pages=26–30 |doi=10.1016/j.copsyc.2018.02.008 |pmid=29510301 |issn=2352-250X|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Although insecure attachment styles are linked to poor mental health<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=MIKULINCER |first1=MARIO |last2=SHAVER |first2=PHILIP R. |date=February 2012 |title=An attachment perspective on psychopathology |journal=World Psychiatry |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=11–15 |doi=10.1016/j.wpsyc.2012.01.003 |issn=1723-8617 |pmc=3266769 |pmid=22294997}}</ref> and negative behaviors such as breadcrumbing, it is suggested{{By whom|date=May 2026}} that they once had evolutionary benefits. For example, Social Defense Theory suggests that having a range of attachment styles within a group meant individuals would react to danger in different ways, increasing the likeliness of the group as a whole overcoming and surviving those threats.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ein-Dor |first1=Tsachi |last2=Mikulincer |first2=Mario |last3=Doron |first3=Guy |last4=Shaver |first4=Phillip R. |date=March 2010 |title=The Attachment Paradox: How Can So Many of Us (the Insecure Ones) Have No Adaptive Advantages? |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1745691610362349 |journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science |language=en |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=123–141 |doi=10.1177/1745691610362349 |pmid=26162120 |issn=1745-6916|url-access=subscription }}</ref> However, this theory has been subjected to criticisms, including that it lacks evidence and does not take into account all aspects of insecure attachments. It also contradicts previous theories that suggest insecure attachments benefit individuals themselves rather than groups,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Frankenhuis |first=Willem Eduard |date=2010-11-01 |title=Did Insecure Attachment Styles Evolve for the Benefit of the Group? |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |volume=1 |pages=172 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2010.00172 |doi-access=free |issn=1664-1078 |pmc=3125537 |pmid=21738510}}</ref> but it does offer a possible explanation as to why insecure attachments are so prevalent. This in turn might explain why breadcrumbing is not an uncommon occurrence, with 35.6% of people having reported experiencing it.<ref name=":0" />
== Psychological consequences == As breadcrumbing is persistent and communication does not completely end, unlike with ghosting, it can be more distressing for breadcrumbees and prolong emotionally recovery.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rodríguez-García |first1=Mª Carmen |last2=Márquez-Hernández |first2=Verónica V. |last3=Granados-Gámez |first3=Genoveva |last4=Aguilera-Manrique |first4=Gabriel |last5=Martínez-Puertas |first5=Helena |last6=Gutiérrez-Puertas |first6=Lorena |date=December 2020 |title=Development and Validation of Breadcrumbing in Affective-Sexual Relationships (BREAD-ASR) Questionnaire: Introducing a New Online Dating Perpetration |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |volume=17 |issue=24 |pages=9548 |doi=10.3390/ijerph17249548 |doi-access=free |issn=1661-7827 |pmc=7766626 |pmid=33419336}}</ref> Subsequently, victims of breadcrumbing are more likely to have lower life satisfaction and feel lonelier.<ref name=":2" /> Breadcrumbees often struggle with trust issues and reduced self-esteem and experience feelings of insecurity, jealousy, and anger. This can lead to even more severe consequences for mental and physical health, with some breadcrumbees facing depression, exhaustion, and skin problems.<ref name=":3" /> Breadcrumbing has also been found to sometimes occur simultaneously with gaslighting, for example if the breadcrumber implies the breadcrumbee is at fault,<ref name=":3" /> which in turn has its own lasting psychological consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hailes |first1=Helen P. |last2=Goodman |first2=Lisa A. |date=2023-10-05 |title="They're out to take away your sanity": A qualitative investigation of gaslighting in intimate partner violence |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-023-00652-1 |journal=Journal of Family Violence |volume=40 |issue=2 |pages=269–282 |language=en |doi=10.1007/s10896-023-00652-1 |issn=1573-2851|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
