{{Short description|Short-time bicycle rental service}} {{About|access to a bicycle fleet service|access to an individual bicycle|Bicycle rental|the sharing of an individual bicycle|Sociable|and|Tandem bicycle|and|Quadracycle}} {{Use dmy dates|date=May 2023}} [[File:00 2141 Bicycle-sharing systems - Sweden.jpg|thumb|Docked bicycles in Gothenburg, Sweden]] A '''bicycle-sharing system''', '''bike share program''',<ref name=":7">{{cite web|last1=Options |first1=Commute |date=17 November 2016|title=The Many Benefits of Bike Sharing Programs|url=https://www.commuteoptions.org/the-many-benefits-of-bike-sharing-programs/|access-date=27 August 2021|website=Commute Options}}</ref> '''public bicycle scheme''',<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ec.europa.eu/transport/sites/transport/files/cycling-guidance/giz_sutp_public_bike_schemes.pdf |title=Recommended Reading and Links on Public Bicycle Schemes |last=Kodukula |first=Santhosh |date=September 2010 |website=European Commission |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190807183207/https://ec.europa.eu/transport/sites/transport/files/cycling-guidance/giz_sutp_public_bike_schemes.pdf |archive-date=7 August 2019 |access-date=7 August 2019}}</ref> or '''public bike share''' ('''PBS''') '''scheme''',<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cyclinguk.org/article/guide-hire-bikes-and-public-bike-share-schemes |title=A guide to hire bikes and public bike share schemes |last=mattlamy |date=18 June 2019 |website=Cycling UK}}</ref> is a shared transport service in which bicycles or electric bicycles are available for shared short-term use by individuals at low cost.
These systems are designed to provide an affordable, flexible, and environmentally friendly mode of transport, often serving as a "first- and last-mile" connection to public transport and helping to reduce traffic congestion and emissions.
Modern bicycle-sharing systems typically operate as either docked networks, where bicycles are rented from and returned to fixed stations, or dockless systems, which use mobile technology and GPS to enable more flexible pick-up and drop-off. Advances in technology since the 2000s have enabled rapid global expansion, with thousands of systems now operating in cities worldwide.
Bicycle-sharing systems originated in grassroot efforts in Europe in the mid-1960s. By 2022, bike share schemes were offered in approximately 3,000 cities worldwide,<ref name="ref5">{{cite web |title = The Radical Roots of Bikesharing |publisher = CityLab |author = Feargus O'Sullivan |work = Bloomberg |date = 26 February 2022 |url = https://getpocket.com/explore/item/the-radical-roots-of-bikesharing}}</ref> including Dubai,<ref>{{cite press release|last=Solutions|publisher=PBSC Urban|date=2 December 2019|title=PBSC Partners with Careem in Dubai to Launch First Large-Scale Electric Bike-Share Network in the Middle East|url=https://www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2019/12/02/1954823/0/en/PBSC-Partners-with-Careem-in-Dubai-to-Launch-First-Large-Scale-Electric-Bike-Share-Network-in-the-Middle-East.html|access-date=27 August 2021|website=GlobeNewswire News Room}}</ref> New York,<ref>{{cite web|last=Coulon|first=Jessica|date=19 February 2020|title=Citi Bike Reintroduces E-Bikes to New York City Bike Share Fleets|url=https://www.bicycling.com/news/a31002335/citi-bike-new-york-city-bike-share-ebikes-return/|access-date=27 August 2021|website=Bicycling}}</ref> Paris, Mexico City, Montreal<ref>{{cite web|title=Montreal bike rental|url=https://bixi.com/en|access-date=9 September 2021|website=BIXI Montréal}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Montréal Bike Share Program|url=https://www.pbsc.com/cities/montreal-bike-share|access-date=9 September 2021|publisher=PBSC Urban Solutions}}</ref> and Barcelona.<ref>{{cite web|last=Everett|first=Hayley|date=1 October 2018|title=PBSC to supply Barcelona bike-share scheme with 1,000 e-Bikes|url=https://cyclingindustry.news/pbsc-barcelona-bike-share-1000-e-bikes/|access-date=27 August 2021|website=Cycling Industry News}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Barcelona Bike Rental System|url=https://www.pbsc.com/cities/barcelona-bike-share|access-date=27 August 2021|publisher=PBSC Urban Solutions}}</ref> Today bike-share systems have become an integral part of urban mobility strategies in some cities, offering social, environmental, and health benefits while complementing public transportation networks. They can improve accessibility and equity in urban transport, reduce greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution, and promote physical activity, contributing to better public health outcomes.
Bicycle-sharing systems have also faced challenges, including bicycle theft and vandalism, uneven distribution of bikes, high operational and maintenance cost, and regulatory concerns over urban clutter, particularly with dockless schemes.
== History == {{Main list|List of bicycle-sharing systems }}{{Expand section|date=February 2026}} The earliest notable community bicycle program was the White Bicycle Plan ({{langx|nl|Wittefietsenplan}}) in Amsterdam, initiated in the summer of 1965 by Luud Schimmelpennink in association with the Provo movement.<ref>{{cite book |title=One Less Car: Bicycling and the Politics of Automobility |url = http://www.temple.edu/tempress/titles/1899_reg.html |last=Furness |first=Zack |year=2010 |publisher=Temple University Press |location=Philadelphia |isbn=978-1-59213-613-1 |pages=55–59 |access-date=8 July 2010 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100527225405/http://www.temple.edu/tempress/titles/1899_reg.html |archive-date=27 May 2010 }}</ref><ref name="Larsen">[http://www.earth-policy.org/plan_b_updates/2013/update112 Bike-Sharing Programs Hit the Streets in Over 500 Cities Worldwide] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150629214510/http://www.earth-policy.org/plan_b_updates/2013/update112 |date=29 June 2015 }}; Earth Policy Institute; Larsen, Janet; 25 April 2013</ref><ref name="Reader's Digest Deutschland">{{cite journal |title=Runde Sache |journal= Reader's Digest Deutschland |date=June 2011 |issue= 6/11 |pages=74–75 |language=de }}</ref><ref name="AMER">{{cite magazine |url = https://www.wired.com/story/americans-falling-in-love-bike-share |title=Americans Are Falling in Love With Bike Share |last=Marshall |first=Aarian|date=3 May 2018 |magazine=WIRED |access-date=6 May 2018 |department=Transportation |quote = The first bike-share systems, starting in 1960s Amsterdam....}}</ref> The group painted fifty bicycles white and placed them in various locations around the city, which were intended to be used freely by members of the public for one-time trips.<ref name="Access2011" /> The scheme was one of a number of "White Plans" proposed by the movement, which comprised various strategies for improving livability or transportation in Amsterdam.thumb|White bicycle as an emblem of the ''Wittefietsenplan'' movement Within a month, most of the bicycles had been stolen and the rest were found in nearby canals.<ref>Shirky, Clay ''Here Comes Everybody: The Power of Organizing Without Organizations'' (2008.) Penguin. pg 282–283</ref> Similar programs still exist elsewhere in the Netherlands, e.g., at Hoge Veluwe National Park, where a set of bicycles may be used freely within the park. Years later, Schimmelpennink admitted that "the Sixties experiment never existed in the way people believe" and that "no more than about ten bikes" had been put out on the street "as a suggestion of the bigger idea." As the police had temporarily confiscated all of the ''White Bicycles'' within a day of their release to the public, the White Bicycle experiment had actually lasted less than one month.<ref>{{cite news |first=Cole |last=Moreton |title = Reportage: The White Bike comes full circle |url = http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4158/is_20000716/ai_n14329331 |format=Reprint |newspaper = The Independent |date=16 July 2000 |access-date=28 December 2008}}</ref>
Ernest Callenbach's utopian novel ''Ecotopia'' (1975) illustrates the idea. In his depiction of a society that does not use fossil fuels, Callenbach described a bicycle sharing system which is available to inhabitants as an integrated part of a wider public transportation system.<ref>{{cite book |last=Callenbach |first=Ernest |title=Ecotopia |year=1975 |publisher=Ernest Callenbach (first self-published as Banyan Tree Books) |isbn=978-0-553-34847-7 |page=181 }}</ref>
One of the first community bicycle projects in the United States was started in Portland, Oregon in 1994 by civic and environmental activists Tom O'Keefe, Joe Keating and Steve Gunther. Similarly to the White Bicycle Plan, Portland's ''Yellow Bike Project'' released a number of bicycles to the streets for unrestricted use. While successful in terms of publicity, the programme proved unsustainable due to theft and vandalism of the bicycles. The ''Yellow Bike Project'' was eventually terminated, and replaced with the ''Create A Commuter'' (CAC) program, which provides free secondhand bicycles to low-income individuals as a means to commute to work or attend job training courses.<ref>Law, Steve, ''People in Need Offered Free Bikes'', The Portland Tribune, 20 January 2011: Originally, CAC handed out free bicycles to any low-income applicant; this was changed after many of the CAC bicycles began appearing for resale in classified advertisements.</ref>
In 1995, the ''ByCylken'' system was introduced in Copenhagen by Morten Sadolin and Ole Wessung, initially with a fleet of 300 bicycles.<ref>{{cite web |title=Europe develops crush on bicycling |url=https://www.thehawkeye.com/article/20121104/NEWS/311049977 |website=The Hawk Eye |access-date=11 October 2020 |archive-date=21 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210121112028/https://www.thehawkeye.com/article/20121104/NEWS/311049977 }}</ref> Riders paid a refundable deposit at one of 100 special locking bike stands (similar in principle to coin-deposit shopping carts), then had unlimited use of the bike within a specified 'city bike zone'.<ref name=":3">Free City Bike Schemes, Søren B. Jensen, City of Copenhagen, Conference Proceedings, Amsterdam 2000</ref> The idea was developed after both founders were victims of bicycle theft one night in 1989.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Alsvik|first1=Arild|title=Bysyklene |url=https://www.duo.uio.no/bitstream/handle/10852/15902/Alsvik.pdf|website=uio.no |publisher=Universitetet i Oslo|access-date=23 May 2018}}</ref> ''ByCylken'' was the first large-scale urban bike share program to feature specially designed bikes with parts that could not be used on other bikes.
