{{Short description|Black truffle}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2024}} {{Speciesbox | image = Truffe nature.JPG | image_caption = Fruiting body of ''Tuber melanosporum'' | genus = Tuber | species = melanosporum | authority = Vittad. <small>1831</small> | synonyms = }} {{mycomorphbox | name=Tuber melanosporum | whichGills=NA | capShape=NA | hymeniumType=gleba | stipeCharacter=NA | ecologicalType=mycorrhizal | sporePrintColor=yellow | howEdible=choice }}
'''''Tuber melanosporum''''', commonly called '''black truffle''', '''Périgord truffle''' or '''French black truffle''',<ref>There are several common names for the species in the popular literature. For example, the ''Field Guide to North American Truffles'' (Trappe, Evans & Trappe, 2007) refers to it as the "French black"; ''Taming the Truffle'' (Hall, Brown, Zambonelli, 2007) calls it the "black Périgord truffle" (but lists it under the scientific name in the index); ''The Book of Fungi'' (Roberts & Evans, 2011) calls it the "black truffle"; and the European field guide ''Mushrooms'' (Laessoe & Lincoff, 2002) calls it simply the "Perigord truffle."</ref> is a species of truffle native to Southern Europe. It is one of the most expensive edible fungi in the world. In 2013, the truffle cost between 1,000 and 2,000 euros per kilogram.
== Taxonomy == Italian naturalist Carlo Vittadini described the black truffle in 1831.
== Description == The round, dark brown fruiting bodies (ascocarps) have a black-brown skin with small pyramidal cusps.<ref name="Gerhardt2011">{{cite book | isbn = 978-3-8354-0644-5 | title = Der große BLV-Pilzführer für unterwegs | last1 = Gerhardt | first1 = Ewald | year = 2011 | location = Munich | page = 662 }}</ref> They have a strong, aromatic smell and normally reach a size of up to {{convert|10|cm|in|abbr=off|frac=4}}.<ref name="Laux2010">{{cite book | isbn = 978-3-440-12408-6 | title = Der große Kosmos-Pilzführer. Alle Speisepilze mit ihren giftigen Doppelgängern | last1 = Laux | first1 = Hans E. | year = 2010 | publisher = Kosmos | location = Stuttgart | page = 688 }}</ref> Some may be significantly larger, such as a black truffle found in 2012 in Dordogne with a mass of {{convert|1.277|kg|lb|abbr=off}}.<ref>{{cite news|title=1,3 Kilo schwerer Trüffel in Dordogne gefunden|url=http://news.orf.at/stories/2099674/|access-date=27 July 2013|newspaper=ORF|date=15 January 2012}}</ref>
Their flesh is initially white, then dark. It is permeated by white veins, which turn brown with age.<ref name="Cetto1988b">{{cite book | isbn = 978-3-405-13477-8 | title = Täublinge, Milchlinge, Boviste, Morcheln, Becherlinge u.a | last1 = Cetto | first1 = Bruno | year = 1988 | publisher = BLV | location = Munich | series = Enzyklopädie der Pilze | volume = 4 | page = 477 }}</ref> The spores are elliptical and measure about 22–55 μm by 20–35 μm.<ref name="Laux2010" /> They are dark brown and covered with large spikes.
In the Northern Hemisphere, the fruiting bodies develop from April to June and are harvested from November to March.<ref name="lexikon.huettenhilfe">{{cite web |title=Schwarze Trüffel |url=http://lexikon.huettenhilfe.de/gemuese/schwarze-trueffel.html |access-date=27 July 2013 |website=Huettenhilfe.de |archive-date=4 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130704145937/http://lexikon.huettenhilfe.de/gemuese/schwarze-trueffel.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>
Until 2010, all truffle species were thought to be homothallic, that is, capable of sexual reproduction from a single organism. Subsequent research indicated that black truffles are heterothallic; that is, sexual reproduction requires contact between the mycelia of different mating types.<ref>{{citation |title=Tuber melanosporum: mating type distribution in a natural plantation and dynamics of strains of different mating types on the roots of nursery-inoculated host plants |date=2011 |periodical=New Phytologist |volume=189 |issue=3 |pages=723–735 |language=de |doi=10.1111/j.1469-8137.2010.03493.x |pmid=20964691 |surname2=Beatrice Belfiori |surname3=Claudia Riccioni |surname4=Sergio Arcioni |surname5=Francis Martin |surname6=Francesco Paolocci |doi-access=free |surname1=Andrea Rubini|bibcode=2011NewPh.189..723R }}</ref> If mycelia of different mating types surround a tree, eventually, one type becomes predominant.
