Brahman

{{Short description|Metaphysical concept, unchanging Ultimate Reality in Hinduism}} {{Italic title}} {{Distinguish|text=Brahma (the Hindu god), Brahmin (varna), Brahmana (a layer of text in the Vedas), Para Brahman (the "Supreme Brahman"), Brahmanism (the religion), or American Brahman (cow raised for meat)}} {{Other uses}} {{Use British English|date=April 2015}} {{Use dmy dates|date=December 2022}} [[File:Aum Om black.svg|thumb|''Om'' signifies the essence of ''Brahman'', the ultimate reality.]] {{Hinduism}} [[File:Wassertropfen.jpg|right|thumb|A drop in the ocean: an analogy for ''Ātman'' merging into ''Brahman''.]]

In the Vedic and Hindu religions, '''''Brahman''''' ({{langx|sa|ब्रह्मन्}}; IAST: ''Brahman'') has a "variety of meanings", but in the Upanishads and later Indian philosophies it connotes 'That' from which all existence proceeds, and to which everything returns,{{sfn|Olivelle|2008|p=lvi}}{{efn|See Brahma Sutras I.1.2}} the origin and cause of all that exists.<ref name="ptraju" /><ref>Mariasusai Dhavamony (2002), Hindu-Christian Dialogue: Theological Soundings and Perspectives, Rodopi Press, {{ISBN|978-9042015104}}, pages 43–44</ref><ref name="fxclooney">For dualism school of Hinduism, see: Francis X. Clooney (2010), ''Hindu God, Christian God: How Reason Helps Break Down the Boundaries between Religions'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0199738724}}, pages 51–58, 111–115; For monist school of Hinduism, see: B. Martinez-Bedard (2006), ''Types of Causes in Aristotle and Sankara'', Thesis – Department of Religious Studies (Advisors: Kathryn McClymond and Sandra Dwyer), Georgia State University, pages 18–35</ref> In contemporary Hindu metaphysics it is the highest universal principle, the Ultimate reality of the universe.<ref name="james122">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5kl0DYIjUPgC|title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism|last=Lochtefeld|first=James G.|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group|year=2002|isbn=978-0823931798|volume=1|pages=122}}</ref><ref name="ptraju">P. T. Raju (2006), ''Idealistic Thought of India'', Routledge, {{ISBN|978-1406732627}}, page 426 and Conclusion chapter part XII</ref>{{Sfn|Fowler|2002|pp=49–55 (in Upanishads), 318–319 (in Vishistadvaita), 246–248 and 252–255 (in Advaita), 342–343 (in Dvaita), 175–176 (in Samkhya-Yoga)}}

''Brahman'' is a concept found in the Vedas, and it is extensively discussed in the early Upanishads, with a variety of meanings.<ref name=sphilips>Stephen Philips (1998), ''Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Brahman to Derrida'' (Editor; Edward Craig), Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415187077}}, pages 1–4</ref> According to Gavin Flood, the concept of ''Brahman'' evolved and expanded from the power of sound, words, and rituals in Vedic times to the "deeper foundation of all phenomena," the "essence of the self (Atman, Self)," and the deeper "truth of a person beyond apparent difference."<ref name=gavinflood84/> Other scholars such as Barbara Holdrege, Hananya Goodman, and Jan Gonda, contend that the earliest Vedic verses suggest that this ancient meaning was never the only meaning, and the concept evolved and expanded in ancient India.<ref name="jangondameaning"/><ref name="Hananya Goodman 1994 page 121"/><ref>See Rigveda Chapter 1.164; Karl Potter and Harold Coward, The Philosophy of the Grammarians, ''Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies'': Volume 5, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, {{ISBN|978-8120804265}}, pages 34–35</ref>

In the Upanishads, the concept of Brahman evolves to encompass metaphysical, ontological, and soteriological themes. Brahman is described as the unchanging "primordial reality" that creates, sustains, and ultimately withdraws the universe within itself,{{sfn|Fowler|2002|pp=53–55}}{{sfn|Potter|2008|pp=6–7}}<ref>{{cite book | last = Brodd | first = Jeffrey | title = World Religions | publisher = Saint Mary's Press | year = 2003 | location = Winona, Minnesota | isbn = 978-0-88489-725-5 }}</ref>{{sfn|Potter|2008|pp=6–7}}<ref>John Bowker (ed.)(2012), ''The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions'', Oxford University Press.[http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780192800947.001.0001/acref-9780192800947-e-1183]</ref> the final element in a dialectical process which cannot be eliminated or annihilated.{{refn|group=note|"not sublatable", German: "aufheben".}} Brahman is also portrayed as the "divine being" or "Lord," which may manifest as either a distinct deity or as an immanent presence within all individuals. It represents the "knowledge" that leads to spiritual liberation, the "Self."<ref>Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814677}}, pages 243, 325–344, 363, 581; pages 358, 371; pages 305, 476; pages 110, 315–316, 495, 838–851; pages 211, 741–742; pages 308–311, 497–499; pages 181, 237, 444, 506–544, 570–571, 707, 847–850; pages 52, 110, 425, 454, 585–586, 838–851; pages 173–174, 188–198, 308–317, 322–324, 367, 447, 496, 629–637, 658, 707–708; pages 600, 619–620, 647, 777</ref>

''Brahman'' is discussed in Hindu texts in relation to the concept of Atman ({{langx|sa|आत्मन्}}, 'Self'),<ref name=sphilips/>{{Sfn|Fowler|2002|pp=49–53}} personal,{{refn|group=note|Saguna Brahman, with qualities}} impersonal{{refn|group=note|Nirguna Brahman, without qualities}} or ''Para Brahman'',{{refn|group=note|Supreme}} or in various combinations of these qualities depending on the philosophical school.<ref>Klaus K. Klostermaier (2007), ''A Survey of Hinduism'', Third Edition, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791470824}}, Chapter 12: Atman and Brahman – Self and All</ref> In dualistic schools of Hinduism such as the theistic Dvaita Vedanta, Brahman is different from Atman (Self) in each being.<ref name=fxclooney/><ref name=mmyers>Michael Myers (2000), Brahman: A Comparative Theology, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0700712571}}, pages 124–127</ref><ref>Thomas Padiyath (2014), ''The Metaphysics of Becoming'', De Gruyter, {{ISBN|978-3110342550}}, pages 155–157</ref> In non-dual schools such as the Advaita Vedanta, the substance of ''Brahman'' is identical to the substance of Atman, is everywhere and inside each living being, and there is connected spiritual oneness in all existence.<ref name="jeffreybrodd">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/worldreligions2000jeff|url-access=registration|title=World Religions: A Voyage of Discovery|last=Brodd|first=Jeffrey|publisher=Saint Mary's Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0884899976|edition=3rd|pages=[https://archive.org/details/worldreligions2000jeff/page/43 43]–47}}</ref><ref name="Arvind Sharma 2007 pages 19-40">Arvind Sharma (2007), ''Advaita Vedānta: An Introduction'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120820272}}, pages 19–40, 53–58, 79–86</ref><ref>John E. Welshons (2009), ''One Self, One Love, One Heart'', New World Library, {{ISBN|978-1577315889}}, pages 17–18</ref>

==Etymology and related terms== Sanskrit (ब्रह्मन्) ''Brahman'' (an ''n''-stem, nominative ''{{IAST|bráhma}}'', from a root ''{{IAST|bṛh}}-'' "to swell, expand, grow, enlarge") is a neuter noun to be distinguished from the masculine ''{{IAST|brahmán}}''—denoting a person associated with ''Brahman'', and from Brahmā, the creator God in the Hindu Trinity, the Trimurti. ''Brahman'' is thus a gender-neutral concept that implies greater impersonality than masculine or feminine conceptions of the deity. ''Brahman'' is referred to as the supreme self. Puligandla states it as "the unchanging reality amidst and beyond the world",{{sfn|Puligandla|1997|p=222}} while Sinar states ''Brahman'' is a concept that "cannot be exactly defined".{{sfn|Sinari|2000|p=384}}

In Vedic Sanskrit: * ''Brahma'' (ब्रह्म) (nominative singular), ''brahman'' (ब्रह्मन्) (stem) (neuter<ref name="neuter">Not Masculine or Feminine (see Grammatical gender).</ref> gender) from root ''bṛh-'', means "to be or make firm, strong, solid, expand, promote".<ref name=jangondaetymo>Jan Gonda (1962), Some Notes on the Study of Ancient-Indian Religious Terminology, ''History of Religions'', Vol. 1, No. 2 (Winter, 1962), pages 268–269</ref> * ''Brahmana'' (ब्रह्मन) (nominative singular, never plural), from stems ''brha'' (to make firm, strong, expand) + Sanskrit ''-man-'' which denotes some manifest form of "definite power, inherent firmness, supporting or fundamental principle".<ref name=jangondaetymo/>

In later Sanskrit usage: * ''Brahma'' (ब्रह्म) (nominative singular), ''brahman (''ब्रह्मन्'')'' (stem) (neuter<ref name="neuter" /> gender) means the concept of the transcendent and immanent ultimate reality, Supreme Cosmic Spirit in Hinduism. The concept is central to Hindu philosophy, especially Vedanta; this is discussed below. * ''Brahmā'' (ब्रह्मा) (nominative singular), ''Brahman'' (ब्रह्मन्) (stem) (masculine gender), means the deity or deva Prajāpati Brahmā. He is one of the members of the Hindu trinity and is associated with creation, but he does not have a cult in present-day India. This is because Brahmā, the creator-god, is long-lived but not eternal i.e. Brahmā gets absorbed back into Purusha at the end of an aeon, and is born again at the beginning of a new kalpa. [[File:Vishnu_and_Lakshmi_on_an_elephant_meeting_Shiva,_Parvati_and_Wellcome_V0045027.jpg|thumb|Deities Vishnu, Lakshmi, Shiva, Parvati and Ganesha. These deities have distinct and complex personalities, yet are often viewed as aspects of and are worshipped as incarnations of the same ultimate reality called ''Brahman''.<ref name=":222">Knut Jacobsen (2008), Theory and Practice of Yoga : 'Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120832329}}, pp. 77-78</ref>{{refn|[a] {{cite book|title=Achieving Cultural Competency|first1=Lisa|last1=Hark|first2=Horace|last2=DeLisser|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2011|quote=Three gods, Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva, and other deities are considered manifestations of and are worshipped as incarnations of Brahman.}} [b] {{harvnb|Toropov|Buckles|2011}}: The members of various Hindu sects worship a dizzying number of specific deities and follow innumerable rites in honor of specific gods. Because this is Hinduism, however, its practitioners see the profusion of forms and practices as expressions of the same unchanging reality. The panoply of deities are understood by believers as symbols for a single transcendent reality. [d] {{cite book|year=2007|title=An Introductory Dictionary of Theology and Religious Studies|author=Orlando O. Espín, James B. Nickoloff|publisher=Liturgical Press|quote=While Hindus believe in many devas, many are monotheistic to the extent that they will recognise only one Supreme Being, a God or Goddess who is the source and ruler of the devas.}}|name=avatars|group=note}}]] These are distinct from: * A ''brāhmaṇa'' (ब्राह्मण) (masculine, pronounced {{IPA|sa|ˈbɽaːɦmɐɳɐ|}}), (which literally means "pertaining to prayer") is a prose commentary on the Vedic mantras—an integral part of the Vedic literature. * A ''brāhmaṇa'' (ब्राह्मण) (masculine, same pronunciation as above), means priest; in this usage the word is usually rendered in English as "Brahmin". This usage is also found in the Atharva Veda. In neuter plural form, ''Brahmāṇi''. See Vedic priest. * ''Ishvara'', (lit., Supreme Lord), in Advaita, is identified as a partial worldly manifestation (with limited attributes) of the ultimate reality, the attributeless ''Brahman''. In Visishtadvaita and Dvaita, however, Ishvara (the Supreme Controller) has infinite attributes and is the source of the impersonal ''Brahman''. * ''Devas'', the expansions of ''Brahman''/God into various forms, each with a certain quality. In the Vedic religion, there were 33 devas.