Bike sharing programs later gravitated to the use of smart cards to prevent theft. One of the first such 'smart bike' programs was the ''Grippa'' bike storage rack system used in Portsmouth (UK)'s ''Bikeabout'' system.<ref>''[http://www.dixonbate.co.uk/cyclesecurity/velotron.asp Cycle Security – VeloTron]''</ref><ref name="BLA">Black, Colin, Faber, Oscar, and Potter, Stephen, ''Portsmouth Bikeabout: A Smart-Card Bike Club Scheme'', The Open University (1998)</ref><ref name="DeM">DeMaio, Paul, and Gifford, Jonathan, ''Will Smart Bikes Succeed as Public Transportation in the United States'', Journal of Public Transportation, Vol. 7, No. 2 (2004), p. 6.</ref> The ''Bikeabout'' scheme was launched in October 1995 by the University of Portsmouth as part of its ''Green Transport Plan'' in an effort to cut car travel by staff and students between campus sites.<ref name="BLA" /> Funded in part by the EU's ENTRANCE{{NoteTag|Acronym for the ENergy savings in TRANsport through innovation in the Cities of Europe programme}} program, the ''Bikeabout'' scheme was a "smart card" fully automated system.<ref name="BLA" /><ref name="DeM" /><ref name="REMCO">Hoogma, Remco, et al, ''Experimenting For Sustainable Transport: The approach of Strategic Niche Management'', London: Spon Press, {{ISBN|020399406X}} (2002), pp. 4–11, 176</ref> For a small fee, users were issued magnetic striped 'smart cards' readable at a covered 'bike store' kiosk, unlocking the bike from its storage rack.<ref name="BLA" /> Station-located CCTV cameras limited vandalism.<ref name="BLA" /> On arrival at the destination station, the smart card unlocked cycle rack and recorded the bike's return,<ref name="BLA" /> registering if the bike was returned with damage or if the rental time exceeded a three-hour maximum.<ref name="BLA" /> Implemented with an original budget of approximately £200,000, the Portsmouth ''Bikeabout'' scheme was never very successful in terms of rider usage,<ref>The Portsmouth ''Bikeabout'' program never exceeded 500 users at any time during its operational existence.</ref> in part due to the limited number of bike kiosks and hours of operation.<ref name="BLA" /><ref name="REMCO" /> Seasonal weather restrictions and concerns over unjustified charges for bike damage also imposed barriers to usage.<ref name="BLA" /> The ''Bikeabout'' program was discontinued by the university in 1998 in favor of expanded minibus service; the total costs of the ''Bikeabout'' program were never disclosed.<ref>University of Portsmouth Academic Staff Association, Minutes of ASA Executive Meeting, 20 October 1999</ref><ref>University of Portsmouth Academic Staff Association, Meeting of ASA Executive, Annexe: presentation by Pro-Vice Chancellor Mike Bateman on mobility policy, 16 January 2002</ref>
The modern wave of electronically locked bikes took off in France. In 1998 the city of Rennes launched ''Velo a la cart'' using a magnetic card to release bicycles, which was operated by Clear Channel. Then the French advertising company, JCDecaux begain launching larger systems in Vienna (2003), Lyon (2005), and Paris (2007), among others. Vélib', the Paris system captured the attention of the world and catalyzed steep growth in bikesharing systems around Europe, Asia, South America, and North America. In North America, the BIXI project (a portmanteau of the French "'''bi'''cyclette" and "ta'''xi'''" or "'''bi'''cyle ta'''xi'''") launched by the City of Montreal in 2009. It garnered a sizable ridership and the city created the Public Bike System Company to begin selling the underlying infrastructure to several other cities, including Washington D.C.'s Capital Bikeshare (2010), New York City's Citi Bike (2013), and London's "Boris bikes (2010)". The PBSC was privatised in 2014 and was later acquired by Lyft in 2022. Separately in 2018, Lyft had acquired Motivate, an operator of many BIXI-based systems. Meanwhile, the original BIXI system has been operated directly by the City of Montreal since 2014.
Bike share technology has evolved over the course of decades, with programs in Asia in particular having grown exponentially. Of the world's 15 largest public bike share programs, 13 are in China; in 2012, the largest were in Wuhan and Hangzhou, with around 90,000 and 60,000 bikes respectively.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bicycle Sharing System |last=Marchuk |first=M |url=https://rep.bntu.by/bitstream/handle/data/27516/Bicycle%20sharing%20system.pdf?sequence=1}}</ref> By December 2016, roughly 1,000 cities worldwide had a bike-sharing program.<ref>{{cite web|date=19 December 2016|title=Will helmet law kill Seattle's new bike-share program?|url=https://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/transportation/will-helmet-law-kill-seattles-new-bike-share-program/|access-date=14 July 2020|website=The Seattle Times}}</ref> Electric bikes have also been incorporated into sharing schemes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zhou |first=Yaoming |last2=Yu |first2=Yuanxin |last3=Wang |first3=Yiming |last4=He |first4=Baojie |last5=Yang |first5=Linchuan |date=2023-02-01 |title=Mode substitution and carbon emission impacts of electric bike sharing systems |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2210670722006163 |journal=Sustainable Cities and Society |volume=89 |article-number=104312 |doi=10.1016/j.scs.2022.104312 |issn=2210-6707}}</ref>
In July 2020, Google Maps began including bike share systems in its route recommendations.<ref>{{cite web|last=Porter|first=Jon|date=20 July 2020|title=Google Maps now shows cycling routes using docked bike-sharing schemes|url=https://www.theverge.com/2020/7/20/21330939/google-maps-bike-routes-docked-cycleshare-hire-cities|access-date=24 July 2020|website=The Verge}}</ref>
==Categorization== {{More citations needed|section|date=March 2026}} Bike-sharing systems have developed and evolved with society changes and technological improvements. The systems can be grouped into five categories or generations.
=== Staffed stations === ====Short-term checkout==== {{Main|Bicycle rental}}
[[File:Tel Aviv- bike rental (5889990605).jpg|thumb|Bike rental store in Tel Aviv]] Also known as bicycle rental, bike hire or zero generation. In this system a bicycle can be rented or borrowed from a location and returned to that location. These bicycle renting systems often cater to day-trippers or tourists. This system is also used by cycling schools for potential cyclists who do not have a bicycle. The locations or stations are not automated but are run by employees or volunteers.
Regional programs have been implemented where numerous renting locations are set up at railway stations and at local businesses (usually restaurants, museums and hotels) creating a network of locations where bicycles can be borrowed from and returned (e.g. ZweiRad FreiRad with at times 50 locations<ref>{{cite web|title=Freiradln|url=http://www.radland.at:80/index.php?id=59|website=Radland.at|access-date=25 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070708215917/http://www.radland.at/index.php?id=59|archive-date=8 July 2007}}</ref>). In this kind of network for example a railway station master can allocate a bicycle to a user that then returns it at a different location, for example a hotel. Some such systems require paying a fee, and some do not. Usually the user will be registered or a deposit will be left by the renting facility. The EnCicla Bike Share System in Medellín on its inception in 2011 had 6 staffed locations. It later grew to 32 automatic and 19 staffed stations making it a hybrid between a zero generation and third generation system.
====Long-term checkout==== {{Main|Bike library}}
Sometimes known as bike library systems, these bicycles may be lent free of charge, for a refundable deposit, or for a small fee. A bicycle is checked out to one person who will typically keep it for several months, and is encouraged or obliged to lock it between uses. A disadvantage is a lower usage frequency, around three uses per day on average as compared to 2 to 15 uses per day typically experienced with other bike-sharing schemes. Advantages of long-term use include rider familiarity with the bicycle, and constant, instant readiness.
The bicycle can be checked out like a library book, a liability waiver can be collected at check-out, and the bike can be returned any time. For each trip, a Library Bike user can choose the bike instead of a car, thus lowering car usage. The long-term rental system generally results in fewer repair costs to the scheme administrator, as riders are incentivised to obtain minor maintenance in order to keep the bike in running order during the long rental period. Most of the long-term systems implemented to date are funded solely through charitable donations of second-hand bicycles, using unpaid volunteer labour to maintain and administer the bicycle fleet. While reducing or eliminating the need for public funding, such a scheme imposes an outer limit to program expansion. The Arcata Bike Library, in California, has loaned over 4000 bicycles using this system.