=== Aroma === The fruiting bodies of the black truffle exude a scent reminiscent of undergrowth, strawberries, wet earth, or dried fruit with a hint of cocoa. Their taste, which fully develops after the truffles are heated, is slightly peppery and bitter.<ref name="Bellesia">{{citation|surname1=Franco Bellesia|surname2=Adriano Pinetti|surname3=Alberto Bianchi|surname4=Bruno Tirillini|periodical=Flavour and Fragrance Journal|title=The volatile organic compounds of black truffle (Tuber melanosporum Vitt.) from Middle Italy |volume=13|issue=1|pages=56–58|date= 1998|language=de|doi=10.1002/(SICI)1099-1026(199801/02)13:1<56::AID-FFJ692>3.0.CO;2-X|hdl=11380/612292|hdl-access=free}}</ref> If stored at room temperature, the aromatic compounds dissipate, while storage around the freezing point (0 °C) leads to an increased synthesis of these compounds.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Epping |first1=Ruben |last2=Lisec |first2=Jan |last3=Koch |first3=Matthias |date=2024-05-15 |title=Changes in Black Truffle (Tuber melanosporum) Aroma during Storage under Different Conditions |journal=Journal of Fungi (Basel, Switzerland) |volume=10 |issue=5 |pages=354 |doi=10.3390/jof10050354 |doi-access=free |issn=2309-608X |pmc=11121890 |pmid=38786709}}</ref>
The volatile compounds that contribute to the aroma and are developed by the fruiting bodies include 2-methyl-1-butanol, isoamyl alcohol, 2-methylbutyraldehyde, and 3-methylbutyraldehyde, as well as traces of sulfur compounds.<ref name="Bellesia"/><ref>{{citation|surname1=Laura Culleré|surname2=Vicente Ferreira|surname3=Berenger Chevret|surname4=María E. Venturini|surname5=Ana C. Sánchez-Gimeno|surname6=Domingo Blanco|periodical=Food Chemistry|title=Characterisation of aroma active compounds in black truffles (Tuber melanosporum) and summer truffles (Tuber aestivum) by gas chromatography–olfactometry |volume=122|issue=1|pages=300–306|date= 2010|language=de|doi=10.1016/j.foodchem.2010.02.024}}</ref> One of these, dimethyl sulfide, is what attracts truffle dogs, truffle hogs and truffle flies to the fruiting bodies.<ref>{{citation|surname1=T. Talou|surname2=A. Gaset|surname3=M. Delmas|surname4=M. Kulifaj|surname5=C. Montant|periodical=Mycological Research|title=Dimethyl sulphide: the secret for black truffle hunting by animals? |volume=94|issue=2|pages=277–278|date= 1990|language=de|doi=10.1016/S0953-7562(09)80630-8}}</ref> Several species of yeast, which produce part of the aromatic compounds, have been isolated from ''Tuber melanosporum'' and ''Tuber magnatum''.<ref>{{citation|surname1=Pietro Buzzini u. a.|periodical=Archives of Microbiology|title=Production of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) by yeasts isolated from the ascocarps of black (Tuber melanosporum Vitt.) and white (Tuber magnatum Pico) truffles |volume=184|issue=3|pages=187–193|date= 2005|language=de|doi=10.1007/s00203-005-0043-y|pmid=16187098|bibcode=2005ArMic.184..187B |s2cid=9395930}}</ref>
===Chemistry=== The genome of the black truffle was published in 2010.<ref>{{citation|surname1=Francis Martin u. a.|periodical=Nature|title=Périgord black truffle genome uncovers evolutionary origins and mechanisms of symbiosis |volume=464|issue=7291|pages=1033–1038|date= 2010|language=de|doi=10.1038/nature08867|pmid=20348908|bibcode=2010Natur.464.1033M|doi-access=free|hdl=2318/100278|hdl-access=free}}</ref> It contains 125 million base pairs, 58% of the genome consists of transposable elements, and the genome contains only 7,500 identified protein-encoding genes. During symbiosis, genes involved in the decomposition of plant cell walls and lipids are induced. This indicates that black truffles decompose the cell walls of their host plants at the beginning of the symbiosis.