==History and literature==

===Vedic=== ''Brahman'' is a concept present in Vedic Samhitas, the oldest layer of the Vedas dated to the late 2nd millennium BCE. For example,<ref name=barbarah29/>

{{Blockquote| <poem> The ''Ṛcs'' are limited (''parimita''), The ''Samans'' are limited, And the ''Yajuses'' are limited, But of the Word ''Brahman'', there is no end. </poem> |Taittiriya Samhita VII.3.1.4|Translated by Barbara Holdrege<ref name=barbarah29>Barbara Holdrege (1995), Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791416402}}, page 29</ref>}}

The concept ''Brahman'' is referred to in hundreds of hymns in the Vedic literature.<ref name="mauricebrahman">{{Cite book |last=Bloomfield |first=Maurice |url=https://archive.org/details/vedicconcordance00bloouoft?view=theater |title=A Vedic concordance, being an alphabetic index to every line of every stanza of the published Vedic literature and to the liturgical formulas thereof, that is an index to the Vedix Mantras, together with an account of their variations in the different Vedic books |date=1906 |publisher=Cambridge Mass., 1906 |others=Robarts - University of Toronto}}</ref> The word ''Brahma'' is found in Rig veda hymns such as 2.2.10,<ref>{{Cite web |title=ऋग्वेदः सूक्तं २.२ - विकिस्रोतः |url=https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6:_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A8.%E0%A5%A8 |access-date=2024-12-05 |website=sa.wikisource.org |language=sa}}</ref> 6.21.8,<ref>{{Cite web |title=ऋग्वेदः सूक्तं ६.२१ - विकिस्रोतः |url=https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6:_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%AC.%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%A7 |access-date=2024-12-05 |website=sa.wikisource.org |language=sa}}</ref> 10.72.2<ref>{{Cite web |title=ऋग्वेदः सूक्तं १०.७२ - विकिस्रोतः |url=https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6:_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6.%E0%A5%AD%E0%A5%A8 |access-date=2024-12-05 |website=sa.wikisource.org |language=sa}}</ref> and in Atharva veda hymns such as 6.122.5, 10.1.12, and 14.1.131.<ref name=mauricebrahman/> The concept is found in various layers of the Vedic literature; for example:<ref name=mauricebrahman/> Aitareya Brahmana 1.18.3, Kausitaki Brahmana 6.12, Satapatha Brahmana 13.5.2.5, Taittiriya Brahmana 2.8.8.10, Jaiminiya Brahmana 1.129, Taittiriya Aranyaka 4.4.1 through 5.4.1, Vajasaneyi Samhita 22.4 through 23.25, Maitrayani Samhita 3.12.1:16.2 through 4.9.2:122.15. The concept is extensively discussed in the Upanishads embedded in the Vedas (see next section), and also mentioned in the vedāṅga (the limbs of Vedas) such as the Srauta sutra 1.12.12 and Paraskara Gryhasutra 3.2.10 through 3.4.5.<ref name=mauricebrahman/>

Jan Gonda states that the diverse reference of ''Brahman'' in the Vedic literature, starting with Rigveda Samhitas, convey "different senses or different shades of meaning".<ref name="jangondameaning">{{Cite journal |last=Gonda |first=J. |date=1962 |title=Some Notes on the Study of Ancient-Indian Religious Terminology |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1062054 |journal=History of Religions |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=243–273 |doi=10.1086/462446 |jstor=1062054 |issn=0018-2710|url-access=subscription }}</ref> There is no one single word in modern Western languages that can render the various shades of meaning of the word ''Brahman'' in the Vedic literature, according to Jan Gonda.<ref name=jangondameaning/> In verses considered as the most ancient, the Vedic idea of ''Brahman'' is the "power immanent in the sound, words, verses and formulas of Vedas". However, states Gonda, the verses suggest that this ancient meaning was never the only meaning, and the concept evolved and expanded in ancient India.<ref name="jangondameaning"/>

Barbara Holdrege states that the concept ''Brahman'' is discussed in the Vedas along four major themes: as the Word or verses (''Sabdabrahman''),<ref>See Rigveda Chapter 1.164; Karl Potter and Harold Coward, The Philosophy of the Grammarians, ''Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies'': Volume 5, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, {{ISBN|978-8120804265}}, pages 34–35</ref> as Knowledge embodied in Creator Principle, as Creation itself, and a Corpus of traditions.<ref>Barbara Holdrege (1995), ''Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture'', State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791416402}}, page 24</ref> Hananya Goodman states that the Vedas conceptualize ''Brahman'' as the Cosmic Principles underlying all that exists.<ref name="Hananya Goodman 1994 page 121">{{Cite book|title=Between Jerusalem and Benares: Comparative Studies in Judaism and Hinduism|last=Goodman|first=Hananya|publisher=State University of New York Press|year=1994|isbn=978-0791417164|pages=121}}</ref> Gavin Flood states that the Vedic era witnessed a process of abstraction, where the concept of ''Brahman'' evolved and expanded from the power of sound, words and rituals to the "essence of the universe", the "deeper foundation of all phenomena", the "essence of the self (Atman, Self)", and the deeper "truth of a person beyond apparent difference".<ref name=gavinflood84>Gavin Flood (1996), ''An Introduction to Hinduism'', Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0521438780}}, pages 84–85</ref>

===Upanishads=== [[File:Mozzercork - Heart (by).jpg|thumb|Swan (Hansa, हंस) is the symbol for ''Brahman-Atma''n in Hindu iconography.<ref>Lindsay Jones (2005), ''Encyclopedia of religion'', Volume 13, Macmillan Reference, {{ISBN|978-0028657332}}, page 8894, Quote: "In Hindu iconography the swan personifies Brahman-Atman, the transcendent yet immanent ground of being, the Self."</ref><ref>Denise Cush (2007), Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415556231}}, page 697</ref>]]

The central concern of all Upanishads is to discover the relations between ritual, cosmic realities (including gods), and the human body/person.{{sfn|Olivelle|1998|p=lii}} The texts do not present a single unified theory, rather they present a variety of themes with multiple possible interpretations, which flowered in post-Vedic era as premises for the diverse schools of Hinduism.<ref name=sphilips/>

The concept of Brahman in the Upanishads evolves to encompass metaphysical, ontological, and soteriological themes. Brahman is described as the "primordial reality" that creates, sustains, and ultimately withdraws the universe within itself. It is characterized as the "principle of the world," the "absolute," the "universal" force, the "cosmic principle," and the "ultimate cause" of all existence, including gods. Brahman is also portrayed as the "divine being" or "Lord," which may manifest as either a distinct deity or as an immanent presence within all individuals. It represents the "knowledge" that leads to spiritual liberation, the "Self" that is fearless, luminous, exalted, and blissful, and the "essence" of freedom. Brahman is not only the universe within every living being but also the universe beyond, representing both the internal and external worlds in their entirety. .<ref name=pauldeussen243>Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814677}}, pages 243, 325–344, 363, 581</ref><ref>Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814677}}, pages 358, 371</ref><ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814677}}, pages 305, 476</ref><ref>Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814677}}, pages 110, 315–316, 495, 838–851</ref><ref>Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814677}}, pages 211, 741–742</ref><ref>Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814677}}, pages 308–311, 497–499</ref><ref>Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814677}}, pages 181, 237, 444, 506–544, 570–571, 707, 847–850</ref><ref name=pauldeussen52>Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814677}}, pages 52, 110, 425, 454, 585–586, 838–851</ref><ref>Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814677}}, pages 173–174, 188–198, 308–317, 322–324, 367, 447, 496, 629–637, 658, 707–708</ref><ref>Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814677}}, pages 600, 619–620, 647, 777</ref>

Brahman in the Upanishads is also described as the "essence" and "smallest particle of the cosmos," as well as the infinite universe itself. It is the "Self" within every being, the "truth," the "reality," the "absolute," and "bliss" (ananda). While Brahman cannot be directly perceived through the senses, it can be experienced through deep self-realization.{{Citation needed|date=November 2025}}

In the words of philosopher Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, the sages of the Upanishads teach that Brahman is the ultimate essence underlying material phenomena. Though Brahman cannot be seen or heard, its true nature can be comprehended through the cultivation of self-knowledge (atma jnana). This form of knowledge enables one to transcend the illusions of the material world and attain a higher state of consciousness and liberation.{{Citation needed|date=November 2025}}