===White bikes=== [[File:Witte Fietsen Veluwe.JPG|thumb|White bicycles for free use, in Hoge Veluwe National Park in Gelderland, the Netherlands]]Also known as free bikes, unregulated or first generation. In this type of programme the bicycles are simply released into a city or given area for use by anyone. In some cases, such as a university campus, the bicycles are only designated for use within certain boundaries. Users are expected to leave the bike unlocked in a public area once they reach their destination. Depending on the quantity of bicycles in the system availability of such bicycles can suffer because the bikes are not required to be returned to a centralised station. Such a system can also suffer under distribution problems where many bicycles end up in a valley of a city but few are found on the hills of a city. Since parked and unlocked bikes may be taken by another user at any time, the original rider might have to find an alternative transport for the return trip. This system does away with the cost of having a person allocating a vehicle to a user and it is the system with the lowest ''hemmschwelle'' or psychological barrier for a potential user. However, bicycle sharing programs without locks, user identification, and security deposits have also historically suffered loss rates from theft and vandalism.{{Citation needed|date=March 2026}}
Many initiatives have been abandoned after a few years (e.g. Portland's Yellow Bike Project was abandoned after 3 years<ref>{{cite news|first=Lisa |last= Tozzi |url=https://www.austinchronicle.com/news/1997-10-17/518610/|access-date=25 May 2018|title=Ride On, Yellow Bikes|newspaper=Austin Chronicle|date=17 October 1997}}</ref>), while others have been successful for decades (e.g. Austin's Yellow Bike Project active since 1997<ref>{{cite web|title=Yellow Bikes|url=http://austinyellowbike.org/programs/special-projects/yellow-bikes/|website=Austin Yellow Bikes|access-date=25 May 2018|archive-date=25 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180525062605/http://austinyellowbike.org/programs/special-projects/yellow-bikes/}}</ref>). Most of these systems are based around volunteer work and are supported by municipalities. Bicycle repair and maintenance are done by a volunteer project or from the municipality contracted operator but also can be, and sometimes is, completed by individual users who find a defect on a free bike.{{Citation needed|date=March 2026}}
===Coin deposit stations=== [[File:Bycykler i stativ i Århus.jpg|thumb|Three Bycykel returned at a coin deposit station Aarhus City Bikes]] Also known as ''Bycykel'' or as second generation, this system was developed by Morten Sadolin and Ole Wessung of Copenhagen after both were victims of bicycle theft one night in 1989.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Alsvik|first1=Arild|title=Bysyklene|url=https://www.duo.uio.no/bitstream/handle/10852/15902/Alsvik.pdf|website=uio.no|publisher=Universitetet i Oslo|access-date=23 May 2018}}</ref> They envisioned a freely available bicycle sharing system that would encourage spontaneous usage and also reduce bicycle theft. The bicycles, designed for intense utilitarian use with solid rubber tires and wheels with advertising plates, have a slot into which a shopping cart return key can be pushed. A coin (in most versions a 20 DKK or 2 EUR coin) needs to be pushed into the slot to unlock the bike from the station. The bicycle can thus be borrowed free of charge and for an unlimited time and the deposit coin can be retrieved by returning the bicycle to a station again. Since the deposit is a fraction of the bike's cost, and user is not registered this can be vulnerable to theft and vandalism. However, the distinct ''Bycykel'' design, well known to the public and to the law authorities does deter misuse to a degree. Implemented systems usually have a zone or area where it is allowed to drive in.{{Citation needed|date=March 2026}}
The first coin deposit (small) systems were launched in 1991 in Farsø and Grenå, Denmark, and in 1993 in Nakskov, Denmark with 26 bikes and 4 stations. In 1995 the first large-scale 800 bike strong second generation bike-sharing program was launched in Copenhagen as Bycyklen.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=DeMaio|first1=Paul|title=Bike-sharing: History, Impacts, Models of Provision, and Future|journal=Journal of Public Transportation|date=2009|volume= 12| issue = 4, 2009|pages=41–56|doi=10.5038/2375-0901.12.4.3|doi-access=free}}</ref> The system was further introduced in Helsinki (2000–2010) and Vienna in (2002) and in Aarhus<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aarhus.dk/sitecore/content/Subsites/AarhusBycykel/Home/English.aspx?sc_lang=da|title=English: Aarhus Bycykel|website=aarhus.dk|access-date=29 January 2016|archive-date=2 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180502211931/http://www.aarhus.dk/sitecore/content/Subsites/AarhusBycykel/Home/English.aspx?sc_lang=da}}</ref> 2003.
===Automated stations=== [[File:Hangzhou bike sharing station.jpg|thumb|Hangzhou Public Bicycle system in China, formerly the largest bicycle sharing system in the world<ref name=Access2011/>]] Also known as docking stations bicycle-sharing, or membership bicycles or third generation consist of bicycles that can be borrowed or rented from an automated station or "docking stations" or "docks" and can be returned at another station belonging to the same system. The docking stations are special bike racks that lock the bike, and only release it by computer control. Individuals registered with the program identify themselves with their membership card (or by a smart card, via cell phone, or other methods) at any of the hubs to check out a bicycle for a short period of time, usually three hours or less. In many schemes the first half-hour is free. In recent years, in an effort to reduce losses from theft and vandalism, many bike-sharing schemes now require a user to provide a monetary deposit or other security, or to become a paid subscriber. The individual is responsible for any damage or loss until the bike is returned to another hub and checked in. Some cities allow to use the same card as for bus and rail transport to unlock the bicycles.{{Citation needed|date=March 2026}}
This system was developed as ''Public Velo'' by Hellmut Slachta and Paul Brandstätter from 1990 to 1992, and first implemented in 1996 by the University of Portsmouth and Portsmouth City Council as ''Bikeabout'' with a magnetic card used by the students and on 6 June 1998 in Rennes as ''LE vélo STAR'', a public city network with 200 bikes, 25 stations and electronic identification of the bikes or in Oslo in 2001.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://paperity.org/p/82062643/bike-sharing-history-impacts-models-of-provision-and-future|title=Bike-sharing: History, Impacts, Models of Provision, and Future|first=Paul|last=DeMaio|publisher=Journal of Public transportation|date=September 2017|access-date=1 February 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://veloalacarte.free.fr/smartbike.html|title=Rennes Vélo à la Carte|access-date=1 February 2021}}</ref> The smart card contactless technology was experimented in Vienna (Citybike Wien) and implemented at a large scale in 2005 in Lyon (Vélo'v) and in 2007 in Paris (Vélib'). Since then over 1000 bicycle sharing system of this generation have been launched.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Bike-sharing World Map is 10 years old|url=https://bike-sharing.blogspot.com/2017/11/the-bike-sharing-world-map-is-10-years.html|website=Bike-Sharing.blogspot.com|access-date=25 May 2018|date=9 November 2017}}</ref> The countries with the most dock based systems are Spain (132), Italy (104), and China (79).<ref name="Access2011">{{cite web|url=http://www.uctc.net/access/39/access39_bikesharing.shtml|title=Worldwide Bikesharing|first1=Susan|last1=Shaheen|first2=Stacey|last2=Guzman|name-list-style=amp|publisher=University of California Transportation Center|work=Access Magazine No. 39|date=Fall 2011|access-date=1 July 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120719042742/http://uctc.net/access/39/access39_bikesharing.shtml|archive-date=19 July 2012}}</ref><ref name="Larsen" /> {{As of|2014|06}}, public bike share systems were available in 50 countries on five continents, including 712 cities, operating approximately 806,200 bicycles at 37,500 stations.<ref name=Systems062014>{{cite web|url=http://transweb.sjsu.edu/PDFs/research/1131-public-bikesharing-business-models-trends-impacts.pdf|title=Public Bikesharing in North America During a Period of Rapid Expansion: Understanding Business Models, Industry Trends and User Impacts|publisher=Mineta Transportation Institute (MTI)|first=Susan A.|last=Shaheen|date=October 2015|access-date=5 November 2014|display-authors=etal|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141106070644/http://transweb.sjsu.edu/PDFs/research/1131-public-bikesharing-business-models-trends-impacts.pdf|archive-date=6 November 2014}} pp. 5</ref><ref name=Economist2015>{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/news/international/21663219-cities-are-starting-put-pedestrians-and-cyclists-motorists-makes-them?frsc=dg%7Cc|title=Urban planning – Streetwise|newspaper=The Economist|location=Gurgaon, India|date=5 September 2015|access-date=4 September 2015}}</ref> {{As of|2011|05}}, the Wuhan and Hangzhou Public Bicycle bike-share systems in China were the largest in the world, with around 90,000 and 60,000 bicycles respectively.<ref name="Access2011" /> By 2013, China had a combined fleet of 650,000 public bikes.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/ywang/2014/10/20/return-of-bicycle-culture-in-china-adds-to-billionaires-wealth/#1dfbd6cf7752|title=Return of Bicycle Culture in China Adds To Billionaires' Wealth|last=Wang|first=Yue|work=Forbes|access-date=4 July 2017}}</ref>