Truffles contain the endocannabinoid anandamide (AEA) and the major metabolic enzymes of the endocannabinoid system (ECS). The AEA content increases in the late stages of truffles' development. AEA and ECS metabolic enzymes may have evolved earlier than endocannabinoid-binding receptors, and AEA might be an ancient attractant to truffle-eating animals, which are well-equipped with endocannabinoid-binding receptors.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pacioni |first1=Giovanni |last2=Rapino |first2=Cinzia |last3=Zarivi |first3=Osvaldo |last4=Falconi |first4=Anastasia |last5=Leonardi |first5=Marco |last6=Battista |first6=Natalia |last7=Colafarina |first7=Sabrina |last8=Sergi |first8=Manuel |last9=Bonfigli |first9=Antonella |date=2015-02-01 |title=Truffles contain endocannabinoid metabolic enzymes and anandamide |journal=Phytochemistry |volume=110 |pages=104–110 |bibcode=2015PChem.110..104P |doi=10.1016/j.phytochem.2014.11.012 |pmid=25433633}}</ref>
=== Similar species === thumb|right|Black truffle, cut The black truffle is morphologically very similar to the commercially less valuable Chinese truffle (''Tuber indicum''). To avoid fraud or misidentifications in commerce, a RFLP genetic test has been developed to distinguish the two species.<ref>{{citation|surname1=Francesco Paolocci|surname2=Andrea Rubini|surname3=Bruno Granetti|surname4=Sergio Arcioni|periodical=FEMS Microbiology Letters|title=Typing Tuber melanosporum and Chinese black truffle species by molecular markers |volume=153|issue=2|pages=255–260|date= 1997|language=de|doi=10.1111/j.1574-6968.1997.tb12582.x|pmid=9271850|doi-access=free}}</ref> Externally, they can be distinguished by their skin, which is smoother and dark red or dark brown in the Chinese truffle. Two other similar truffle species are the summer truffle (''Tuber aestivum'') and the winter truffle (''Tuber brumale''), whose flesh is gray-black with white veins that remain always white, unlike those of black truffles which change color when exposed to the air.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tuber Brumale |url=http://truffleboard.com/truffle-species-guide/tuber-brumale-muscato-truffle/ |access-date=2025-08-15 |website=Truffle Board |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Campli |first=Carmine Di |date=2023-06-15 |title=What you should know about tuber brumale and tuber melanosporum. |url=https://www.fishrivertruffiere.com/post/what-you-should-know-about-tuber-brumale-and-tuber-melanosporum |access-date=2025-08-15 |website=Fish River Truffles |language=en}}</ref>
==Distribution and habitat== The natural habitat of the black truffle includes various regions in Spain, France, Italy, and Croatia. These are presumably the areas where the host plants found refuge during the last Ice Age.{{Citation needed|date=February 2017}} In these areas, the search for black truffles and their cultivation is a tradition going back more than 200 years. Truffles are still collected manually in a traditional way in large areas of natural forests. For example, the county of Alto Maestrazgo (province of Castellón, Spain) has an ideal ground with suitable conditions for cultivating truffles. Albocàsser, Atzaneta, Culla, and Morella are just some of the villages in this region where one can find black truffles in large amounts.<ref name="Slow Living Mediterráneo">{{Cite news|url=http://www.slowlivingmediterraneo.com/slow-food-truffle-season-spain/|title=Spanish Truffle Recipes: Slow Food and the Truffle Season in Spain|date=2017-02-09|work=Slow Living Mediterráneo|access-date=2017-06-13}}</ref>
Climate change has increasingly affected this form of recollection, and since 2010, a significant drop in productivity has occurred in naturally producing forests.
