{{Short description|Oil derived from the seeds of Borago officinalis}}

thumb|alt=Borage plant flowers.|Borage plant flowers.

'''Borage seed oil''' is derived from the seeds of the plant, ''Borago officinalis'' (borage).<ref name=SK>[https://www.mskcc.org/cancer-care/integrative-medicine/herbs/borage Borage] at Sloan-Kettering website</ref>

Borage seed oil has one of the highest amounts of γ-linolenic acid (GLA) of seed oils — higher than blackcurrant seed oil or evening primrose oil, to which it is considered similar. GLA is typically composed of about 24% of the oil.

==Biology==

===Effects=== GLA is converted to dihomo-γ-linolenic acid (DGLA), a precursor to a variety of the 1-series prostaglandins and the 3-series leukotrienes. It inhibits leukotriene synthesis to provide therapy in rheumatologic illness.<ref name=SK /> Borage seed oil, therefore, may have anti-inflammatory and anti-thrombotic effects. It has been studied for its potential to treat inflammatory disorders, arthritis, atopic eczema, and respiratory inflammation.<ref name=SK />

===Uses=== In herbal medicine, borage seed oil has been used for skin disorders such as eczema, seborrheic dermatitis, and neurodermatitis; it has also been used for rheumatoid arthritis, stress, premenstrual syndrome, diabetes, attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), alcoholism, pain and swelling (inflammation), and for preventing heart disease and stroke.<ref name=webmd>{{cite web |url=http://www.webmd.com/vitamins-supplements/ingredientmono-596-borage.aspx?activeIngredientId=596&activeIngredientName=borage |title=Borage |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |website= |publisher=WebMD |access-date=19 February 2014}}</ref> There is insufficient scientific evidence to determine the effectiveness of borage for a majority of these uses.<ref name=webmd/>

Several clinical studies have shown the oil to be ineffective at treating atopic eczema.<ref>{{cite journal | pmid = 10233322 | year = 1999 | last1 = Henz | first1 = BM | last2 = Jablonska | first2 = S | last3 = Van De Kerkhof | first3 = PC | last4 = Stingl | first4 = G | last5 = Blaszczyk | first5 = M | last6 = Vandervalk | first6 = PG | last7 = Veenhuizen | first7 = R | last8 = Muggli | first8 = R | last9 = Raederstorff | first9 = D | title = Double-blind, multicentre analysis of the efficacy of borage oil in patients with atopic eczema | volume = 140 | issue = 4 | pages = 685–8 | journal = The British Journal of Dermatology | doi=10.1046/j.1365-2133.1999.02771.x| s2cid = 21396418 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | pmid = 14670885 | year = 2003 | last1 = Takwale | first1 = A | last2 = Tan | first2 = E | last3 = Agarwal | first3 = S | last4 = Barclay | first4 = G | last5 = Ahmed | first5 = I | last6 = Hotchkiss | first6 = K | last7 = Thompson | first7 = JR | last8 = Chapman | first8 = T | last9 = Berth-Jones | first9 = J | title = Efficacy and tolerability of borage oil in adults and children with atopic eczema: Randomised, double blind, placebo controlled, parallel group trial | volume = 327 | issue = 7428 | page = 1385 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.327.7428.1385 | pmc = 292992 | journal = BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.) }}</ref> Its efficacy to treat eczema was not better than placebo when taken orally.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bamford|first=JT |author2=Ray, S |author3=Musekiwa, A |author4=van Gool, C |author5=Humphreys, R |author6=Ernst, E |title=Oral evening primrose oil and borage oil for eczema.|journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|date=Apr 30, 2013|volume=4|issue=4 |article-number=CD004416|pmid=23633319|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD004416.pub2|pmc=8105655}}</ref>

==Safety==

===Adverse effects=== Borage oil may contain the pyrrolizidine alkaloid amabiline,<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Dodson, Craig D. |author2=Stermitz, Frank R. | title = Pyrrolizidine alkaloids from borage (Borago officinalis) seeds and flowers | journal = Journal of Natural Products | year = 1986 | volume = 49 | issue = 4 | pages = 727–728 | doi = 10.1021/np50046a045}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | title = TLC detection of pyrrolizidine alkaloids in oil extracted from the seeds of Borago officinalis |author1=Parvais, O. |author2=Vander Stricht, B. |author3=Vanhaelen-Fastre, R. |author4=Vanhaelen, M. | journal = Journal of Planar Chromatography--Modern TLC | year = 1994 | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | pages = 80–82}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Wretensjoe, Inger |author2=Karlberg, Bo. | title = Pyrrolizidine alkaloid content in crude and processed borage oil from different processing stages | journal = Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society | year = 2003 | volume = 80 | issue = 10 | pages = 963–970 | doi = 10.1007/s11746-003-0804-z|s2cid=94575246 }}</ref> which is hepatotoxic leading to a risk of liver damage.<ref name=SK />

Patients should use borage oil that is certified free of toxic unsaturated pyrrolizidine alkaloids (UPAs).<ref name=SK /> Consumption of 1-2 g of borage seed oil daily can result in an intake of toxic UPAs approaching 10&nbsp;ug.<ref name=SK /> The German Federal Health Agency specifies consumption to be limited to 1&nbsp;ug of UPA daily.<ref name=SK />

Borage oil may be unsafe during pregnancy because preliminary studies suggest borage oil has a teratogenic effect and that its prostaglandin E agonist action may cause premature labor.<ref name=SK /><ref>{{cite journal | pmid = 11710548 | year = 2001 | last1 = Kast | first1 = RE | title = Borage oil reduction of rheumatoid arthritis activity may be mediated by increased cAMP that suppresses tumor necrosis factor-alpha | volume = 1 | issue = 12 | pages = 2197–9 | journal = International Immunopharmacology | doi=10.1016/s1567-5769(01)00146-1}}</ref>

Seizures have been reported as a complication of ingestion of borage oil in doses of 1,500 to 3,000&nbsp;mg daily,<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Al-Khamees | first1 = W. A. A. | last2 = Schwartz | first2 = M. D. | last3 = Alrashdi | first3 = S. | last4 = Algren | first4 = A. D. | last5 = Morgan | first5 = B. W. | title = Status Epilepticus Associated with Borage Oil Ingestion | doi = 10.1007/s13181-011-0135-9 | journal = Journal of Medical Toxicology | volume = 7 | issue = 2 | pages = 154–157 | year = 2011 | pmid = 21387119 | pmc = 3724443 }}</ref> although a mixed review of borage oil's effect on seizure thresholds indicates that borage oil quality varies.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Spinella | first1 = M. | title = Herbal Medicines and Epilepsy: The Potential for Benefit and Adverse Effects | doi = 10.1006/ebeh.2001.0281 | journal = Epilepsy & Behavior | volume = 2 | issue = 6 | pages = 524–532 | year = 2001 | pmid = 12609386 | pmc = | s2cid = 29280247 }}</ref> A specific extraction process may offer purified products with 50%+ GLA content.

Borage seed oil might prolong bleeding time, increase the risk of bruising and bleeding, and increase the risk of bleeding during and after surgery.<ref name=webmd/>

===Interactions=== Because borage oil can theoretically lower the seizure threshold due to its GLA content, it could therefore trigger a seizure in users of phenothiazines or tricyclic antidepressants.<ref name=SK />

Use of NSAIDs with borage oil may theoretically decrease the effects of borage oil, as NSAIDs interfere with the synthesis of prostaglandin E.<ref name=SK />

== References == {{reflist|2}}

Category:Vegetable oils