This bicycle-sharing system saves the labour costs of staffed stations (zero generation), reduces vandalism and theft compared to first and second generation systems by registering users but requires a higher investment for infrastructure compared to fourth generation ''dockless'' bikes. Third generation systems also allow adapting docking stations as recharging stations for E-bike sharing.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.electric-bicycle-guide.com/bicycle_sharing.html|title=Bicycle Sharing, Renting & Parking}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.popsci.com/node/35786|title=Bike Sharing Gets an Electric Update|access-date=25 July 2012|archive-date=2 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130602194414/http://www.popsci.com/node/35786}}</ref>
===Dockless bikes=== [[File:201803 a Mobike bicycle at Alexanderplatz.jpg|thumb|A dockless bike from Mobike, the world's largest operator, with an electronic lock by the rear wheel]] Also known as Call a Bike, free floating bike or fourth generation, the dockless bike hire systems consist of a bicycle with a lock that is usually integrated onto the frame and does not require a docking station. The earliest versions of this system consisted of ''for-rent-bicycles'' that were locked with combination locks and that could be unlocked by a registered user by calling the vendor to receive the combination to unlock the bicycle. The user would then call the vendor a second time to communicate where the bicycle had been parked and locked. This system was further developed by Deutsche Bahn in 1998 to incorporate a digital authentication codes (that changes) to automatically lock and unlock bikes. Deutsche Bahn launched Call a Bike in 2000, enabling users to unlock via SMS or telephone call, and more recently with an app.<ref>{{cite web|title=Call a Bike – die Mietfahrräder der Bahn|url=https://www.bahn.de/p/view/service/fahrrad/call_a_bike.shtml|website=bahn.de|publisher=Deutsche Bahn|access-date=25 May 2018}}</ref>
Recent technological improvements have enabled a rapid increase of this type of "dockless" bicycle-sharing system. Modern dockless bikes are equipped with a GPS tracking unit for location tracking and a cellular modem for communication. This onboard telematics device allows the bicycle to be located by users via a smartphone app. When a user rents the bike, the app sends a command through a central server to the device on the bike, which then unlocks its integrated wheel lock. The device also collects telemetry data, such as distance traveled, for automated billing. This entire process is a key part of digitalization for shared mobility operators.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kou |first1=Z. |last2=Cai |first2=H. |date=2019 |title=The Use of Dockless Bike-Sharing in the United States: A Case Study of Baltimore |journal=Sustainability |volume=11 |issue=5 |page=1334 |doi=10.3390/su11051334 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
However, the rapid growth vastly outpaced immediate demand and overwhelmed Chinese cities, where infrastructure and regulations were not prepared to handle a sudden flood of millions of shared bicycles.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/photo/2018/03/bike-share-oversupply-in-china-huge-piles-of-abandoned-and-broken-bicycles/556268/|title=The Bike-Share Oversupply in China: Huge Piles of Abandoned and Broken Bicycles|last=Taylor|first=Alan|work=The Atlantic|access-date=28 November 2018}}</ref>
Not needing docking stations that may require city planning and building permissions, the system spread rapidly on a global scale.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bikebiz.com/news/read/dockless-bike-sharing-will-reshape-cities-says-dublin-start-up/021422 |title=Dockless bike sharing will reshape cities, says Dublin start-up|work=Bikebiz|access-date=14 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180106010012/http://www.bikebiz.com/news/read/dockless-bike-sharing-will-reshape-cities-says-dublin-start-up/021422 |archive-date=6 January 2018}}</ref> At times ''dockless bike-sharing systems'' have been criticized as ''rogue'' systems instituted without respect for local authorities.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.curbed.com/2017/3/31/15141002/cycling-transportation-bike-share-bluegogo-ride |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170401180950/http://www.curbed.com/2017/3/31/15141002/cycling-transportation-bike-share-bluegogo-ride |archive-date=1 April 2017 |title=Is dockless bikeshare the future of urban transit? |last=Sisson|first=Patrick|date=31 March 2017 |website=Curbed|access-date=19 July 2017}}</ref> In many cities entrepreneurial companies have independently introduced this system, despite a lack of adequate parking facilities. City officials lack regulation experience for this mode of transportation and social habits have not developed either. In some jurisdictions, authorities have confiscated "rogue" dockless bicycles that are improperly parked for potentially blocking pedestrian traffic on sidewalks<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.miaminewtimes.com/news/miami-beach-cracks-down-on-limebike-rogue-bike-sharing-start-up-competitor-to-citibike-9489640 |title=Miami Beach Cracks Down on "Rogue" Bike-Sharing Startup LimeBike |first=Jerry|last=Iannelli|date=13 July 2017|access-date=3 April 2018}}</ref> and in other cases new laws have been introduced to regulate the shared bikes.
In some cities Deutsche Bahn's Call a Bike has ''Call a Bike fix'' system, which has fixed docking stations versus the ''flex'' dockless version, some systems are combined into a hybrid of third and fourth generation systems. Some Nextbike systems are also a 3rd and 4th generation hybrid. With the arrival of dockless bike shares, there were in 2017 over 70 private dockless bikeshares operating a combined fleet of 16 million share bikes according to estimates of Ministry of Transport of China.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/explained/simply-put-in-chinas-bikeshare-success-peek-into-big-data-potential-4870197/|title=Simply Put: In China's bikeshare success, peek into big data potential|date=2 October 2017|work=The Indian Express|access-date=12 October 2017}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite news|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/bike-boom-nibbles-asia-gasoline-demand-growth/4046015.html|title=Bike Boom Nibbles on Asia Gasoline Demand Growth|agency=Reuters|work=VOA|access-date=29 September 2017}}</ref> Beijing alone has 2.35 million share bikes from 15 companies.<ref name="news.xinhuanet.com">{{cite web|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2017-09/15/c_136612435.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170915122019/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2017-09/15/c_136612435.htm|archive-date=15 September 2017|title=Beijing issues guideline on bike sharing – Xinhua {{!}} English.news.cn|website=news.xinhuanet.com|access-date=12 October 2017}}</ref>
In the United States, many major metropolitan areas are experimenting with dockless bikeshare systems, which have been popular with commuters but subject to complaints about illegal parking.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Lazo |first1=Luz |title=D.C. allows dockless bikes and scooters to stay, but you'll have to start locking them up. |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/transportation/2018/08/30/dc-extend-scooter-bike-program-will-require-locks-bikes-starting-saturday/ |access-date=8 September 2018 |newspaper=The Washington Post|date=31 August 2018}}</ref>
==Integration with other transport systems== thumb|Shared-use electric bicycles being maintained by company staff at late night
=== Integration with public transport === In many cities over the world, bike sharing system is connected to other public transportation. It is usually hoped to complement the shortcomings in the greater public transport system.<ref>{{cite web |last=Tourism Bureau |first=Republic of China (Taiwan) |date=17 January 2019 |title=Tourism Bureau, Republic of China (Taiwan)-Public Bicycles |url=https://eng.taiwan.net.tw/m1.aspx?sNo=0029053 |access-date=20 May 2022 |website=Tourism Bureau, Republic of China (Taiwan) }}</ref> Sometimes, in order to encourage residents to use public transport system, local government will give discount on transferring between bike sharing system and other public transports.<ref>{{cite web |last=Storm.mg |date=31 March 2021 |title=新北調整YouBike前30分鐘優惠補貼-風傳媒 |url=https://www.storm.mg/localarticle/3576714 |access-date=20 May 2022 |website=storm.mg |language=zh-TW}}</ref>
In some national-level programme that combines a typical rental system with several of the above system types, a passenger railway operator or infrastructure manager partners with a national cycling organisation and others to create a system closely connected with public transport. These programmes usually allow for a longer rental time of up to 24 or 48 hours, as well as tourists and round trips.{{Citation needed|date=March 2026}} In some German cities the national rail company offers a bike rental service called Call a Bike.{{Citation needed|date=March 2026}}