The Upanishads contain several ''mahā-vākyas'' or "Great Sayings" on the concept of ''Brahman'':<ref name="EoH 270">{{cite book|last=Jones|first=Constance|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism|year=2007|publisher=Infobase Publishing|location=New York|isbn=978-0816073368|pages=270}}</ref> {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! Text!! Upanishad !! Translation !! Reference |- | '''अहं ब्रह्म अस्मि''' ''aham brahmāsmi'' || Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 1.4.10 || "I am Brahman"||<ref>Sanskrit and English Translation: S. Madhavananda, [https://archive.org/stream/Brihadaranyaka.Upanishad.Shankara.Bhashya.by.Swami.Madhavananda#page/n171/mode/2up Brihadaranyaka Upanishad] 1.4.10, Brihadaranyaka Upanishad – Shankara Bhashya, page 145</ref> |- | '''अयम् आत्मा ब्रह्म''' ''ayam ātmā brahma'' || Mandukya Upanishad 2 || "The Self is Brahman" ||<ref>Sanskrit and English Translation: S. Madhavananda, [https://archive.org/stream/Brihadaranyaka.Upanishad.Shankara.Bhashya.by.Swami.Madhavananda#page/n737/mode/2up Brihadaranyaka Upanishad] 4.4.5, Brihadaranyaka Upanishad – Shankara Bhashya, pages 711–712</ref> |- | '''सर्वं खल्विदं ब्रह्म''' ''sarvam khalvidam brahma'' ||Chandogya Upanishad 3.14.1 || "All this is Brahman"||<ref>Sanskrit: [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/छान्दोग्योपनिषद्_२ छान्दोग्योपनिषद् १.१ ॥तृतीयॊऽध्यायः॥] Wikisource English Translation:Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/48/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad 3.14.1] Oxford University Press, page 48; Max Muller, {{Google books|KXf_AQAAQBAJ|The Upanisads}}, Routledge, pages xviii–xix</ref> |- | '''एकमेवाद्वितीयम्''' ''ekam evadvitiyam'' ||Chandogya Upanishad 6.2.1|| "That [Brahman] is one, without a second" ||<ref>Sanskrit: [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/छान्दोग्योपनिषद्_३ छान्दोग्योपनिषद् १.२ ॥षष्ठोऽध्यायः॥] Wikisource English Translation:Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/92/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad 6.2.1] Oxford University Press, page 93; Max Muller, {{Google books|KXf_AQAAQBAJ|The Upanisads}}, Routledge, pages xviii–xix</ref> |- | '''तत्त्वमसि''' ''tat tvam asi'' ||Chandogya Upanishad 6.8.7 et seq. || "That thou art" ("You are Brahman")||<ref>Sanskrit: [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/छान्दोग्योपनिषद्_३ छान्दोग्योपनिषद् १.२ ॥षष्ठोऽध्यायः॥] Wikisource English Translation:Robert Hume, [https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n267/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad] 6.8, The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pages 246–250</ref><ref>A. S. Gupta, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1397392 The Meanings of "That Thou Art"], Philosophy East and West, Vol. 12, No. 2, pages 125–134</ref> |- | '''प्रज्ञानं ब्रह्म''' ''prajnānam brahma''||Aitareya Upanishad 3.3.7 || "Wisdom is Brahman"||<ref>Sanskrit: [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऐतरेयोपनिषद् ऐतरेयोपनिषद्] Wikisource English Translation:Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/246/mode/2up Aitareya Upanishad 3.3.7, also known as Aitareya Aranyaka 2.6.1.7] Oxford University Press, page 246</ref> |- | '''नेति नेति''' ''Neti Neti''||Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 2.3.6 || "Not This Not That"||<ref>{{cite web | author1=Vivekavani | title=Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 2.3.6 - VivekaVani | work=VivekaVani | date=6 March 2011 | url=https://vivekavani.com/bru2c3v6/ }}</ref> |- | '''अंतरात्मा ''' ''AntarAtman''||Katha Upanishad 2.2.12 || "Inner Atman"||<ref>{{cite web | title=Katha Upanishad: Verse 2.2.12 | date=23 February 2016 | url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/katha-upanishad-shankara-bhashya/d/doc145249.html }}</ref> |- | '''उत्तमपुरुषः ''' ''Uttam Purusha''||Chandogya Upanishad 8.12.3 || "Supreme Being"||<ref name="wisdomlib.org">{{cite web | title=Chandogya Upanishad, Verse 8.12.3 (English and Sanskrit) | date=4 January 2019 | url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/chandogya-upanishad-english/d/doc239480.html }}</ref> |- | '''पूरुषः ''' '' Purusha''||Purusha Sukta || "Supreme Being"||<ref name="wisdomlib.org"/> |- | '''ब्रह्मणो नाम सत्यमिति ''' '' Brahmano naam Satyamiti''||Chandogya Upanishad 8.3.4 || "Brahman is also called Satya "||<ref>{{cite web | title=Chandogya Upanishad, Verse 8.3.4 (English and Sanskrit) | date=4 January 2019 | url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/chandogya-upanishad-english/d/doc239435.html }}</ref> |- | '''प्राणो ब्राह्मणः ''' '' Prano brahman''||Chandogya Upanishad 7.15.1 || "Vital Force is Brahman "||<ref>{{cite web | title=Chandogya Upanishad, Verse 7.15.1 (English and Sanskrit) | date=4 January 2019 | url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/chandogya-upanishad-english/d/doc239383.html }}</ref> |- |}

The Upanishad discuss the metaphysical concept of ''Brahman'' in many ways, such as the Śāṇḍilya doctrine in Chapter 3 of the Chandogya Upanishad, among of the oldest Upanishadic texts.<ref name=hume314/> The Śāṇḍilya doctrine on ''Brahman'' is not unique to Chandogya Upanishad, but found in other ancient texts such as the ''Satapatha Brahmana'' in section 10.6.3. It asserts that Atman (the inner essence, Self inside man) exists, the ''Brahman'' is identical with ''Atman'', that the ''Brahman'' is inside man—thematic quotations that are frequently cited by later schools of Hinduism and modern studies on Indian philosophies.<ref name=hume314/><ref name=gjha314>[https://archive.org/stream/Shankara.Bhashya-Chandogya.Upanishad-Ganganath.Jha.1942.English#page/n165/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad with Shankara Bhashya] Ganganath Jha (Translator), pages 150–157</ref><ref>For modern era cites: * Anthony Warder (2009), ''A Course in Indian Philosophy'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120812444}}, pages 25–28; * D. D. Meyer (2012), ''Consciousness, Theatre, Literature and the Arts'', Cambridge Scholars Publishing, {{ISBN|978-1443834919}}, page 250; * Joel Brereton (1995), ''Eastern Canons: Approaches to the Asian Classics'' (Editors: William Theodore De Bary, Irene Bloom), Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|978-0231070058}}, page 130; * S. Radhakrishnan (1914), "The Vedanta philosophy and the Doctrine of Maya", ''International Journal of Ethics'', Vol. 24, No. 4, pages 431–451</ref>

सर्वं खल्विदं ब्रह्म तज्जलानिति शान्त उपासीत। अथ खलु क्रतुमयः पुरुषो यथाक्रतुरस्मिल्लोके पुरुषो भवति तथेतः प्रेत्य भवति स क्रतुं कुर्वीत॥ ||१||

{{Blockquote| This whole universe is ''Brahman''. In tranquility, let one worship It, as ''Tajjalan'' (that from which he came forth, as that into which he will be dissolved, as that in which he breathes). |Chandogya Upanishad 3.14.1<ref name=hume314>Robert Hume, [https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n229/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad] 3.14.1 – 3.14.4, The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pages 209–210</ref><ref name=pauldeussen314>Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 110–111 with preface and footnotes</ref>}}मनोमयः प्राणशरीरो भारूपः सत्यसंकल्प आकाशात्मा सर्वकर्मा सर्वकामः सर्वगन्धः सर्वरसः सर्वमिदमभ्यत्तोऽवाक्यनादरः॥ ||२||

एष म आत्माऽन्तर्हृदयेऽणीयान्व्रीहेर्वा यवाद्वा सर्षपाद्वा श्यामाकाद्वा श्यामाकतण्डुलाद्वा एष म आत्माऽन्तर्हृदये ज्यायान्पृथिव्या ज्यायानन्तरिक्षाज्ज्यायान्दिवो ज्यायानेभ्यो लोकेभ्यः॥ ||३||{{Blockquote| Man is a creature of his ''Kratumaya'' (क्रतुमयः, will, purpose). Let him therefore have for himself this will, this purpose: The intelligent, whose body is imbued with life-principle, whose form is light, whose thoughts are driven by truth, whose self is like space (invisible but ever present), from whom all works, all desires, all sensory feelings encompassing this whole world, the silent, the unconcerned, this is me, my Self, my Soul within my heart. |Chandogya Upanishad 3.14.1 – 3.14.3<ref name=hume314/><ref name=maxmuller314>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/48/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad 3.13.7], ''The Upanishads'', Part I, Oxford University Press, page 48 with footnotes</ref>}}सर्वकर्मा सर्वकामः सर्वगन्धः सर्वरसः सर्वमिदमभ्यात्तोऽवाक्यनादर एष म आत्माऽन्तर्हृदय एतद्ब्रह्मैतमितः प्रेत्याभिसंभवितास्मीति यस्य स्यादद्धा न विचिकित्साऽस्तीति ह स्माह शाण्डिल्यः शाण्डिल्यः ॥ ||४||{{Blockquote| This is my Soul in the innermost heart, greater than the earth, greater than the aerial space, greater than these worlds. This Soul, this Self of mine is that Brahman. |Chandogya Upanishad 3.14.3 – 3.14.4<ref name=pauldeussen314/><ref name=maxmuller314/>}}

{{Blockquote| ' दिव्यो ह्यमूर्तः पुरुषः सबाह्याभ्यन्तरो ह्यजः । अप्राणो ह्यमनाः शुभ्रो ह्यक्षरात्परतः परः He is bright formless, all pervading, existing within and without, unborn, without prana, without mind, pure and beyond the avyakrita, which is beyond all. ||Mundaka Upanishad 11.1.2 <ref>{{cite web | title=Mundaka Upanishad: Verse 2.1.2 | date=21 February 2016 | url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/mundaka-upanishad-shankara-bhashya/d/doc145100.html }}</ref>}}

{{Blockquote| न जायते म्रियते वा विपश्चि- न्नायं कुतश्चिन्न बभूव कश्चित् । अजो नित्यः शाश्वतोऽयं पुराणो न हन्यते हन्यमाने शरीरे Brahman is neither born, neither dies. It has not sprung from anything and nothing springs from it. It is birthless, eternal, ever lasting and ancient, It is not killed when body is killed.

- Katha Upanishad 1.2.18 }}

Paul Deussen notes that teachings similar to above on ''Brahman'', re-appeared centuries later in the words of the 3rd century CE Neoplatonic Roman philosopher Plotinus in Enneades 5.1.2.<ref name=pauldeussen314/>

==Meaning== The concept ''Brahman'' has a lot of undertones of meaning and is difficult to understand. It has relevance in metaphysics, ontology, axiology (ethics & aesthetics), teleology and soteriology.