== Ecology ==
===Development and phenology=== thumb|Black truffles suppress the growth of plants around their symbiont, creating the impression of a burnt area. Black truffles grow at a depth of {{convert|5|cm|in|abbr=on|frac=4}} to {{convert|50|cm|in|abbr=on}} as ectomycorrhizae, preferably in loose calcareous soil,<ref name="Linde">{{citation |surname1=C. C. Linde |title=Genetic Diversity and Mating Type Distribution of Tuber melanosporum and Their Significance to Truffle Cultivation in Artificially Planted Truffiéres in Australia |date=2012 |periodical=Applied and Environmental Microbiology |volume=78 |issue=18 |pages=6534–6539 |language=de |bibcode=2012ApEnM..78.6534L |doi=10.1128/AEM.01558-12 |pmc=3426713 |pmid=22773652 |surname2=H. Selmes}}</ref> close to the roots of their plant symbionts. These include holm oaks, French oaks, hazel, cherry and other deciduous trees.<ref name="Laux2010" /> The symbiosis of holm oak saplings and black truffles has been shown to improve photosynthesis and root growth in the plant.<ref>{{citation |surname1=Andrea Nardinia |title=Influence of the ectomycorrhizas formed by Tuber melanosporum Vitt. on hydraulic conductance and water relations of Quercus ilex L. seedlings |date=2000 |periodical=Annals of Forest Science |volume=57 |issue=4 |pages=305–312 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00883314/file/hal-00883314.pdf |language=de |bibcode=2000AnFSc..57..305N |doi=10.1051/forest:2000121 |surname2=Sebastiano Salleo |surname3=Melvin T. Tyree |surname4=Moreno Vertovec |doi-access=free}}</ref>
Black truffles suppress the growth of plants around their symbiont, creating the impression of a burnt (''brûlé'') area around it. They do so by parasitizing the roots of other plants, which may lead to necrosis of the root bark and the death of the parasitized plant.<ref>{{citation |surname1=I. Plattner |title=Parasitism of non-host plants by the mycorrhizal fungus Tuber melanosporum |date=1995 |periodical=Mycological Research |volume=99 |issue=11 |pages=1367–1370 |language=de |doi=10.1016/S0953-7562(09)81223-9 |surname2=I.R. Hall}}</ref> Moreover, part of the scent emitted by the truffles may limit the growth of other plants through oxidative stress.<ref>{{citation |surname1=Richard Splivallo |title=Truffle volatiles inhibit growth and induce an oxidative burst in Arabidopsis thaliana |date=2007 |periodical=The New Phytologist |volume=175 |issue=3 |pages=417–424 |language=de |bibcode=2007NewPh.175..417S |doi=10.1111/j.1469-8137.2007.02141.x |pmid=17635217 |surname2=Mara Novero |surname3=Cinzia M Bertea |surname4=Simone Bossi |surname5=Paola Bonfante |doi-access=free}}</ref>
===Reproduction=== Boars and the larvae of the truffle fly (''Suillia tuberiperda''), which eat the fruiting bodies, aid in the distribution of the species by excreting the indigestible spores. Their excrement likely also serves to fertilize the spores. Black truffles are sometimes found together with winter truffles, which aid the growth of black truffles in wet soils.<ref>{{citation |surname1=M. Mamoun |title=Competition between Tuber melanosporum and other ectomycorrhizal fungi under two irrigation regimes |date=1993 |periodical=Plant and Soil |volume=149 |issue=2 |pages=211–218 |language=de |bibcode=1993PlSoi.149..211M |doi=10.1007/BF00016611 |s2cid=39143446 |surname2=J. M. Olivier}}</ref>
== Cultivation == To improve production, planters must ensure that neighboring trees harbor mycelia of different mating types, such as by inoculating new saplings with a mycelium of a particular type.
Cultivated areas are increasingly popular, and in central Spain, several thousands of hectares are dedicated to truffle cultivation (the most frequent of the black truffle being in Sarrión, Teruel province in the Aragon region). Some experiments have also been conducted in burnt areas, with promising results, as legally, no need to ask for a land-use change exists when planting truffles, as it can be considered (EU-28) as forest land.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Martinez de aragon |first1=Juan |last2=Fischer |first2=Christine |last3=Bonet |first3=Jose-Antonio |last4=olivera |first4=Antoni |last5=Oliach |first5=Daniel |last6=Colinas |first6=Carlos |date=2012 |title=Economically profitable post-fire restoration with black truffle (Tuber melanosporum) producing plantations |journal=New Forests |volume=43 |issue=5–6 |pages=615–630 |doi=10.1007/s11056-012-9316-x |bibcode=2012NewFo..43..615M |s2cid=17598889}}</ref>