In Guangzhou, China, the privately operated Guangzhou Bus Rapid Transit system includes cycle lanes, and a public bicycle system.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lifeofguangzhou.com/node_10/node_37/node_85/2010/03/19/126896244475070.shtml |title=Public Bicycles to Run on BRT System (Guangzhou): lifeofguangzhou.com, quoting english.gz.gov.cn, 19 Mar 2010 |publisher=Lifeofguangzhou.com |access-date=15 January 2012 |archive-date=10 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110910091844/http://www.lifeofguangzhou.com/node_10/node_37/node_85/2010/03/19/126896244475070.shtml }}</ref> In some cases, like Santander Cycles in London, the bicycle sharing system is owned by the public transport authority itself.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Transport for London |title=Santander Cycles |url=https://tfl.gov.uk/corporate/terms-and-conditions/santander-cycles |access-date=25 March 2026 |website=TFL}}</ref> In other cases, like YouBike in Taipei, Taiwan, the bicycle sharing system is built by a private company partner with the public transport sector through BOT mode. To be more specific in this case, it is offered by the Taipei City Department of Transportation in a BOT collaboration with local manufacturer Giant Bicycles.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-09-04 |title=YouBike 台北市公共自行車 |url=http://taipei.youbike.com.tw/cht/f31.html |access-date=2022-05-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140904173240/http://taipei.youbike.com.tw/cht/f31.html |archive-date=4 September 2014 }}</ref>
==== Medellín, Colombia ==== [[File:EnCicla - Estación Ruta N.jpg|thumb|A station of EnCicla in Medellín]] The city of Medellín in Colombia is home to 3.4 million inhabitants in 173 km<sup>2</sup> and has long faced infrastructural mobility challenges. EnCicla is a bike sharing system in the city of Medellín (Colombia, South America). The bike sharing system is connected to other modes of transportation, such as the Metro.<ref name=":8">{{cite journal |last1=Bejarano |first1=Mauricio |last2=Ceballos |first2=Lina M. |last3=Maya |first3=Jorge |date=1 January 2017 |title=A user-centred assessment of a new bicycle sharing system in Medellin |journal=Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour |volume=44 |pages=145–158 |doi=10.1016/j.trf.2016.11.004|bibcode=2017TRPF...44..145B |hdl=10784/24868 |s2cid=152005444 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
In 2010, three EAFIT students (Lina Marcela López, José Agusto Ocampo, and Felipe Gutiérrez) developed the idea of the EnCicla bike sharing system as part of their final project. The implementation of the system was decided in operation in August 2012, with the subsequent pilot program confirming its prospects for success. EAFIT advocated for the city to lead the system. This was implemented accordingly, resulting in the inclusion of EnCicla in the agenda of the city of Medellín and its incorporation into the transportation network. In this regard, EnCicla consists of a mixture of shared, as well as separated, bike lanes on the roadway. In the first 3 months after the official launch, 15,700 bicycle rentals took place, with usage picking up sharply in subsequent months and years. In Medellín, an attempt was made to solve the demand problem with statistical analysis using historical data. The result of this analysis was the establishment of a heterogeneous bicycle fleet, with a minimum and maximum number for each station.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":9">{{Cite journal |last1=Forero |first1=Daniel Soto |last2=Rodriguez |first2=Alexis |date=2021-03-26 |title=Análisis global de la dinámica del sistema de bicicletas compartidas de la Ciudad de Medellín "EnCicla" |journal=Revista de Investigación en Tecnologías de la Información |language=es |volume=9 |issue=18 |pages=34–46 |doi=10.36825/riti.09.18.004 |s2cid=233670755 |issn=2387-0893 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
In total, in Medellín there exist more than 90 stations in 7 zones, with 13 connected to other transport systems. Since inception, more than 13 million bicycles have been rented by the approximately 9,100 active members. In this context, the most frequently used stations are located in the western zone, near universities and colleges. These stations are located near train stations, which means that there is a high volume of people. To use EnCicla, citizens must register on the official website. In general, the system can be used free of charge by anyone 16 years of age or older and is available from 5:30-22:00 during the week and from 6:30-21:00 on Saturdays. Local residents must register through EnCicla's website prior to use, and tourists have the option of renting a bicycle using their passport.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":10">{{Cite web |title=EnCicla: Sistema de Bicicletas Publicas del. Area Metropolitana del Valle de Aburra |url=https://encicla.metropol.gov.co/Paginas/Inicio.aspx#funencicla}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dier |first=Andrew |title=Moon handbooks: Colombia |date=2014 |isbn=978-1-61238-628-7 |edition=1st |location=Berkeley, CA |oclc=886576588}}</ref>
The establishment of EnCicla in recent years has helped relieve the complex transportation system in Medelin. However, the repositioning of bicycles at stations results in increased CO<sub>2</sub> emissions, which run counter to the environmental importance of the project. In parallel, various activities have been carried out to promote the establishment of the system. These include a program that gives people over 8 years of age the opportunity to improve their knowledge and skills in cycling.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":11">{{Cite web |title=Biciescuela para adultos: Una alternativa para fomentar el uso de la bicicleta en el Valle de Aburrá |url=https://www.metropol.gov.co/Paginas/Noticias/biciescuela-para-adultos-alternativa-para-fomentar-uso-de-bicicleta.aspx }}</ref>
==== Taipei Metropolitan Area, Taiwan ==== [[File:Ubike捷運淡水站.jpg|thumb|The Youbike station near Tamsui Station of Taipei Metro Tamsui–Xinyi Line]] YouBike, a bike sharing system in Taipei–Keelung metropolitan area, Taiwan, has automated stations near all Taipei Metro stations. The integration of YouBike stations and Taipei Metro aims at solving the "last mile" problem, thus improving transit accessibility and usability. It is hoped that YouBike could complement the shortcomings in the greater public transport. Commuters can check in or check out YouBikes near the metro stations to catch connections from the station to the destination.<ref>[https://english.dot.gov.taipei/News_Content.aspx?n=F126F4D3F5D0368B&sms=DADF610080DEB41E&s=C707155EEECDF26B YouBike background]</ref>
'''Transfer Discount Offered for Commuters'''
Starting 30 March 2021, passengers renting a YouBike from any YouBike station in the Taipei–Keelung metropolitan area receive a discount of NT$5 when using their EasyCard to transfer between YouBike and Taipei Metro, local buses (except buses that charge by distance) or Danhai LRT within one hour. Plus, the trip is only eligible for a discount when the transfer is direct. Commuters shall not utilise other means of transportation, such as Taiwan Railways, Maokong Gondola, long-distance buses, Taiwan High Speed Rail, Taoyuan Metro, or taxis.<ref>{{cite web |date=2021-05-31 |title=FAQs |url=https://english.metro.taipei/News_Content.aspx?n=034BD8E0AB821D47&s=31D7E8315F353B8A |access-date=20 May 2022}}</ref>
'''Transfer Behavior'''
According to the analysis of YouBike rental and its Taipei MRT (Taipei Rapid Transit System) transfer behavior from the Department of Transportation, New Taipei City Government, YouBike has already become an important feeder mode for metro commuters: up to 55% of the subjects (the commuters who ever utilise YouBike during September, 2015) transfer by YouBike before or after taking the Metro.<ref>[https://www.rde.ntpc.gov.tw/userfiles/ntpc/files/%E5%85%AC%E5%85%B1%E8%87%AA%E8%A1%8C%E8%BB%8AYouBike%E7%87%9F%E9%81%8B%E8%B3%87%E6%96%99%E5%88%86%E6%9E%90%E5%8F%8A%E7%B2%BE%E9%80%B2%E4%BD%9C%E7%82%BA(%E5%90%AB%E5%95%8F%E5%8D%B7).pdf 新北市政府 104 年度自行研究報告 公共自行車 YouBike營運資料分析及精進作為]</ref> Adopting the YouBike and MRT transaction data of EasyCard in New Taipei City in November, 2016, almost all popular YouBike stations can be found next to the Taipei metro stations. Furthermore, transfer analysis depending on the YouBike and MRT data indicates that, the transfer ratio of loyal users (who utilise YouBike more than five times per week) is up to 60%.<ref>[https://tpl.ncl.edu.tw/NclService/JournalContentDetail?SysId=A18024934 鍾智林、李舒媛、Chung, Chih-lin、Li, Shu-yuan (民107)，以悠遊卡大數據初探YouBike租賃及轉乘捷運行為]</ref>
==== Seoul Metropolitan Area, South Korea ==== [[File:Seoul Bike 22907.jpg|thumb|Ddareungi (Korean: 따릉이) is Seoul's bike sharing system, which was set up in 2015.]] Sharing bicycles in South Korea are called 'Ddareungi' in Seoul capital area. Ddareungi is a sharing bicycle operated throughout Seoul. It is an unmanned sharing bicycle rental service that started pilot operation in 2014 and officially operated in October 2015.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Expanded Operation of Seoul Bike "Ddareungi" |date=18 March 2016 |url=http://english.seoul.go.kr/expanded-operation-seoul-bike-ddareungi/}}</ref>
The 1-hour pass for Ddareungi is KRW 1000(Approximate 1 USD), and to prevent theft, an additional charge of KRW 1000 per 30 minutes is charged for exceeding the usage time.