===Brahman as a metaphysical concept===

''Brahman'' is the key metaphysical concept in various schools of Hindu philosophy. It is the theme in its diverse discussions to the two central questions of metaphysics: what is ultimately real, and are there principles applying to everything that is real?<ref>Edward Craig (1998), [https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/metaphysics/ Metaphysics], Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, {{ISBN|978-0415073103}}, Accessed (13 June 2015)</ref> ''Brahman'' is the ultimate "eternally, constant" reality, while the observed universe is a different kind of reality but one which is "temporary, changing" ''Maya'' in various orthodox Hindu schools. Maya pre-exists and co-exists with ''Brahman''—the Ultimate Reality, The Highest Universal, the Cosmic Principles.<ref name=aegough>Archibald Edward Gough (2001), ''The Philosophy of the Upanishads and Ancient Indian Metaphysics'', Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415245227}}, pages 47–48</ref>

==== Atman: the ultimate reality ==== {{anchor | Atman }}

In addition to the concept of ''Brahman'', Hindu metaphysics includes the concept of Atman—or Self, which is also considered ultimately real.<ref name=aegough/> The various schools of Hinduism, particularly the dual and non-dual schools, differ on the nature of Atman, whether it is distinct from ''Brahman'', or same as ''Brahman''. Those that consider ''Brahman'' and ''Atman'' as distinct are theistic, and Dvaita Vedanta and later Nyaya schools illustrate this premise.<ref>Roy W. Perrett (Editor, 2000), ''Indian Philosophy: Metaphysics'', Volume 3, Taylor & Francis, {{ISBN|978-0815336082}}, page xvii; K. K. Chakrabarti (1999), ''Classical Indian Philosophy of Mind: The Nyaya Dualist Tradition'', State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791441718}} pages 279–292</ref> Those that consider ''Brahman'' and ''Atman'' as same are monist or pantheistic, and Advaita Vedanta, later Samkhya<ref>John C. Plott et al (2000), ''Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age'', Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120801585}}, pages 60-62</ref> and Yoga schools illustrate this metaphysical premise.<ref>Julius Lipner (2004), ''The Hindu World'' (Editors: S. Mittal and G. Thursby), Routledge, {{ISBN|0415215277}}, pages 22–23</ref><ref>Laurie Patton (2004), ''The Hindu World'' (Editors: S. Mittal and G. Thursby), Routledge, {{ISBN|0415215277}}, pages 45–50</ref><ref>J. D. Fowler (1996), ''Hinduism: Beliefs and Practices'', Sussex University Press, {{ISBN|978-1898723608}}, pages 135–137</ref> In schools that equate ''Brahman'' with ''Atman'', ''Brahman'' is the sole, ultimate reality.<ref name="acdas"/> The predominant teaching in the Upanishads is the spiritual identity of Self within each human being, with the Self of every other human being and living being, as well as with the supreme, ultimate reality ''Brahman''.<ref>William Indich (2000), ''Consciousness in Advaita Vedanta'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120812512}}, page 5</ref><ref>Paul Hacker (1978), Eigentumlichkeiten dr Lehre und Terminologie Sankara: Avidya, Namarupa, Maya, Isvara, in Kleine Schriften (Editor: L. Schmithausen), Franz Steiner Verlag, Weisbaden, pages 101–109 (in German), also pages 69–99; [http://www.vedantaadvaita.org/AdvaitaVedanta_3.htm Advaita Vedanta - A Bird's Eye View], Topic III: ''Philosophy of Advaita Vedanta'', D. Krishna Ayyar (2011)</ref>

==== Maya: the perceived reality==== {{Main|Maya (religion)}}

In the metaphysics of the major schools of Hinduism, ''Maya'' is perceived reality, one that does not reveal the hidden principles, the true reality—the ''Brahman''. ''Maya'' is unconscious, ''Brahman-Atman'' is conscious. Maya is the literal and the effect, ''Brahman'' is the figurative ''Upādāna''—the principle and the cause.<ref name=aegough/> Maya is born, changes, evolves, dies with time, from circumstances, due to invisible principles of nature. Atman-''Brahman'' is eternal, unchanging, invisible principle, unaffected absolute and resplendent consciousness. Maya, states Archibald Gough, is "the indifferent aggregate of all the possibilities of emanatory or derived existences, pre-existing with Brahman", just like the possibility of a future tree pre-exists in the seed of the tree.<ref name=aegough/>

==== Nirguna and Saguna Brahman ==== {{anchor | Saguna | Nirguna | Saguna and nirguna | Saguna and Nirguna | Saguna and nirguna brahman | Saguna and Nirguna Brahman }}

Brahman, the ultimate reality, is both with and without attributes. In this context, Para Brahman is formless and omniscient Ishvara - the god or Paramatman and Om, where as Saguna Brahman is a manifestation or avatara of god in personified form. {{Blockquote| द्वे वाव ब्रह्मणो रूपे—मूर्तं चैवामूर्तं च, मर्त्यं चामृतं च, स्थितं च यच्च, सच्च, त्यच्च Brahman has but two forms—gross and subtle, mortal and immortal, limited and unlimited, defined and undefined.<ref>{{cite web | title=The Two Forms of Brahman [Section III] | date=23 February 2015 | url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/the-brihadaranyaka-upanishad/d/doc117948.html }}</ref>| - Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 2.3.1 }} While the Advaita Vedanta sub-school emphasizes the complete equivalence of ''Brahman'' and ''Atman'', it also expounds on ''Brahman'' as ''saguna Brahman''—the ''Brahman'' with attributes, and ''nirguna Brahman''—the ''Brahman'' without attributes.<ref name="dx.doi.org">{{Cite journal | doi=10.7825/2164-6279.1250|title = Hierarchies in the Nature of God? Questioning the "Saguna-Nirguna" Distinction in Advaita Vedanta| journal=Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies| volume=14 |issue=7 |pages=1–6|year = 2001|last1 = Rambachan|first1 = Anantanand|doi-access=free}}</ref> The ''nirguna Brahman'' is the ''Brahman'' as it really is, however, the ''saguna Brahman'' is posited as a means to realizing ''nirguna Brahman'', but the Hinduism schools declare ''saguna Brahman'' to be a part of the ultimate ''nirguna Brahman.''<ref name=williamw/> The concept of the ''saguna Brahman'', such as in the form of avatars, is considered in these schools of Hinduism to be a useful symbolism, path and tool for those who are still on their spiritual journey, but the concept is finally cast aside by the fully enlightened.<ref name=williamw>William Wainwright (2012), [http://stanford.library.usyd.edu.au/entries/concepts-god/ Concepts of God], ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', Stanford University, (Accessed on: 13 June 2015)</ref>

===Brahman as an ontological concept=== ''Brahman'', along with Self (''Atman'') are part of the ontological<ref>that is things, beings or truths that are presumed to exist for its philosophical theory to be true, and what is the nature of that which so exists?; see: Edward Craig (1998), [https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/ontology/ Ontology], ''Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', {{ISBN|978-0415073103}}</ref> premises of Indian philosophy.<ref>Edward Craig (1998), [https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/ontology/ Ontology], ''Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', {{ISBN|978-0415073103}}, Accessed (13 June 2015)</ref><ref>Stephen H. Phillips (2001), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1400164 Could There Be Mystical Evidence for a Nondual Brahman? A Causal Objection], Philosophy East and West, Vol. 51, No. 4, pages 492–506</ref> Different schools of Indian philosophy have held widely dissimilar ontologies. Buddhism and Carvaka school of Hinduism deny that there exists anything called "a Self" (individual ''Atman'' or ''Brahman'' in the cosmic sense), while the orthodox schools of Hinduism, Jainism and Ajivikas hold that there exists "a Self".<ref>K. N. Jayatilleke (2010), ''Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge'', {{ISBN|978-8120806191}}, pages 246–249, from note 385 onwards; Steven Collins (1994), ''Religion and Practical Reason'' (Editors: Frank Reynolds, David Tracy), State Univ of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791422175}}, page 64; Quote: "Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not-self (Pali: anattā, Sanskrit: anātman, the opposed doctrine of ''ātman'' is central to Brahmanical thought). Put very briefly, this is the [Buddhist] doctrine that human beings have no Self, no unchanging essence."; Edward Roer (Translator), {{Google books|3uwDAAAAMAAJ|Shankara's Introduction|page=2}}, pages 2–4 Katie Javanaud (2013), [https://philosophynow.org/issues/97/Is_The_Buddhist_No-Self_Doctrine_Compatible_With_Pursuing_Nirvana Is The Buddhist 'No-Self' Doctrine Compatible With Pursuing Nirvana?], ''Philosophy Now'' John C. Plott et al (2000), ''Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age'', Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120801585}}, page 63, Quote: "The Buddhist schools reject any Ātman concept. As we have already observed, this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism".</ref><ref>M. Prabhakar (2012), Review: An Introduction to Indian Philosophy, ''Philosophy in Review'', 32(3), pages 158–160</ref>

''Brahman'' as well the ''Atman'' in every human being (and living being) is considered equivalent and the sole reality, the eternal, self-born, unlimited, innately free, blissful Absolute in schools of Hinduism such as the Advaita Vedanta and Yoga.<ref name=barbarasca>Barbara Holdrege (2004), ''The Hindu World'' (Editors: S. Mittal and G. Thursby), Routledge, {{ISBN|0415215277}}, pages 241–242</ref><ref>Anantanand Rambachan (2014), ''A Hindu Theology of Liberation: Not-Two Is Not One'', State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-1438454559}}, pages 131–142</ref><ref>Ian Whicher (1999), ''The Integrity of the Yoga Darsana: A Reconsideration of Classical Yoga'', State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791438152}}, pages 298–300; Mike McNamee and William J. Morgan (2015), ''Routledge Handbook of the Philosophy of Sport'', Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415829809}}, pages 135–136, '''Quote''': "As a dualistic philosophy largely congruent with Samkhya's metaphysics, Yoga seeks liberation through the realization that Atman equals Brahman; it involves a cosmogonic dualism: purusha an absolute consciousness, and prakriti original and primeval matter."</ref> Knowing one's own self is knowing the God inside oneself, and this is held as the path to knowing the ontological nature of ''Brahman'' (universal Self) as it is identical to the ''Atman'' (individual Self). The nature of ''Atman-Brahman'' is held in these schools, states Barbara Holdrege, to be as a pure being (''sat''), consciousness (''cit'') and full of bliss (''ananda''), and it is formless, distinctionless, nonchanging and unbounded.<ref name=barbarasca/>

In theistic schools, in contrast, such as Dvaita Vedanta, the nature of ''Brahman'' is held as eternal, unlimited, innately free, blissful Absolute, while each individual's Self is held as distinct and limited which can at best come close in eternal blissful love of the ''Brahman'' (therein viewed as the Godhead).<ref>Francis Clooney and Tony Stewart (2004), ''The Hindu World'' (Editors: S. Mittal and G. Thursby), Routledge, {{ISBN|0415215277}}, pages 166–167</ref>

Other schools of Hinduism have their own ontological premises relating to ''Brahman'', reality and nature of existence. Vaisheshika school of Hinduism, for example, holds a substantial, realist ontology.<ref>Randy Kloetzli and Alf Hiltebeitel (2004), ''The Hindu World'' (Editors: S. Mittal and G. Thursby), Routledge, {{ISBN|0415215277}}, page 554</ref> The Carvaka school denied ''Brahman'' and ''Atman'', and held a materialist ontology.<ref>Michael Myers (2000), ''Brahman: A Comparative Theology'', Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0700712571}}, pages 30–31</ref>