Black truffles are now also cultivated in Australia, New Zealand, Chile,<ref>{{cite web |title=First exports of Chilean truffles set for 2013 |url=http://santiagotimes.cl/first-exports-of-chilean-truffles-set-for-2013/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150105010417/http://santiagotimes.cl/first-exports-of-chilean-truffles-set-for-2013/ |archive-date=5 January 2015 |access-date=2015-01-04}}</ref> North America, Argentina, South Africa,<ref name="Linde" /><ref name="News24">{{cite web |last=Pieterse |first=Chelsea |date=16 June 2016 |title=Kokstad farmer finds first black truffle of season |url=https://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/kokstad-farmer-finds-first-black-truffle-of-season-20160614 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20210902040508/https://www.news24.com/witness/news/kokstad-farmer-finds-first-black-truffle-of-season-20160614 |archive-date=2 September 2021 |website=The Witness|location=South Africa}}</ref> and Wales.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Thomas |first1=Paul |last2=Büntgen |first2=Ulf |date=2017 |title=First harvest of Périgord black truffle in the UK as a result of climate change |url=https://www.int-res.com/abstracts/cr/v74/n1/p67-70/ |url-status=live |journal=Climate Research |volume=74 |issue=1 |pages=67–70 |bibcode=2017ClRes..74...67T |doi=10.3354/cr01494 |jstor=26394476 |s2cid=135270279 |url-access= |archive-url=https://archive.today/20210902041050/https://www.int-res.com/abstracts/cr/v74/n1/p67-70/ |archive-date=2 September 2021}}</ref> Cultivation involves the planting of, for example, hazel trees whose roots are inoculated with truffle mycelium. The first fruiting bodies can be harvested about 4–10 years after planting the trees.<ref name="madrimasd">madrimasd. [https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/10/121023124105.htm "New technique to grow black truffles"]. ScienceDaily, 23 October 2012. Web. 5 August 2013. [https://archive.today/20210902042003/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/10/121023124105.htm Archived] 2 September 2021 at archive.today.</ref>
France accounts for around 45% of the world's production of black truffles, Spain 35%, and Italy 20%. Smaller amounts are produced in the United States, South Africa, Slovenia, Croatia, and the Australian states of Tasmania and Western Australia. In 2005, black truffles were found in Serbia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://arhiva.kurir-info.rs/arhiva/2005/novembar/28/V-17-28112005.shtml |title=KURIR |publisher=Arhiva.kurir-info.rs |access-date=16 June 2012}}</ref> About 80% of the French production comes from southeast France: upper Provence (''départements'' of Vaucluse and Alpes-de-Haute-Provence), part of Dauphiné (''département'' of Drôme), and part of Languedoc (''département'' of Gard). About 20% of the production comes from southwest France: Quercy (''département'' of Lot) and Périgord. The largest truffle market in France (and probably also in the world) is at Richerenches in Vaucluse. The largest truffle market in southwest France is at Lalbenque in Quercy.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The History and Future of French Truffle Production: From Decline to Record Growth |url=https://truffle-and-truffe.com/truffles/growing/production/ |access-date=2025-08-15 |website=Truffle and Truffe |language=en-GB}}</ref> These markets are busiest in January when the black truffles are mature and have their highest perfume.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Opening of the black truffle season from Drôme des Collines |url=https://www.ardeche-hermitage.com/en/focus-on/opening-of-the-black-truffle-season-from-drome-des-collines/ |access-date=2025-08-15 |website=www.ardeche-hermitage.com |language=en}}</ref>
Production has considerably diminished during the 21st century, dropping to around 20 metric tonnes per year, with peaks of about 46 tonnes in the best years. By comparison, in 1937, France produced about 1,000 metric tonnes of black truffles.
The following table shows the production in the EU of'' T. melanosporum'' in Spain, France, and Italy. Production data are in metric tonnes and country weights in percentage and come from the Groupe Européen Truffe et Trufficulture, an association of the leading European producers.