'''Transit Mileage'''
Transit Mileage is a benefit that can only be received by 365-day commuter pass users. If someone uses public transportation within 30 minutes of returning the bicycle, the mileage is accumulated. If it is difficult to travel by bus or subway, the section can be replaced with Ddareungi.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Transit Mileage |url=https://bikeseoul.com/app/use/moveUseOptional.do}}</ref>
'''Bicycle Driving Ability Certification System Fee Benefits'''
Bicycle driving ability certification system requires completion of bicycle safety education, if a person passes both the written and practical exams, that person will receive certification and part of the Ddareungi usage fee can be reduced for two years.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bicycle Driving Ability Certification System Fee Benefits |url=https://mediahub.seoul.go.kr/archives/2001209}}</ref>
'''QR Code Lock'''
From 1 March 2020, QR Code Lock was introduced as a method of renting and returning by recognizing QR codes.{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}} It is convenient because it can be rented or returned with a single scan by using a QR code-type locking device. When renting a bicycle, purchase a voucher from the bicycle app and scan the QR code on the bicycle to rent, and the lock is automatically unlocked and can be used immediately. It can return and rent a bicycle anywhere without going to a bicycle rental booth.<ref>{{Cite web |title=[Seoul Bicycle Ddareungi] QR-type NEW Ddareungi. It's easy to rent and return! |url=https://blog.naver.com/PostView.naver?blogId=seoulsisul&logNo=221838421236&redirect=Dlog&widgetTypeCall=true&directAccess=false}}</ref>
'''Sprout Ddareungyi'''
Existing sharing bicycles can only be used by those over the age of 15, so Sprout Ddareungyi, which can be rented from the age of 13 and older, has been launched in Seoul.{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}} The government released a policy for public bicycles with reduced size and weight compared to the existing Ddareungi bicycles so that even small-sized people, such as teenagers and the elderly, could use them conveniently.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Small and light "Sprout Ddareungi" that even children can ride |date=30 November 2020 |url=https://www.hani.co.kr/arti/area/capital/972103.html}}</ref>
The number of users of Seoul's public bicycle 'Ddareungi' has exceeded 3 million. It is used by about one in three Seoul citizens. General citizens have a high rate of use during commuting hours on weekdays, except on weekends, so after using public transportation such as Seoul Metropolitan Subway as well as Seoul Buses, when it is an ambiguous distance to use public transportation anymore, citizens use public bicycles near subway stations to move the most. In particular, considering that rentals and returns are made at rental stations near subway stations, citizens frequently use Ddareungi that are deployed in subway stations.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Seoul's Ddareungyi, there is a lot of commuting... | date=6 November 2019 |url=http://www.idsn.co.kr/news/articleView.html?idxno=13544}}</ref> To analyse, if the number of cases is classified based on the number of Ddareungi rental stations near subway stations in 2021, exit 1 of the Ttukseom Park area of Hangang Park, which is the most used in Seoul, is the first with 602 rentals, After that, Express Bus Terminal Station and Lotte World Tower's Jamsil Station Exit 2 followed. It is analysed that the most frequently used Ttukseom area, exit 1, is usually used by citizens who enjoy leisure at Hangang Park except during rush hour.<ref>{{Cite web |title=71% of users within 4 km...Seoul's Ddareungi Becomes a "Gap Transportation" |date=3 November 2019 |url=https://www.sedaily.com/NewsVIew/1VQNLPHPLW}}</ref> ==== Hamburg, Germany ==== thumb|Stadtrad Hamburg. The bicycle sharing system "StadtRAD" of Hamburg (Germany) was launched in 2009 and now includes 3,100 bicycles and 20 cargo bikes.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |title=StadtRAD Hamburg {{!}} Das smarte Bikesharing |url=https://stadtrad.hamburg.de/de |access-date=2022-05-23 |website=stadtrad.hamburg.de}}</ref> The infrastructure includes 250 fixed stations distributed throughout the city.<ref name=":12" /> With the help of the app, it is possible to rent up to two bikes. For an annual fee of €5, the first 30 minutes of each rental are free.<ref name=":12" /> A total of 500,000 people are registered with the app.<ref>{{Cite web |title=StadtRad Hamburg - Anzahl der Kunden |url=https://de.statista.com/statistik/daten/studie/454050/umfrage/stadtrad-hamburg-anzahl-der-kunden/ |access-date=2022-05-23 |website=Statista |language=de}}</ref>
"StadtRAD" is an integral part of the city's mobility transition.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mobilitätskonzept |url=https://www.hamburg.de/mobilitaetskonzept/ |access-date=2022-05-23 |website=hamburg.de |language=de}}</ref> The aim here is to reduce motorized private transport by strengthening public transport, making it easier to switch between different modes of transport and developing the city into a bicycle city.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |title=Leitbild und Handlungsziele der Verkehrsentwicklungsplanung in Hamburg |url=https://www.hamburg.de/contentblob/11221886/3511bd3ab7a5f10b1e8b112b463efef4/data/mobilitaet-in-hamburg-%E2%80%93-die-ziele.pdf}}</ref> To achieve this, the share of cyclists in total traffic should increase to 25%.<ref name=":13" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Hamburgs neue Strategie für den Rad- und Fußverkehr |url=https://www.hamburg.de/pressearchiv-fhh/16177002/2022-05-17-bvm-strategie-rad-und-fussverkehr/ |access-date=2022-05-23 |website=hamburg.de |language=de}}</ref>
The administrative responsibility for implementing the mobility strategy is assumed by the Alliance for Cycling, which is assigned to the Authority for Transport and Mobility Change. Its task is to make the transport infrastructure bicycle-friendly by promoting the construction of bike and ride facilities, making subway stops barrier-friendly and expanding bicycle routes.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |last=Stadt Hamburg |title=Fortschrittsbericht 2018 |url=https://www.hamburg.de/contentblob/11873926/4dcff718d6ebafbaa53c6c76c518c7e9/data/fortschrittsbericht-2018-webversion.pdf}}</ref> In addition, it should be made easier to take bicycles on buses and trains, and traffic safety should be strengthened through traffic education in schools.<ref name=":14" /> Another focus is on the interconnection of the different mobility offers through the [https://www.hvv-switch.de/en/ Switchh] app. Citizens can switch between carsharing, motorized scooter or offers from the HVV by making reservations or bookings. The integration of "StadtRAD" is planned to take place in 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Switch |url=https://www.hamburg.de/hvv/4123240/hvv-switch/ |access-date=2022-05-23 |website=hamburg.de |language=de}}</ref>
For the practical implementation of the bicycle sharing system Stadtrad, the city has contracted "Deutsche Bahn Connect".<ref name=":15">{{Cite web |title=BetreibervertragSchlussfassunggeschwrzt.pdf in Anfrage "Vertrag zwischen der Hansestadt Hamburg und der Deutschen Bahn bezüglich StadtRAD" - FragDenStaat |url=https://fragdenstaat.de/anfrage/vertrag-zwischen-der-hansestadt-hamburg-und-der-deutschen-bahn-bezuglich-stadtrad/8497/anhang/BetreibervertragSchlussfassunggeschwrzt.pdf |access-date=2022-05-23 |website=fragdenstaat.de}}</ref> Deutsche Bahn Connect is committed to setting up and operating a public bike sharing system with fixed rental stations within the city boundaries.<ref name=":15" />
In a study conducted by the University of Hamburg, users state that they use the Stadtrad mainly for leisure (55.9%) and regularly spend time in the city center (89.9%).<ref name=":16">{{Cite web |last=Boenigk (1), Möhlmann (2) |first=Silke (1), Mareike (2) |title=Eine empirische Studie über das StadtRAD |url=http://mobility-workspace.eu/wp-content/uploads/Studie-der-Universita%C2%A6%C3%AAt-Hamburg-u%C2%A6%C3%AAber-das-StatdRAD-Hamburg.pdf}}</ref> The frequency of use is several times a month (24.9%) and several times a half year (24.9%).<ref name=":16" /> In addition, the study shows that the city bike has a positive image among users, they are largely satisfied with the service and recognize environmental and health benefits.<ref name=":16" /> Another study by the authors shows that implementing a green public service increases both perceived social and environmental value.<ref name=":16" /> Perceived social and environmental values have a positive influence on the user's green attitude and intentions.<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal |last1=Boenigk |first1=Silke |last2=Möhlmann |first2=Mareike |date=2016-04-02 |title=A Public Sector Marketing Model to Measure the Social and Environmental Values of Public Strategies: An Empirical Study on a Green Public Service |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10495142.2014.987036 |journal=Journal of Nonprofit & Public Sector Marketing |language=en |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=85–104 |doi=10.1080/10495142.2014.987036 |s2cid=168350899 |issn=1049-5142|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
At the same time, however, the need for a reporting system for sharing systems is emphasized, which ideally should be standardized and comparable with other regions.<ref name=":17" /> Especially for outsourced projects, monitoring and control processes must be implemented to ensure consistent quality. This includes the use of advanced prediction models to balance the load effectively by forecasting bike-sharing activity and addressing underflow and overflow issues dynamically.<ref name=":18">{{Cite journal |last1=Rühmann |first1=Sebastian |last2=Leible |first2= Stephan |last3=Lewandowski |first3=Tom |date=2024-04-12 |title=Interpretable Bike-Sharing Activity Prediction with a Temporal Fusion Transformer to Unveil Influential Factors: A Case Study in Hamburg, Germany |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=8 |page=3230 |doi=10.3390/su16083230|bibcode=2024Sust...16.3230R |doi-access=free }}</ref> In addition to the environmental benefits, financial and time constraints must also be considered in large urban planning projects. Hamburg has increased spending on bicycle infrastructure since 2011, spending 15 million euros on it in 2017.<ref name=":14" />
=== Integration with motor vehicles === Some car park operators such as Vinci Park in France lend bikes to their customers who park a car.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vincipark.com/appli/wvncprk/wvncprkimp.nsf/(wv3srvframe)/0105-PretVelo?OpenDocument |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050305112517/http://www.vincipark.com/appli/wvncprk/wvncprkimp.nsf/%28wv3srvframe%29/0105-PretVelo?OpenDocument |archive-date=5 March 2005 |title=réinventons le stationnement |publisher=VINCI Park |access-date=15 January 2012 }}</ref>
City CarShare, a San Francisco-based non-profit, received a federal grant in 2012 to integrate electric bicycles within its existing car-sharing fleet. The program is set to launch before the end of 2012 with 45 bikes.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/02/06/a-bay-area-experiment-in-electric-bike-sharing/?pagewanted=all |title=A Bay Area Experiment in Electric Bike Sharing |work=The New York Times |date=6 February 2012 |access-date=25 June 2012 |first=Josie |last=Garthwaite}}</ref>{{Update inline|reason=All dates are from 2012, and City Car Share's assets were sold to another company in 2016|date=August 2018}}
==Financing== The financing of bicycle-sharing system have been maintained by a combination of fees, volunteer, charity, advertisements, business interest groups and government subsidies. The international expansion dockless bicycles in the mid 2010s has been financed by investment capital.{{Citation needed|date=March 2026}}
===User fees=== User rent fees may range from the equivalent of US$0.50 to 30.00 per day, rent fees for 15- or 20-minute intervals can range from a few cents to 1.00. Many bike-share systems offer subscriptions that make the first 30–45 minutes of use either free or very inexpensive, encouraging use as transportation. This allows each bike to serve several users per day but reduces revenue. Monthly or yearly membership subscriptions and initial registration fees may apply. To reduce losses from theft often users are required to commit to temporary deposit via a credit card or debit card. If the bike is not returned within the subscription period, or returned with significant damage, the bike sharing operator keeps the deposit or withdraws money from the user's credit card account. operated by private companies as is the case in most cities in China.<ref>{{cite news|last1=McCabe|first1=Bret|title=Bike sharing: JHU alum's new book explores how the bicycle reshaped life in America|url=https://hub.jhu.edu/2016/04/18/guroff-mechanical-horse/|access-date=22 November 2017|publisher=Johns Hopkins University News|date=18 April 2016}}</ref>
===Advertisement revenue=== Second and third generation schemes in the 90s already prominently included advertising opportunities on the individual bikes in form of advertisement areas on the wheels or frame. Other schemes are completely branded according to a sponsor, notable example London's bike share which was originally branded and sponsored by Barclays Bank and subsequently by Santander UK.