===Brahman as an axiological concept=== ''Brahman'' and ''Atman'' are key concepts to Hindu theories of axiology: ethics and aesthetics.<ref>R. Prasad and P. D. Chattopadhyaya (2008), ''A Conceptual-analytic Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals, Concept'', {{ISBN|978-8180695445}}, pages 56–59</ref><ref>G. C. Pande (1990), ''Foundations of Indian Culture'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120807105}}, pages 49–50</ref> ''Ananda'' (bliss), state Michael Myers and other scholars, has axiological importance to the concept of ''Brahman'', as the universal inner harmony.<ref>Michael W. Myers (1998), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1400017 Śaṅkarācārya and Ānanda], ''Philosophy East and West'', Vol. 48, No. 4, pages 553–567</ref><ref>Robert S. Hartman (2002), ''The Knowledge of Good: Critique of Axiological Reason'', Rodopi, {{ISBN|978-9042012202}}, page 225</ref> Some scholars equate ''Brahman'' with the highest value, in an axiological sense.<ref>T. M. P. Mahadevan (1954), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1397291 The Metaphysics of Śaṁkara], ''Philosophy East and Wes''t, Vol. 3, No. 4, pages 359–363</ref>

The axiological concepts of ''Brahman'' and ''Atman'' is central to Hindu theory of values.<ref>Arvind Sharma (1999), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/40018229 The Puruṣārthas: An Axiological Exploration of Hinduism], ''The Journal of Religious Ethics'', Vol. 27, No. 2, pages 223–256</ref> A statement such as 'I am Brahman', states Shaw, means 'I am related to everything', and this is the underlying premise for compassion for others in Hinduism, for each individual's welfare, peace, or happiness depends on others, including other beings and nature at large, and vice versa.<ref>J. L. Shaw (2011), [http://www.sjsu.edu/people/anand.vaidya/courses/comparativephilosophy/s1/Freedom-East-and-West-by-J-L-Shaw.pdf Freedom: East and West], ''SOPHIA'', Vol 50, Springer Science, pages 481–497</ref> Tietge states that even in non-dual schools of Hinduism where ''Brahman'' and ''Atman'' are treated ontologically equivalent, the theory of values emphasizes individual agent and ethics. In these schools of Hinduism, states Tietge, the theory of action are derived from and centered in compassion for the other, and not egotistical concern for the self.<ref>Katherine L Tietge (1997), ''Ontology and Genuine Moral Action: Jñaña (Intuitive Perception) Ethics and Karma-Yoga in Sankara's Advaita Vedanta and Schopenhauer's On the Basis of Morality'', Ph.D. Thesis, Dept. of Philosophy, Southern Illinois University (US), [http://philpapers.org/rec/TIEOAG Archive Link]</ref>

The axiological theory of values emerges implicitly from the concepts of ''Brahman'' and ''Atman'', states Bauer.<ref name=nancybauer/> The aesthetics of human experience and ethics are one consequence of self-knowledge in Hinduism, one resulting from the perfect, timeless unification of one's Self with the ''Brahman'', the Self of everyone, everything and all eternity, wherein the pinnacle of human experience is not dependent on an afterlife, but pure consciousness in the present life itself.<ref name=nancybauer/> It does not assume that an individual is weak nor does it presume that he is inherently evil, but the opposite: human Self and its nature is held as fundamentally unqualified, faultless, beautiful, blissful, ethical, compassionate and good.<ref name=nancybauer/><ref>Arvind Sharma (2000), ''Classical Hindu Thought: An Introduction'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195644418}}, pages 57–61</ref> Ignorance is to assume it evil, liberation is to know its eternal, expansive, pristine, happy and good nature.<ref name=nancybauer>Nancy Bauer (1987), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1399082 Advaita Vedānta and Contemporary Western Ethics], ''Philosophy East and West'', Vol. 37, No. 1, pages 36–50</ref> The axiological premises in the Hindu thought and Indian philosophies in general, states Nikam, is to elevate the individual, exalting the innate potential of man, where the reality of his being is the objective reality of the universe.<ref name=nikam/> The Upanishads of Hinduism, summarizes Nikam, hold that the individual has the same essence and reality as the objective universe, and this essence is the finest essence; the individual Self is the universal Self, and Atman is the same reality and the same aesthetics as the ''Brahman''.<ref name=nikam>N. A. Nikam (1952), A Note on the Individual and His Status in Indian Thought, ''Philosophy East and West'', Vol. 2, No. 3, pages 254–258</ref>

===Brahman as a teleological concept=== ''Brahman'' and ''Atman'' are very important teleological concepts. Teleology deals with the apparent purpose, principle, or goal of something. In the first chapter of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad, these questions are addressed. It says:

किं कारणं ब्रह्म कुतः स्म जाता जीवाम केन क्व च संप्रतिष्ठाः।

अधिष्ठिताः केन सुखेतरेषु वर्तामहे ब्रह्मविदो व्यवस्थाम्‌॥ ||१||{{Blockquote| <poem> "People who make inquiries about brahman say: What is the cause of Brahman? Why were we born? By what do we live? On what are we established? Governed by whom, O you who know Brahman, do we live in pleasure and in pain, each in our respective situation? </poem> |Shvetashvatara Upanishad|Hymns 1.1<ref name="poliv">Patrick Olivelle. (1998).[https://archive.org/download/TheEarlyUpanisads/The%20Early%20Upani%E1%B9%A3ads.pdf The Early Upaniṣads] New York; Oxford: Oxford University Press.</ref>}}

According to the Upanishads, the main purpose/meaning of anything or everything can be explained or achieved/understood only through the realization of the Brahman. The apparent purpose of everything can be grasped by obtaining the ''Brahman'', as the ''Brahman'' is referred to that when known, all things become known.{{Original research inline|date=November 2025}}

कस्मिन् नु भगवो विज्ञाते सर्वमिदं विज्ञातं भवतीति ॥३॥

तस्मै स होवाच - - द्वे विद्ये वेदितव्ये इति ह स्म यद् ब्रह्मविदो वदन्ति परा चैवापरा च ॥ ४॥ {{Blockquote| <poem> "What is that my lord, by which being known, all of this becomes known?" Angiras told him, "Two types of knowledge a man should learn, those who know Brahman tell us — the higher and the lower. The lower of the two consists of the Rgveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda (...), whereas, the higher is that by which one grasps the imperishable (Brahman)." </poem> |Mundaka Upanishad|Hymns 1.1<ref name="poliv" />}}

Elsewhere in the Upanishads, the relationship between Brahman & all knowledge is established, such that any questions of apparent purpose/teleology are resolved when the Brahman is ultimately known. This is found in the Aitareya Upanishad 3.3 and Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 4.4.17.

{{Blockquote| <poem> Knowledge is the eye of all that, and on knowledge it is founded. Knowledge is the eye of the world, and knowledge, the foundation. Brahman is knowing. </poem> |Aitereya Upanishad|Hymns 3.3<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.consciouslivingfoundation.org/ebooks/13/CLF-aitareya_upanishad.pdf|title=English translation of Aitareya Upanishad|website=Consciouslivingfoundation.org|access-date=26 January 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://esamskriti.com/essays/Aitareya-Upanishad.pdf|title=Aitareya Upanishad : Transliterated Sanskrit Text Free Translation & Brief Explanation|author=T.N. Sethumadhavan|website=Esamskriti.com|access-date=26 January 2019}}</ref>}}

One of the main reasons why Brahman should be realized is because it removes suffering from a person's life. Following on Advaita Vedanta tradition, this is because the person has the ability and knowledge to discriminate between the unchanging (Purusha; Atman-Brahman) and the ever-changing (Prakriti; maya) and so the person is not attached to the transient, fleeting & impermanent. Hence, the person is only content with their true self and not the body or anything else. Further elaborations of Brahman as the central teleological issue are found in Shankara's commentaries of the Brahma Sutras & his Vivekachudamani.{{Citation needed|date=November 2025}}

In Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 3.9.26 it mentions that the atman 'neither trembles in fear nor suffers injury' and the Isha Upanishad 6-7 too talks about suffering as non-existent when one becomes the Brahman as they see the self in all beings and all beings in the self. The famous Advaita Vedanta commentator Shankara noted that Sabda Pramana (scriptural epistemology) & anubhava (personal experience) is the ultimate & only source of knowing/learning the Brahman, and that its purpose or existence cannot be verified independently because it is not an object of perception/inference (unless one is spiritually advanced, thereby it's truth becomes self-evident/intuitive) & is beyond conceptualizations. But he does note the Upanishads themselves are ultimately derived from use of the various pramanas to derive at ultimate truths (as seen in Yalnavalkya's philosophical inquires). All Vedanta schools agree on this. These teleological discussions inspired some refutations from competing philosophies about the origin/purpose of Brahman & avidya (ignorance) and the relationship between the two, leading to variant schools like Kashmiri Shaivism & others.{{Citation needed|date=November 2025}}

===Brahman as a soteriological concept: Moksha=== {{Main|Moksha}}

The orthodox schools of Hinduism, particularly Vedanta, Samkhya and Yoga schools, focus on the concept of Brahman and Atman in their discussion of moksha. The Advaita Vedanta holds there is no being/non-being distinction between Atman and Brahman. The knowledge of Atman (Self-knowledge) is synonymous to the knowledge of Brahman inside the person and outside the person. Furthermore, the knowledge of Brahman leads to a sense of oneness with all existence, self-realization, indescribable joy, and moksha (freedom, bliss),<ref>Anantanand Rambachan (1994), ''The limits of scripture: Vivekananda's reinterpretation of the Vedas'', University of Hawaii Press, pages 124–125</ref> because Brahman-Atman is the origin and end of all things, the universal principle behind and at source of everything that exists, consciousness that pervades everything and everyone.<ref>Karl Potter (2008), ''The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Advaita Vedānta Up to Śaṃkara and His Pupils'', Volume 3, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, pp. 210–215</ref>

The theistic sub-school such as Dvaita Vedanta of Hinduism, starts with the same premises, but adds the premise that individual Self and Brahman are distinct, and thereby reaches entirely different conclusions where Brahman is conceptualized in a manner similar to God in other major world religions.<ref name=mmyers/> The theistic schools assert that moksha is the loving, eternal union or nearness of one's Self with the distinct and separate Brahman (Vishnu, Shiva or equivalent henotheism). Brahman, in these sub-schools of Hinduism is considered the highest perfection of existence, which every Self journeys towards in its own way for moksha.<ref>Betty Stafford (2010) "Dvaita, Advaita, And Viśiṣṭadvaita: Contrasting Views Of Mokṣa", ''Asian Philosophy'', pages 215–224</ref>

=={{anchor|Schools of thought}}Hindu schools of thought==

===Vedanta=== The concept of Brahman, its nature and its relationship with Atman and the observed universe, is a major point of difference between the various sub-schools of the Vedanta school of Hinduism.