{| class="wikitable" |- ! Years !! Spain !! France !! Italy !! EU !! % of average year !! Spain vs EU !! France vs EU !! Italy vs EU |- | 1990/1991 || 30 || 17 || 5 || 52 || 83 || 58 || 33 || 10 |- | 1991/1992 || 10 || 20 || 5 || 35 || 56 || 29 || 57 || 14 |- | 1992/1993 || 23 || 31 || 3 || 57 || 90 || 40 || 54 || 5 |- | 1993/1994 || 9 || 22 || 2 || 33 || 52 || 27 || 67 || 6 |- | 1994/1995 || 4 || 12 || 30 || 46 || 73 || 9 || 26 || 65 |- | 1995/1996 || 20 || 19 || 25 || 64 || 102 || 31 || 30 || 39 |- | 1996/1997 || 25 || 50 || 20 || 95 || 151 || 26 || 53 || 21 |- | 1997/1998 || 80 || 30 || 24 || 134 || 213 || 60 || 22 || 18 |- | 1998/1999 || 7 || 14 || 4 || 25 || 40 || 28 || 56 || 16 |- | 1999/2000 || 35 || 40 || 10 || 85 || 135 || 41 || 47 || 12 |- | 2000/2001 || 6 || 35 || 4 || 45 || 71 || 13 || 78 || 9 |- | 2001/2002 || 20 || 15 || 5 || 40 || 63 || 50 || 38 || 13 |- | 2002/2003 || 40 || 35 || 20 || 95 || 151 || 42 || 37 || 21 |- | 2003/2004 || 7 || 9 || 6 || 22 || 35 || 32 || 41 || 27 |- | 2004/2005 || 22 || 27 || 10 || 59 || 94 || 37 || 46 || 17 |- | 2005/2006 || 14 || 15 || 8 || 37 || 59 || 38 || 41 || 22 |- | 2006/2007 || 20 || 28 || 10 || 58 || 92 || 34 || 48 || 17 |- | 2007/2008 || 25 || 26 || 8 || 59 || 94 || 42 || 44 || 14 |- | 2008/2009 || 14 || 58 || 20 || 92 || 146 || 15 || 63 || 22 |- | 2009/2010 || 9 || 32 || 8 || 49 || 78 || 18 || 65 || 16 |- | 2010/2011 || 18 || 37,2 || 12 || 67,2 || 107 || 27 || 55 || 18 |- | 2011/2012 || 14,5 || 42,3 || 8 || 64,8 || 103 || 22 || 65 || 12 |- | 2012/2013 || 15 || 38,2 || 20 || 73,2 || 116 || 20 || 52 || 27 |- | 2013/2014 || 45 || 50 || 30 || 125 || 198 || 36 || 40 || 24 |}
As the data show, France has been the leading producer of black truffles in the last decade and a half but is rapidly challenged by Spain, where regions have made use of the EU-funded Rural Development Programme <!-- (EARFD funding) --> to subsidise cultivated plantations.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bonet|first1=Jose-Antonio|last2=Fischer|first2=Christine|last3=Colinas|first3=Carlos|title=Cultivation of black truffle to promote reforestation and land-use stability|journal=Agronomy for Sustainable Development|date=2006|volume=26|issue=1|pages=69–76|ref=HAL Id: hal-00886320|url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00886320/document|doi=10.1051/agro:2005059|hdl=10459.1/30348 |doi-access=free}}</ref> This is particularly visible in the Teruel province of the Aragón region, where the black truffle represents the first and main economic activity (in GDP and employment), especially since 2010-2011 when many plantations opened under the last Rural Development Programme 2000-2006 came into production phase.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bonet|first1=Jose-Antonio|last2=Oliach|first2=Daniel|last3=Fischer|first3=Christine|last4=Martinez de Aragon|first4=Juan|last5=Colinas|first5=Carlos|title=Cultivation Methods of the Black Truffle, the Most Profitable Mediterranean Non-Wood Forest Product; A State of the Art Review|journal=Modelling, Valuing and Managing Mediterranean Forest Ecosystems for Non-Timber Goods and Services|date=2009|issue=57|pages=57–71}}</ref>
==Uses== With a price of about 1,000 to 2,000 euros per kilogram, black truffles are the second-most expensive truffles after white truffles and one of the most sought-after edible mushrooms in the world.<ref name="lexikon.huettenhilfe"/>
In cooking, black truffles are used to refine the taste of meat, fish, soups, cheeses, and risotto. Unlike white truffles, the aroma of black truffles does not diminish when they are heated but becomes more intense.<ref>{{cite news |last=Jochim |first=Tobias |date=2016-03-04 |title=Trüffel |url=http://www.gourmetglobe.de/kochen/tipps-vom-sternekoch/884-sternekoch-tobias-jochim-so-bereitet-man-trueffel-richtig-zu.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304030857/http://www.gourmetglobe.de/kochen/tipps-vom-sternekoch/884-sternekoch-tobias-jochim-so-bereitet-man-trueffel-richtig-zu.html |archive-date=2016-03-04 |access-date=23 November 2025 |newspaper=Gourmetglobe.de}}</ref> They are commonly shaved into or on top of a dish raw or infused with high-quality olive oil or butter.<ref>{{Cite web |date=November 7, 2018 |title=The Fresh Truffle Guide – How to Use Fresh Truffles |url=https://titaitalia.com/blogs/events/the-fresh-truffle-guide-how-to-use-fresh-truffles |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200926021302/https://titaitalia.com/blogs/events/the-fresh-truffle-guide-how-to-use-fresh-truffles |archive-date=2020-09-26}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=November 2025}}
==References== {{Reflist}}
==External links== * ''{{Commons category-inline|Tuber melanosporum}}'' {{Taxonbar|from=Q1093314}}
{{French cuisine}}
melanosporum Category:Truffles (fungi) Category:Fungi described in 1831 Category:Fungus species