Several European cities, including the French cities of Lyon and Paris as well as London, Barcelona, Stockholm and Oslo, have signed contracts with private advertising agencies (JCDecaux in Brussels, Lyon, Paris, Seville, Dublin and Oslo; Clear Channel in Stockholm, Barcelona, Antwerp, Perpignan and Zaragoza) which supply the city with thousands of bicycles free of charge (or for a minor fee). In return, the agencies are allowed to advertise both on the bikes themselves and in other select locations in the city, typically in the form of advertising on stations or the bicycles themselves.{{Citation needed|date=March 2026}}
===Government subsidies=== thumb|A bicycle helmets vending machine in the University of Melbourne Parkville campus, Australia Municipalities have operated and do operate bicycle share systems as a public service, paying for the initial investment, maintenance and operations if it is not covered by other revenue sources. Governments can also support bicycle share programs in forms of one time grants (often to buy a set of bicycles), yearly of monthly subsidies, or by paying part of the employee wages (example in repair workshops that employee long-term unemployed persons). Many of the membership-based systems are operated through public-private partnerships. Some schemes may be financed as a part of the public transportation system (for example Smoove). In Melbourne the government subsidises the sale of bicycle helmets<ref name="LUC">{{cite news|url=http://www.theage.com.au/victoria/helmet-law-hurting-shared-bike-scheme-20101128-18cf2.html |title=Lucas, Clay, ''Helmet Law Hurting Shared Bike Scheme'', The Age, 29 November 2010 |publisher=Theage.com.au |date=29 November 2010 |access-date=15 January 2012 |location=Melbourne}}</ref> to enable spontaneous cyclists comply with the mandatory helmet laws.
==Usage patterns== [[File:Capital Bikeshare DC 09 2010 508.JPG|thumb|Bicycle station in the Washington, D.C., suburbs powered by solar panels]]{{See also|List of bicycle-sharing systems}} Most bike-sharing systems allow the bicycles to be returned to any station in the system, which facilitates one-way trips because the users do not need to return the bicycles to the origin.<ref>{{cite web|last=Kodukula|first=Santhosh|date=September 2010|title=Recommended Reading and Links on Public Bicycle Schemes|url=https://ec.europa.eu/transport/sites/transport/files/cycling-guidance/giz_sutp_public_bike_schemes.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190807183207/https://ec.europa.eu/transport/sites/transport/files/cycling-guidance/giz_sutp_public_bike_schemes.pdf|archive-date=7 August 2019|access-date=7 August 2019|website=European Commission}}</ref> Thus, one bike may take 10–15 rides a day with different users and can be ridden up to {{convert|10000|km|abbr=on}} a year (as in Vélo'v in Lyon, France). Each bike has at least one rides with one unique user per day which indicates that in 2014 there were a minimum of at least 294 million unique bike share cyclists worldwide (806,200 bicycles × 365) although some estimates are much.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eesc.europa.eu/?i=glossaries.en.cycling-some-cycling-statistics|title=Some cycling statistics|website=EESC Glossaries|date=21 May 2019}}</ref>
It was found—in cities like Paris and Copenhagen—that to have a major impact there had to be a high density of available bikes. Copenhagen has 2500 bikes which cannot be used outside the {{convert|9|km2|abbr=on}} zone of the city centre (a fine of DKK 1000 applies to any user taking bikes across the canal bridges around the periphery). Since Paris's Vélib' programme operates with an increasing fee past the free first half-hour, users have a strong disincentive to take the bicycles out of the city centre. The distance between stations is only {{convert|300|-|400|m|-2}} in inner city areas. [[File:LinkBike, George Town, Penang.jpg|thumb|A LinkBike station in George Town, Penang. The public bicycle sharing service was launched in 2016.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.linkbike.my/|title=Link Bike|website=linkbike.my|access-date=26 March 2017}}</ref>]]In the US, male users of bike sharing made up for more than 80% of total trips made in 2017.{{Citation needed|date=August 2025}}[[File:BicikeLJ Ljubljana-Prešernov trg.JPG|thumb|BicikeLJ in Ljubljana, Slovenia]]
A study published in 2015 in the journal ''Transportation'' concludes that bike sharing systems can be grouped into behaviourally similar categories based upon their size.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sarkar|first1=Advait|last2=Lathia|first2=Neal|last3=Mascolo|first3=Cecilia|title=Comparing cities' cycling patterns using online shared bicycle maps|journal=Transportation|volume=42|issue=4|pages=541–559|date=2015|doi=10.1007/s11116-015-9599-9|s2cid=11392847|url=https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/247884}}</ref> Cluster analysis shows that larger systems have different usage patterns in different stations, whilst in smaller systems the different stations have similar daily utilization patterns.
=== Databases === The Meddin Bike-Sharing World Map contains details of the world's bikeshare services. It contains details of the schemes, providers, type of bikes (manual or electric) the number of bikes and stations and availability in a user-friendly map format.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Meddin Bike-sharing World Map |url=https://bikesharingworldmap.com/ |access-date=2026-03-23 |website=bikesharingworldmap.com |language=en}}</ref>
The General Bikeshare Feed Specification is a standardised data format shared mobility information and providesproviding the current status of a mobility service at a point in time.<ref>{{Cite web |title=General Bikeshare Feed Specification |url=https://gbfs.org/ |access-date=2026-03-23 |website=gbfs.org}}</ref>
== Economic impact == Bike-share programs generate a number of economic externalities, both positive and negative. The positive externalities include reduction of excess downtown parking spaces, traffic congestion and pollution, while the negative externalities can include the degradation of urban aesthetic environment.{{citation needed|date=August 2025}} Furthermore, bike-share programs have pecuniary effects. Some of these economic externalities (e.g. reduced congestion) can be systematically evaluated using empirical data, and therefore may be internalized through government subsidy. On the other hand, "nuisance" externalities (e.g. street and sidewalk clutter) are more subjective and harder to quantify, and may not be able to be internalized.{{citation needed|date=August 2025}}
=== Internalization of externalities === ==== Public-private partnerships ==== In public economics, there is a role for government intervention in a market if market failures exist, or in the case of redistribution. As several studies have found, bike-share programs appear to produce net positive externalities in reduced traffic congestion and pollution, for example.<ref name=":6">{{cite journal | title = mpact Evaluation of a Public Bicycle Share Program on Cycling: A Case Example of BIXI in Montreal, Quebec | first1 = Daniel | last1 = Fuller | first2 = Lise | last2 = Gauvin | first3 = Yan | last3 = Kestens | first4 = Mark | last4 = Daniel | first5 = Michel | last5 = Fournier | first6 = Patrick | last6 = Morency | first7 = Louis | last7 = Drouin | name-list-style = amp | journal = American Journal of Public Health |volume = 103| issue = 3 | pages = e85–e92 | date = 17 January 2013 | doi=10.2105/AJPH.2012.300917| pmid = 23327280 | pmc = 3673500 }}</ref><ref name=":5" /> The bike-sharing market does not produce at the social optimum, justifying the need for government intervention in the form of a subsidy for the provision of this good in order to internalize the positive externality. Many cities have adopted public-private partnerships to provide bike-shares, such as in Washington, D.C., with Capital Bikeshares.<ref name=":4">{{cite web|title=Capital Bikeshare Launches in Alexandria|date=31 August 2012|url=https://www.capitalbikeshare.com/news/2012/08/31/capital-bikeshare-launches-in-alexandria|website=Capital Bikeshare|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305124826/http://www.capitalbikeshare.com/news/2012/08/31/capital-bikeshare-launches-in-alexandria|archive-date=5 March 2016|access-date=24 April 2015}}</ref>
=== Dangers of over-supply === thumb|A shared bicycle was discarded in the grass Many bike-share companies and public-private partnerships aim to supply shared bicycles as a public good. In order for bike-shares to be a public good, they must be both non-excludable and non-rival. Numerous bike-share programs already offer their services partly for free or at least at very low prices, therefore nearing the non-excludable requirement.<ref name=":3" /> However, in order to achieve the non-rival requirement, shared bicycles must be supplied at a certain density within an urban area. There are numerous challenges with attaining non-rivalry, for instance, redistribution of bicycles from low-demand regions to regions with high-demand.<ref name="Xie2018Bike">{{cite journal |last1=Xie |first1=Xiao-Feng |last2=Wang |first2=Zunjing |title=Examining travel patterns and characteristics in a bikesharing network and implications for data-driven decision supports: Case study in the Washington DC area |journal=Journal of Transport Geography |volume=71 |date=2018 |pages=84–102 |doi=10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2018.07.010|arxiv=1901.02061 |bibcode=2018JTGeo..71...84X |s2cid=88518530 }}</ref> Mobike, a China-based company, has addressed this problem by paying their users to ride their bikes from low-demand areas to high-demand areas.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://qz.com/942372/mobike-one-of-chinas-top-bike-sharing-startups-is-now-paying-users-to-ride-its-bikes/|title=One of China's top bike-sharing startups is now paying users to ride its bikes|last=Horwitz|first=Josh|work=Quartz|access-date=7 March 2018}}</ref> Citi Bike in New York City has a similar "Bike Angel" program to give discounts and prizes to balancers.<ref>{{cite web|title=Bike Angels|url=http://www.citibikenyc.com/bike-angels|access-date=8 July 2021|website=Citi Bike NYC}}</ref>