====Advaita Vedanta==== {{Main|Advaita Vedanta}}

{{Advaita}} Advaita Vedanta espouses nondualism. ''Brahman'' is the sole unchanging reality,<ref name=acdas>AC Das (1952), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1397304 Brahman and Māyā in Advaita Metaphysics], ''Philosophy East and West'', Vol. 2, No. 2, pages 144–154</ref> there is no duality, no limited individual Self nor a separate unlimited cosmic Self, rather all Self, all of existence, across all space and time, is one and the same.<ref name=jeffreybrodd/><ref name=barbarasca/><ref name=rdalal>Rosen Dalal (2014), Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide, Penguin, {{ISBN|978-8184752779}}, see article on Brahman</ref> The universe and the Self inside each being is Brahman, and the universe and the Self outside each being is Brahman. Brahman is the origin and end of all things, material and spiritual. ''Brahman'' is the root source of everything that exists. He states that Brahman can neither be taught nor perceived (as an object of intellectual knowledge), but it can be learned and realized by all human beings.<ref name="Arvind Sharma 2007 pages 19-40"/> The goal of Advaita Vedanta is to realize that one's Self (''Atman'') gets obscured by ignorance and false-identification ("Avidya"). When Avidya is removed, the Atman (Self inside a person) is realized as identical with Brahman.<ref name="dx.doi.org"/> The Brahman is not an outside, separate, dual entity, the Brahman is within each person, states Advaita Vedanta school of Hinduism. ''Brahman'' is all that is eternal, unchanging and that which truly exists.<ref name=acdas/> This view is stated in this school in many different forms, such as "''Ekam sat''" ("Truth is one"), and all is ''Brahman''.

The universe does not simply come from Brahman, it ''is'' Brahman. According to Adi Shankara, a proponent of Advaita Vedanta, the knowledge of Brahman that shruti provides cannot be obtained by any other means besides self inquiry.<ref>Anantanand Rambachan (1994), ''The limits of scripture: Vivekananda's reinterpretation of the Vedas.'' University of Hawaii Press, pages 125, 124</ref>

In Advaita Vedanta, nirguna Brahman is held to be the ultimate and sole reality.<ref name=acdas/><ref name=williamw/> Consciousness is not a property of Brahman but rather its very nature. In this respect, Advaita Vedanta differs from other Vedanta schools.<ref>[Sangeetha Menon (2007), ''Advaita Vedānta''], ''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy''</ref>

Example verses from Bhagavad-Gita include: {{Blockquote| <poem> The offering is Brahman; the oblation is Brahman; offered by Brahman into the fire of Brahman. Brahman will be attained by him, who always sees Brahman in action. – Hymn 4.24<ref>Christopher Key Chapple (Editor) and Winthrop Sargeant (Translator), ''The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition'', State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-1438428420}}, page 224</ref><ref>Jeaneane D. Fowler (2012), ''The Bhagavad Gita'', Sussex Academic Press, {{ISBN|978-1845193461}}, page 83</ref>

He who finds his happiness within, His delight within, And his light within, This yogin attains the bliss of Brahman, becoming Brahman. – Hymn 5.24<ref>Christopher Key Chapple (Editor) and Winthrop Sargeant (Translator), ''The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition'', State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-1438428420}}, page 266</ref> </poem> |Bhagavad Gita|}}

====Dvaita Vedanta==== {{Vaishnavism}} Brahman of Dvaita Vedanta is a concept similar to God in major world religions.<ref name=mmyers/> Dvaita holds that the individual Self is dependent on God, but distinct.<ref name=mmyers/> Dvaita philosophy argues against the concept of a shared existence between Brahman and finite beings. It sees any concept of shared existence or non-dualism (Advaita) as incompatible with the nature of Brahman's transcendent perfection. Madhva places importance on the unique individuality of each entity (''vishesha'').<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bartley |first=Christopher |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PlupnDEr5iAC |title=An Introduction to Indian Philosophy |date=2011-01-20 |publisher=A&C Black |isbn=978-1-84706-449-3 |pages=186 |language=en}}</ref>

Dvaita propounds Tattvavada which means understanding differences between Tattvas (entities) within the universal substrate as follows:{{citation needed|date=July 2025}}

# Jîva-Îshvara-bheda — difference between the Self and the Supreme God # Jada-Îshvara-bheda — difference between the insentient and the Supreme God # Mitha-jîva-bheda — difference between any two Selves # Jada-jîva-bheda — difference between insentient and the Self # Mitha-jada-bheda — difference between any two insentients

==== Vishishtadvaita ==== In Vishishtadvaita, Ramanuja asserts that Brahman is God, and that this God is Narayana. In his commentary on the Brahma Sutras 1.1.1, Ramanuja defines Brahman as the "'highest person,' one who by his own nature is free from all imperfections and in possession of host of innumerable auspicious qualities of unsurpassable excellence." Using this definition, Ramanuja argues that Brahman must be God because Brahman's qualities are unsurpassably superior to all, and thus "only the Lord of all can thus be denoted, and 'Brahman' primarily denotes him alone". Ramanuja asserts that the relationship between God and the individual selves must be one of devotion, and moksha or liberation is said by him to be caused by the selves' worship of Brahman: "The cessation of bondage...is to be obtained only through the grace of the highest Person who is pleased by worshipper's meditation, which is devotion".<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://global.oup.com/academic/product/hindu-god-christian-god-9780195138542?cc=us&lang=en& |title=Hindu God, Christian God: How Reason Helps Break Down the Boundaries between Religions |date=2001-09-27 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-513854-2 |location=Oxford, New York |pages=70}}</ref>

====Achintya Bheda Abheda==== The Acintya Bheda Abheda philosophy is similar to Dvaitadvaita. In this philosophy, Brahman is not just impersonal, but also personal.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Prabhupada|first=His Divine Grace A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami|title=Bhagavad Gita Chapter 14 Verse 27|url=https://vedabase.io/en/library/bg/14/27/|access-date=2020-07-25|website=vedabase.io|language=en}}</ref> That Brahman is Supreme Personality of Godhead, though on first stage of realization (by process called jnana) of Absolute Truth, He is realized as impersonal Brahman, then as personal Brahman having eternal Vaikuntha abode (also known as Brahmalokah sanatana), then as Paramatma (by process of yoga–meditation on Supreme self, Vishnu-God in heart)—Vishnu (Narayana, also in everyone's heart) who has many abodes known as Vishnu lokas (Vaikuntha), and finally (Absolute Truth is realized by bhakti) as Bhagavan, Supreme Personality of Godhead, who is source of both Paramatma and Brahman (personal, impersonal, or both).<ref name=":0" /> {{or|date=November 2025}}

===Bhakti movement=== {{main|Bhakti movement}}

The Bhakti movement of Hinduism built its theosophy around two concepts of Brahman—''Nirguna'' and ''Saguna''.<ref name=karen21>Karen Pechilis Prentiss (2014), ''The Embodiment of Bhakti'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195351903}}, page 21</ref> ''Nirguna'' Brahman was the concept of the Ultimate Reality as formless, without attributes or quality.<ref name=jeaneanefxxvii>Jeaneane D. Fowler (2012), ''The Bhagavad Gita'', Sussex Academic Press, {{ISBN|978-1845193461}}, pages xxvii–xxxiv</ref> ''Saguna'' Brahman, in contrast, was envisioned and developed as with form, attributes and quality.<ref name=jeaneanefxxvii/> The two had parallels in the ancient pantheistic unmanifest and theistic manifest traditions, respectively, and traceable to Arjuna-Krishna dialogue in the Bhagavad Gita.<ref name=karen21/><ref name=fowlernirgunasaguna>Jeaneane D. Fowler (2012), ''The Bhagavad Gita'', Sussex Academic Press, {{ISBN|978-1845193461}}, pages 207–211</ref> It is the same Brahman, but viewed from two perspectives, one from ''Nirguni'' knowledge-focus and other from ''Saguni'' love-focus, united as Krishna (an 8th incarnation of Lord Vishnu) in the Gita.<ref name=fowlernirgunasaguna/> ''Nirguna'' bhakta's poetry were ''Jnana-shrayi'', or had roots in knowledge.<ref name=karen21/> ''Saguna'' bhakta's poetry were ''Prema-shrayi'', or with roots in love.<ref name=karen21/> In Bhakti, the emphasis is reciprocal love and devotion, where the devotee loves God, and God loves the devotee.<ref name=fowlernirgunasaguna/>

Jeaneane Fowler states that the concepts of Nirguna and Saguna Brahman, at the root of Bhakti movement theosophy, underwent more profound development with the ideas of Vedanta school of Hinduism, particularly those of Adi Shankara's Advaita Vedanta, Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita Vedanta, and Madhvacharya's Dvaita Vedanta.<ref name=jeaneanefxxvii/> Two 12th-century influential treatises on bhakti were ''Sandilya Bhakti Sutra''—a treatise resonating with Nirguna-bhakti, and ''Narada Bhakti Sutra''—a treatise that leans towards Saguna-bhakti.<ref>Jessica Frazier and Gavin Flood (2011), ''The Continuum Companion to Hindu Studies'', Bloomsbury Academic, {{ISBN|978-0826499660}}, pages 113–115</ref>

''Nirguna'' and ''Saguna'' Brahman concepts of the Bhakti movement has been a baffling one to scholars, particularly the ''Nirguni'' tradition because it offers, states David Lorenzen, "heart-felt devotion to a God without attributes, without even any definable personality".<ref name=davidlorenzenns/> Yet given the "mountains of ''Nirguni'' bhakti literature", adds Lorenzen, bhakti for ''Nirguna Brahman'' has been a part of the reality of the Hindu tradition along with the bhakti for ''Saguna Brahman''.<ref name=davidlorenzenns>David Lorenzen (1996), ''Praises to a Formless God: Nirguni Texts from North India'', State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791428054}}, page 2</ref> These were two alternate ways of imagining God during the bhakti movement.<ref name=karen21/>

==Buddhist understanding of Brahman== {{See also|Nondualism in Buddhism}} Buddhism rejects the Upanishadic doctrine of Brahman and Atman (permanent Self, essence).{{refn|group=note|Merv Fowler, ''Zen Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices'' (Brighton: Sussex Academic, 2005), p. 30: "''Upanisadic'' thought is anything but consistent; nevertheless, there is a common focus on the acceptance of a totally transcendent Absolute, a trend which arose in the ''Vedic'' period. This indescribable Absolute is called Brahman [...] The true Self and Brahman are one and the same. Known as the Brahman-Atman synthesis, this theory, which is central to ''Upanisadic'' thought, is the cornerstone of Indian philosophy. The Brahman-Atman synthesis, which posits the theory of a permanent, unchanging self, was anathema to Buddhists, and it was as a reaction to the synthesis that Buddhism first drew breath. Merv Fowler p. 47: "For the ''Upanisadic'' sages, the real is the Self, is Atman, is Brahman. [...] To the Buddhist, however, any talk of an ''Atman'' or permanent, unchanging Self, the very kernel of ''Upanisadic'' thought, is anathema, a false notion of manifest proportion."}} According to Damien Keown, "the Buddha said he could find no evidence for the existence of either the personal Self (''atman'') or its cosmic counterpart (''brahman'')".<ref>Damien Keown, ''Buddhism'' (NY: Sterling, 2009), p. 70</ref> The metaphysics of Buddhism rejects Brahman (ultimate being), Brahman-like essence, Self and anything metaphysically equivalent through its Anatta doctrine,<ref>{{cite book|author=David Webster|title=The Philosophy of Desire in the Buddhist Pali Canon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KqxI7YRUSegC|year=2004|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-203-01057-0|pages=194–195, 93, 147}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Richard Francis Gombrich|author2=Cristina Anna Scherrer-Schaub|title=Buddhist Studies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U7_Rea05eAMC |year=2008|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-3248-0|pages=192–193}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Mark Juergensmeyer|author2=Wade Clark Roof|title=Encyclopedia of Global Religion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WwJzAwAAQBAJ |year=2011|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=978-1-4522-6656-5 |pages=272–273}}</ref> but their belief of Trikaya is very similar to the sat-cit-ananda characteristics of Brahman.