Research has shown that there are effective ways to cope with being breadcrumbed that may help people minimize or avoid psychosocial consequences. These include redirecting focus away from the relationship and towards oneself.<ref name=":3" />
== Culture == As breadcrumbing is a relatively new concept, there has not yet been extensive research into its causes and consequences. Most studies looking into the phenomenon have taken place in Spain, although India has been found to have higher reported breadcrumbing rates.<ref name=":4" /> This may be because a collectivist, more tight-knit culture like India's places higher importance on interdependence, leading to an increased pressure to adhere to norms,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gelfand |first1=Michele J. |last2=Raver |first2=Jana L. |last3=Nishii |first3=Lisa |last4=Leslie |first4=Lisa M. |last5=Lun |first5=Janetta |last6=Lim |first6=Beng Chong |last7=Duan |first7=Lili |last8=Almaliach |first8=Assaf |last9=Ang |first9=Soon |last10=Arnadottir |first10=Jakobina |last11=Aycan |first11=Zeynep |last12=Boehnke |first12=Klaus |last13=Boski |first13=Pawel |last14=Cabecinhas |first14=Rosa |last15=Chan |first15=Darius |date=2011-05-27 |title=Differences Between Tight and Loose Cultures: A 33-Nation Study |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1197754 |journal=Science |language=en |volume=332 |issue=6033 |pages=1100–1104 |doi=10.1126/science.1197754 |pmid=21617077 |bibcode=2011Sci...332.1100G |hdl=1813/75456 |issn=0036-8075|hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chadda |first1=Rakesh K. |last2=Deb |first2=Koushik Sinha |date=January 2013 |title=Indian family systems, collectivistic society and psychotherapy |journal=Indian Journal of Psychiatry |language=en-US |volume=55 |issue=Suppl 2 |pages=S299-309 |doi=10.4103/0019-5545.105555 |doi-access=free |pmid=23858272 |pmc=3705700 |issn=0019-5545}}</ref> though the relative anonymity that comes with online interactions<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Thomas |first1=Jhanelle Oneika |last2=Dubar |first2=Royette Tavernier |date=July 2021 |title=Disappearing in the age of hypervisibility: Definition, context, and perceived psychological consequences of social media ghosting. |url=https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/ppm0000343 |journal=Psychology of Popular Media |language=en |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=291–302 |doi=10.1037/ppm0000343 |issn=2689-6575|url-access=subscription }}</ref> may allow people to follow these norms less.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Krysowski |first1=Eryk |last2=Tremewan |first2=James |date=April 2021 |title=Why Does Anonymity Make Us Misbehave: Different Norms or Less Compliance? |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ecin.12955 |journal=Economic Inquiry |language=en |volume=59 |issue=2 |pages=776–789 |doi=10.1111/ecin.12955 |issn=0095-2583|url-access=subscription |hdl=2108/388101 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> The relationship between insecure attachment and breadcrumbing also differs across countries; there is a higher prevalence of anxious attachment in India, while avoidant attachment is more prevalent in Spain.<ref name=":4" /> Notably, this contradicts findings that avoidant attachment is more strongly linked to relationship problems in collectivist countries,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Friedman |first1=Mike |last2=Rholes |first2=W. Steven |last3=Simpson |first3=Jeffry |last4=Bond |first4=Michael |last5=Diaz-Loving |first5=Rolondo |last6=Chan |first6=Clare |date=March 2010 |title=Attachment avoidance and the cultural fit hypothesis: A cross-cultural investigation |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1475-6811.2010.01256.x |journal=Personal Relationships |language=en |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=107–126 |doi=10.1111/j.1475-6811.2010.01256.x|url-access=subscription |hdl=2078.4/115654 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> so further research is needed to clarify these cross-cultural differences<ref name=":4" /> in relationship behaviours, particularly as they relate to breadcrumbing.
== References == {{reflist}}
Category:Deception Category:Interpersonal relationships Category:Lying Category:Online dating Category:Psychological abuse Category:Psychological manipulation Category:Hansel and Gretel