According to Merv Fowler, some forms of Buddhism have incorporated concepts that resemble that of Brahman.{{refn|group=note|Merv Fowler, ''Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices'' (Brighton: Sussex Academic, 1999), p. 34: "It was inevitable that the non-theistic philosophy of orthodox Buddhism should court the older Hindu practices and, in particular, infuse into its philosophy the belief in a totally transcendent Absolute of the nature of Brahman."}} As an example, Fowler cites the early Sarvastivada school of Buddhism, which "had come to accept a very pantheistic religious philosophy, and are important because of the impetus they gave to the development of Mahayana Buddhism".<ref>Merv Fowler, ''Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices'' (Brighton: Sussex Academic, 1999), p. 34</ref> According to William Theodore De Bary, in the doctrines of the Yogacara school of Mahayana Buddhism, "the Body of Essence, the Ultimate Buddha, who pervaded and underlay the whole universe [...] was in fact the World Self, the Brahman of the Upanishads, in a new form".<ref>William Theodore De Bary, cited in Merv Fowler, ''Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices'' (Brighton: Sussex Academic, 1999), p. 98</ref> According to Fowler, some scholars have identified the Buddhist ''nirvana'', conceived of as the Ultimate Reality, with the Hindu Brahman/atman; Fowler claims that this view "has gained little support in Buddhist circles."<ref>Merv Fowler, ''Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices'' (Brighton: Sussex Academic, 1999), p. 81</ref> Fowler asserts that the authors of a number of Mahayana texts took pains to differentiate their ideas from the Upanishadic doctrine of Brahman.{{refn|group=note|Merv Fowler, ''Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices'' (Brighton: Sussex Academic, 1999), p. 82: "The original writers of these Mahayana texts were not at all pleased that their writings were seen to contain the Brahman of the ''Upanisads'' in a new form. The authors of the ''Lankavatara'' strenuously denied that the womb of Tathagatahood, [...] was in any way equatable with the 'eternal self', the Brahmanical ''atman'' of ''Upanisadic'' thought. Similarly, the claim in the ''Nirvana Sutra'' that the Buddha regarded Buddhahood as a 'great atman' caused the Yogacarins considerable distress."}}

===Brahma as a surrogate for Brahman in Buddhist texts=== The spiritual concept of Brahman is far older in the Vedic literature{{citation needed|date=July 2022}}, and some scholars suggest deity Brahma may have emerged as a personal conception and icon with form and attributes (saguna version) of the impersonal, nirguna (without attributes), formless universal principle called Brahman.<ref name=brucesullivan>Bruce Sullivan (1999), Seer of the Fifth Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120816763}}, pages 82–83</ref> In the Hindu texts, one of the earliest mentions of deity Brahma along with Vishnu and Shiva is in the fifth ''Prapathaka'' (lesson) of the Maitrayaniya Upanishad, probably composed in late 1st millennium BCE, after the rise of Buddhism.<ref name=hume51>{{citation|first=Robert Ernest|last=Hume|title=The Thirteen Principal Upanishads |url=https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n443/mode/2up|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1921|pages=422–424}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=K. N. Jayatilleke|title=Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zcs41sp8ON4C |year=1998|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0619-1 |pages=68, 374}}, Quote: "We may conclude from the above that the rise of Buddhism is not far removed in time from, though it is prior to, the Maitri Upanishad".</ref><ref>Jan Gonda (1968), The Hindu Trinity, Anthropos, Vol. 63, pages 215–219</ref>

The early Buddhists attacked the concept of Brahma, states Gananath Obeyesekere, and thereby polemically attacked the Vedic and Upanishadic concept of gender neutral, abstract metaphysical Brahman.<ref name="Obeyesekere2006p179"/> This critique of Brahma in early Buddhist texts aims at ridiculing the Vedas, but the same texts simultaneously call ''metta'' (loving-kindness, compassion) as the state of union with Brahma. The early Buddhist approach to Brahma was to reject any creator aspect, while retaining the value system in the Vedic Brahmavihara concepts, in the Buddhist value system.<ref name="Obeyesekere2006p179">{{cite book|author=Gananath Obeyesekere|title=Karma and Rebirth: A Cross Cultural Study|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IEK4Qgm7Z0kC |year=2006|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-2609-0 |pages=177–179 }}</ref> According to Martin Wiltshire, the term "Brahma loka" in the Buddhist canon, instead of "Svarga loka", is likely a Buddhist attempt to choose and emphasize the "truth power" and knowledge focus of the Brahman concept in the Upanishads.<ref>{{cite book|author=Martin G. Wiltshire|title=Ascetic Figures Before and in Early Buddhism: The Emergence of Gautama as the Buddha|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WXmmkYQf4RwC |year=1990|publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-009896-9 |pages=248–249, 253–255}}</ref> Simultaneously, by reformulating Brahman as Brahma and relegating it within its Devas and Samsara theories, early Buddhism rejected the Atman-Brahman premise of the Vedas to present its own ''Dhamma'' doctrines (anicca, dukkha and anatta).<ref>{{cite book|author=Martin G. Wiltshire|title=Ascetic Figures Before and in Early Buddhism: The Emergence of Gautama as the Buddha|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WXmmkYQf4RwC |year=1990|publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-009896-9 |pages= 256–265}}</ref>

== Brahman in Chinese thought == L. S. Vasil’ev, writing for the University of Pennsylvania, argued that syncretic Taoists used Brahman in their worship as a substitute for Tao.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Vasil’ev |first=L. S. |date=December 2014 |others=Translated by Rostislav Berezkin |title=Dao and Brahman: The Phenomenon of Primordial Supreme Unity |url=https://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp252_dao_brahman.pdf |website=Sino-Platonic Papers |publisher=University of Pennsylvania |pages=31}}</ref>

Victor H. Mair thought that Taoists in the early history of the faith had positive "cultural relations" with Hindu groups and that the ''Tao Te Ching'' was written in reaction to Indian philosophy and that the author(s) viewed Brahman as being the same as Tao.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Laozi |title=Tao Te Ching: The Classic Book of Integrity and the Way |last2=Mair |first2=Victor H. |publisher=Quality Paperback Book Club |year=1998 |isbn=9780965064750 |location=New York |pages=135, 142, 160 |author-link=Laozi |author-link2=Victor H. Mair}}</ref>

==Brahman in Sikhism== {{multiple image | direction = horizontal | width1 = 130 | width2 = 90 | footer = Ik Onkar (left) is part of the Mul Mantar in Sikhism, where it means "Onkar [God, Reality] is one".<ref name=eleanor>Eleanor Nesbitt (2005), ''Sikhism: A Very Short Introduction'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0192806017}}, Chapter 4</ref> The Onkar of Sikhism is related to Om—also called ''Omkāra''<ref>Jean Holm and John Bowker, ''Worship'', Bloomsbury, ISBN, page 67</ref>—in Hinduism.<ref name=eleanor/><ref>Wendy Doniger (2000), Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions, Merriam Webster, {{ISBN|978-0877790440}}, page 500</ref> The ancient texts of Hinduism state Om to be a symbolism for the highest reality, ''Brahman''.<ref>Rangaswami Sudhakshina (2012), ''Roots of Vendanta'', Penguin, {{ISBN|978-0143064459}}, page 405</ref><ref>David Leeming (2005), ''The Oxford Companion to World Mythology'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195156690}}, page 54</ref> | image1 = Ek_onkar.svg | image2 = Om devanagari.PNG }} The metaphysical concept of Brahman, particularly as ''nirguni Brahman''—attributeless, formless, eternal Highest Reality—is at the foundation of Sikhism.<ref name=sskohli39>S. S. Kohli (1993), ''The Sikh and Sikhism'', Atlantic, {{ISBN|81-71563368}}, page 39</ref> This belief is observed through ''nirguni Bhakti'' by the Sikhs.<ref>Hardip Syan (2014), in ''The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies'' (Editors: Pashaura Singh, Louis E. Fenech), Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0199699308}}, page 178</ref><ref>A. Mandair (2011), Time and religion-making in modern Sikhism, in ''Time, History and the Religious Imaginary in South Asia'' (Editor: Anne Murphy), Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415595971}}, pages 188–190</ref>

In Gauri, which is part of the Guru Granth Sahib, Brahman is declared as "One without a second", in Sri Rag "everything is born of Him, and is finally absorbed in Him", in Var Asa "whatever we see or hear is the manifestation of Brahman".<ref>S. S. Kohli (1993), ''The Sikh and Sikhism'', Atlantic, {{ISBN|81-71563368}}, page 38</ref> Nesbitt states that the first two words, ''Ik Onkar'', in the twelve-word Mul Mantar at the opening of the Sikh scripture Guru Granth Sahib, has been translated in three different ways by scholars: "There is one god", "This being is one", and as "One reality is".<ref name=eleanor/>

Similar emphasis on "One without a second" for metaphysical concept of Brahman, is found in ancient texts of Hinduism, such as the Chandogya Upanishad's chapter 6.2.<ref>Max Muller, [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/92/mode/2up Chandogya Upanishad 6.2.1] Oxford University Press, pages 93–94</ref><ref>Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, pages 156–157, 162–163</ref> The ideas about God and Highest Reality in Sikhism share themes found in the ''Saguna'' and ''Nirguna'' concepts of Brahman in Hinduism.<ref name=sskohli39/><ref>N. Mandair (2009), ''Postcolonial Philosophy of Religion'' (Editor: Purushottama Bilimoria, Andrew B. Irvine), Springer, {{ISBN|978-9400791770}}, pages 145–146</ref>

The concept of Ultimate Reality (Brahman) is also referred in Sikhism as ''Nam'', ''Sat-naam'' or ''Naam'', and ''Ik Oankar'' like Hindu Om symbolizes this Reality.<ref>William Owen Cole and Piara Singh Sambhi (1998), ''The Sikhs: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices'', 2nd edition, Sussex Academic Press, {{ISBN|978-1898723134}}, pages 70–71</ref><ref>H. S. Singha (2009), ''Sikh Studies'', Vol. 7, Hemkunt Press, {{ISBN|978-8170102458}}, page 47</ref>

==Brahman in Jainism== Scholars contest whether the concept of Brahman is rejected or accepted in Jainism. The concept of a theistic God is rejected by Jainism, but ''Jiva'' or "Atman (Self) exists" is held to be a metaphysical truth and central to its theory of rebirths and Kevala Jnana.<ref>Ray Billington (1997), ''Understanding Eastern Philosophy'', Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415129657}}, page 46</ref>

Bissett states that Jainism accepts the "material world" and "Atman", but rejects Brahman—the metaphysical concept of Ultimate Reality and Cosmic Principles found in the ancient texts of Hinduism.<ref>James Bissett, ''Cultural and Religious Heritage of India'', Volume 2: Jainism (Editors: Sharma and Sharma), Mittal, {{ISBN|81-70999553}}, page 81</ref> Goswami, in contrast, states that the literature of Jainism has an undercurrent of monist theme, where the self who gains the knowledge of Brahman (Highest Reality, Supreme Knowledge) is identical to Brahman itself.<ref>C. Caillat and N. Balbir (2008), ''Jaina Studies'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120832473}}, pages ix–x</ref> Jaini states that Jainism neither accepts nor rejects the premise of Ultimate Reality (Brahman), instead Jain ontology adopts a many sided doctrine called ''Anekantavada''. This doctrine holds that "reality is irreducibly complex" and no human view or description can represent the Absolute Truth.<ref name=pjaini>P. Jaini (1998), ''The Jaina Path of Purification'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|81-208-1578-5}}, pages 90–93</ref><ref>J. Koller (2004), "Why is Anekāntavāda important?", (Editor: Tara Sethia, Ahimsā, Anekānta, and Jainism), Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|81-208-2036-3}}, pages 400–407</ref> Those who have understood and realized the Absolute Truth are the liberated ones and the Supreme Self (Paramatman), with Kevala Jnana.<ref name=pjaini/>

==Comparison of Brahma, Brahman, Brahmin and Brahmanas== Brahma is distinct from Brahman.<ref name="BondKunin2003p231"/> Brahma is a male deity, in the post-Vedic Puranic literature,<ref name=pandeyp40>{{cite book|author=R. M. Matthijs Cornelissen|title=Foundations of Indian Psychology Volume 2: Practical Applications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BkkgeKXyiOIC |year=2011|publisher=Pearson |isbn=978-81-317-3085-0 |pages=40 }}</ref> who creates but neither preserves nor destroys anything. He is envisioned in some Hindu texts to have emerged from the metaphysical Brahman along with Vishnu (preserver), Shiva (destroyer), all other gods, goddesses, matter and other beings.<ref name="Doniger1999p437"/><ref name=pandeyp40/><ref name="Fowler2002p330">{{cite book|author=Jeaneane D. Fowler|title=Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8dRZ4E-qgz8C|year=2002|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|isbn=978-1-898723-93-6|pages=330}}{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

Brahman is a metaphysical concept of Hinduism referring to the ultimate unchanging reality,<ref name="BondKunin2003p231">{{cite book|author1=Helen K. Bond |author2=Seth D. Kunin|author3=Francesca Murphy |title=Religious Studies and Theology: An Introduction |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HokZ5UW5fZsC&pg=PA231 |year=2003|publisher=New York University Press |isbn=978-0-8147-9914-7 |pages=231 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=William Sweet |title=Approaches to Metaphysics |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cyCme74cZ1IC |year=2006|publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4020-2182-4|pages=145–147 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=H. James Birx |title=Encyclopedia of Anthropology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8m_vBQAAQBAJ |year=2005|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=978-1-4522-6536-0 |pages=1279 }}</ref> that is uncreated, eternal, infinite, transcendent, the cause, the foundation, the source and the goal of all existence.<ref name="Doniger1999p437"/> It is envisioned as either the cause or that which transforms itself into everything that exists in the universe as well as all beings, that which existed before the present universe and time, which exists as current universe and time, and that which will absorb and exist after the present universe and time ends.<ref name="Doniger1999p437"/> It is a gender neutral abstract concept.<ref name="Doniger1999p437">{{cite book|author=Wendy Denier|title=Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZP_f9icf2roC |year=1999|publisher=Merriam-Webster |isbn=978-0-87779-044-0 |pages=437 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=J. L. Brockington|title=The Sanskrit Epics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HR-_LK5kl18C |year=1998|publisher=BRILL Academic |isbn=90-04-10260-4 |pages=256 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Denise Cush |author2=Catherine Robinson |author3=Michael York |title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kzPgCgAAQBAJ |year=2012|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-18979-2 |pages=114–115 }}</ref> The abstract Brahman concept is predominant in the Vedic texts, particularly the Upanishads;<ref>{{cite book|author=Edward Craig|title=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Brahman to Derrida|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lS2cSqwMtf8C |year=1998|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-18707-7 |pages=1–4 }}</ref> while the deity Brahma finds minor mention in the Vedas and the Upanishads.<ref>{{cite book|author=Julius Lipner |title=Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HDMLYkIOoWYC |year=1994|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-05181-1 |pages=43–44 }}</ref> In the Puranic and the Epics literature, the deity Brahma appears more often, but inconsistently.

Some texts suggest that the god Vishnu created Brahma (Vaishnavism),<ref>{{cite book|author=S. M. Srinivasa Chari |title=Vaiṣṇavism: Its Philosophy, Theology, and Religious Discipline|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=evmiLInyxBMC |year=1994|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1098-3 |pages=147 }}</ref> others suggest god Shiva created Brahma (Shaivism),<ref>{{cite book|author=Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty |title=Siva: The Erotic Ascetic |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dnfZ_MBErlQC |year=1981|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-972793-3 |page=125 }}</ref> yet others suggest goddess Devi created Brahma (Shaktism),<ref name="kinsley137">{{cite book|author=David Kinsley |title=Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition|url=https://archive.org/details/hindugoddessesvi0000kins |url-access=registration |year=1988|publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-90883-3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/hindugoddessesvi0000kins/page/137 137] }}</ref> and these texts then go on to state that Brahma is a secondary creator of the world working respectively on their behalf.<ref name="kinsley137" /><ref>{{cite book|author=Stella Kramrisch|title=The Presence of Siva|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O5BanndcIgUC&pg=PA205|year=1992|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=0-691-01930-4 |pages=205–206 }}</ref> A similarity between Brahma and Brahman is that Brahman is said to be an anchor for the world and the relations between all things, including opposites, in it,<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Stevenson |first=Jay |title=The Complete Idiot's Guide to Eastern Philosophy |publisher=Alpha Books |year=2000 |isbn=9780028638201 |location=Indianapolis |pages=9, 47–51, 85–87 |language=en-US}}</ref> whereas Brahma is a creator god who aids the world in many Hindu and Buddhist traditions.

Further, the medieval era texts of these major theistic traditions of Hinduism assert that the ''saguna''{{refn|group=note|representation with face and attributes.<ref>{{cite book|author=Arvind Sharma|title=Classical Hindu Thought: An Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gDmUToaeMJ0C |year=2000|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-564441-8|page=4}}</ref>{{crossreference|{{further|Saguna Brahman}}}}}} Brahman is Vishnu,<ref>{{cite book|author1=Mark Juergensmeyer |author2=Wade Clark Roof |title=Encyclopedia of Global Religion |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WwJzAwAAQBAJ |year=2011|publisher=SAGE Publications |isbn=978-1-4522-6656-5 |page=1335}}</ref> is Shiva,<ref>{{cite book|author=Stella Kramrisch |title=The Presence of Siva |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O5BanndcIgUC |year=1992|publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=0-691-01930-4 |page=171 }}</ref> or is Devi<ref>{{cite book|author=David Kinsley |title=Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition |url=https://archive.org/details/hindugoddessesvi0000kins |url-access=registration |year=1988|publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-90883-3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/hindugoddessesvi0000kins/page/136 136] }}</ref> respectively, they are different names or aspects of the Brahman, and that the Atman (Self) within every living being is the same or part of this ultimate, eternal Brahman.<ref>{{cite book|author=William K. Mahony |title=The Artful Universe: An Introduction to the Vedic Religious Imagination |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B1KR_kE5ZYoC |year=1998|publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-3579-3 |pages=13–14, 187 }}</ref>

Brahmin is a varna in Hinduism specialising in theory as priests, preservers and transmitters of sacred literature across generations.<ref>{{cite book | last=Doniger | first=Wendy | title=Merriam-Webster's encyclopedia of world religions | publisher=Merriam-Webster | location=Springfield, Massachusetts, US | year=1999 | isbn=978-0-87779-044-0 | page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780877790440/page/186 186] | url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780877790440/page/186 }}</ref><ref>James Lochtefeld (2002), Brahmin, ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism'', Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing, {{ISBN|978-0823931798}}, page 125</ref>

The Brahmanas are one of the four ancient layers of texts within the Vedas. They are primarily a digest incorporating myths, legends, the explanation of Vedic rituals and in some cases philosophy.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/77126/Brahmana Brahmana] ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' (2013)</ref><ref>Klaus Klostermaier (1994), ''A Survey of Hinduism'', Second Edition, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791421093}}, pages 67–69</ref> They are embedded within each of the four Vedas, and form a part of the Hindu ''śruti'' literature.<ref>[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/brahmana "Brahmana"]. ''Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary''</ref>

==See also== *''Atman (Hinduism)'' *''Arche'' *''Asha'' *Consciousness *''Logos'' *''Paramatman'' *Parabrahman *Prakṛti *''Purusha'' *''Shentong'' *''Tao'' *''Teotl''

==Notes== {{Noteslist}} {{reflist|group=note|33em}}

==References== {{Reflist|33em}}

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==External links== {{Wikiquote}} * [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1396951 The Concept of Brahman in Hindu Philosophy], Haridas Chaudhuri (1954), ''Philosophy East and West'', Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 47–66. * [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1195422 The Idea of God in Hinduism], A. S. Woodburne (1925), ''The Journal of Religion'', Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 52–66. * [https://www.jstor.org/stable/41694938 The Western View of Hinduism: An Age-old Mistake] (Brahman), J. M. De Mora (1997), ''Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute'', Vol. 78, No. 1/4, pp. 1–12. * [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concepts-god/ Concepts of God] ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', Stanford University, (Compares Brahman with concepts of God found in other religions). * [http://www.hinduwebsite.com/brahmanmain.asp Detailed essays on Brahman] at Hinduwebsite.com *[https://adbhutam.wordpress.com/2023/05/11/the-vishnu-beyond-maya-is-nirguna-brahman-mahabharata.asp Concept of Brahman in vedas] at Adbutam, wordpress.Weblog

Category:Hindu philosophical concepts Category:Conceptions of God Category:Names of God in Hinduism