Other companies such as oBike have introduced a points system to penalize negative behavior, namely, illegal parking of shared bicycles.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.techinasia.com/obike-geofencing-singapore|title=Tech in Asia – Connecting Asia's startup ecosystem|website=techinasia.com|access-date=7 March 2018}}</ref> Economists speculate that a combination of efficient pricing with well-designed regulatory policies could significantly mitigate problems of over-supply and clutter.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://energyathaas.wordpress.com/2018/02/20/the-sharing-economy-is-learning-how-to-ride-a-bike/|title=The Sharing Economy is Learning How to Ride a Bike|date=20 February 2018|work=Energy Institute Blog|access-date=7 March 2018}}</ref>
The Chinese bicycle-sharing market demonstrated the danger of oversupply in 2018. Companies took advantage of unclear regulations in the preceding years to introduce millions of shared bikes to the country's cities. Users were not educated in how to use the systems properly and in many cases treated them as disposable, parking them anywhere. City governments were forced to impound the abandoned bikes when they blocked public thoroughfares, and millions of bikes went directly to junkyards after the companies that owned them went bankrupt.<ref name="Atlantic 2018 China article">{{cite news|last=Taylor|first=Alan|title=The Bike-Share Oversupply in China: Huge Piles of Abandoned and Broken Bicycles|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/photo/2018/03/bike-share-oversupply-in-china-huge-piles-of-abandoned-and-broken-bicycles/556268/ |newspaper=The Atlantic |date=22 March 2018 |access-date= 16 April 2018}}</ref><ref name="The Guardian 2018 China article">{{cite news |title=The unexpected beauty of China's Bicycle Graveyards |url= https://www.theguardian.com/cities/gallery/2018/may/01/unexpected-beauty-china-bicycle-graveyards-share-bikes-in-pictures |newspaper= The Guardian |date=1 May 2018 |access-date= 3 December 2018}}</ref>
[[File:Positive consumption externality graph.png|thumb|Graph depicting market with positive consumption externality. Curves representing supply, private marginal benefit (demand) and social marginal benefit are shown. Equilibrium and optimal prices and quantities are marked. Deadweight loss is shown as the gray triangle, and the size of the subsidy required to internalize the externality is marked.|alt=]]
== Environmental, health and social impacts ==
=== Less traffic congestion === A primary goal of bicycle-sharing systems has been to reduce traffic congestion, particularly in large urban areas. Some empirical evidence indicates that this goal has been achieved to varying degrees in different cities. A 2015 article in ''Transport Reviews'' examined bike-share systems in five cities, including Washington, D.C., and Minneapolis. The article found that in D.C., individuals substituted bike-share rides for automobile trips 8 percent of the time, and almost 20 percent of the time in Minneapolis.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Fishman|first=Elliot|date=April 2015|title=Bikeshare: A Review of Recent Literature|journal=Transport Reviews|volume=36|pages=92–113|doi=10.1080/01441647.2015.1033036|s2cid=53615436}}</ref> A separate study on Washington, D.C.'s Capital Bikeshare found that the bike-share program contributed a 2 to 3 percent reduction in traffic congestion within the evaluated neighborhood.<ref name=":5">{{cite tech report|last1=Hamilton|first1=Timothy|last2=Wichman|first2=Casey|date=20 August 2015|title=Bicycle Infrastructure and Traffic Congestion: Evidence from DC's Capital Bikeshare|institution=Resources for the Future|number=Discussion Paper 15-20 |ssrn=2649978}}</ref> 2017 studies in Beijing and Shanghai have linked the massive increase of dockless bike shares to the decrease in the number of private automobile trips that are less than five kilometres.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.chinadialogue.net/blog/9887-Time-to-regulate-China-s-booming-bike-share-sector-/en|title=Time to regulate China's booming bike share sector |website=chinadialogue.net|date=29 June 2017 |access-date=9 July 2017}}</ref> In Guangzhou, the arrival of dockless bike shares had a positive impact in the growth of cycling mode share.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fareastbrt.com/en/feature/gznmtfeb17|title=Dockless bike sharing renders old model obsolete|website=fareastbrt.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170831083542/http://www.fareastbrt.com/en/feature/gznmtfeb17|archive-date=31 August 2017|access-date=31 August 2017}}</ref>
=== Less pollution === Not only do bike-share systems intend to reduce traffic congestion, they also aim to reduce air pollution through decreased automobile usage, and indirectly through the reduction of congestion. The study on D.C.'s Capital Bikeshare estimated that the reduction in traffic congestion would be equivalent to roughly $1.28 million in annual benefits, accrued through the reduction in congestion-induced CO<sub>2</sub> emissions.<ref name=":5" /> A separate study of transportation in Australia estimated that 1.5 kilograms of CO<sub>2</sub> equivalent emissions are avoided by an urban resident who travels 5 kilometers by cycling rather than by car during rush hour periods.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bonham|first=Jennifer|date=2005|title=Economics of everyday cycling and cycling facilities|jstor=10.20851|journal=Cycling Futures}}</ref>
=== Sustainable alternative for short trips === [[File:Hellobike in Haikou - 01.jpg|thumb|A Hellobike, one of the biggest bike sharing companies in Shanghai ]] Most large-scale urban bike sharing programmes have numerous bike check-out stations, and operate much like public transit systems, catering to tourists and visitors as well as local residents. Their central concept is to provide free or affordable access to bicycles for short-distance trips in an urban area as an alternative to private vehicles, thereby reducing congestion, noise, and air pollution. According to research in 2016, the bike sharing system in Shanghai saved 8,358 tonnes of petrol and decreased carbon dioxide and NOx emissions by 25,240 and 64 tonnes, respectively. The research also stated that bike sharing system has great potential to reduce energy consumption and emissions based on its rapid development.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Yongping |last2=Mi |first2=Zhifu |date=2018-06-15 |title=Environmental benefits of bike sharing: A big data-based analysis |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306261918304392 |journal=Applied Energy |language=en |volume=220 |pages=296–301 |doi=10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.03.101 |bibcode=2018ApEn..220..296Z |s2cid=115512847 |issn=0306-2619|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
=== Last mile solution === Bicycle-sharing systems have also been cited as a way to solve the "last mile" problem of public transit networks.<ref>{{cite web|title=In Focus: The Last Mile and Transit Ridership |url=http://www.ca-ilg.org/node/3216 |publisher=Institute for Local Government|date=January 2011}}</ref> According to a research conducted on YouBike system in Taipei, in 2014, the bike sharing system in residential area are more popular, and as a first/last mile of transport mode to and from the station to their desired locations.<ref>{{Cite web |last=運輸研究所 |date=2018-12-24 |title=Institute of Transportation, MOTC |url=https://www.iot.gov.tw/cp-144-70155-d9c1a-2.html |access-date=2022-05-22 |website=運輸研究所}}</ref> However, dock systems, serving only stations, resemble public transit and have therefore been criticized as less convenient than a privately owned bicycle used door-to-door.<ref name="MAY">{{cite news|first=James |last=May |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/motoring/columnists/jamesmay/8077868/Cycling-proficiency-with-James-May.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/motoring/columnists/jamesmay/8077868/Cycling-proficiency-with-James-May.html |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=May, James, ''Cycling Proficiency With James May'', The Daily Telegraph, 21 October 2010 |work=The Daily Telegraph|date= 21 October 2010|access-date=15 January 2012 |location=London}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
=== Health === {{Main|Cycling#Health effects}}
Bicycle-sharing systems have been shown to have a strong net positive effect on health.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Woodcock|first1=James|last2=Tainio|first2=Marko|last3=Cheshire|first3=James|last4=O'Brien|first4=Oliver|last5=Goodman|first5=Anna|date=13 February 2014|title=Health effects of the London bicycle sharing system: health impact modelling study|journal=The BMJ|volume=348|pages=g425|doi=10.1136/bmj.g425|issn=1756-1833|pmid=24524928|pmc=3923979}}</ref> Cycling provides a variety of health benefits<ref>[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/341286587_Perspectives_on_exercise_intensity_volume_and_energy_expenditure_in_habitual_cycle_commuting Schantz P, Salier Eriksson, J, Rosdahl, H. 2020. Perspectives on exercise intensity, volume and energy expenditure in habitual cycle commuting. Front. Sports Act. Living 2:65]</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Götschi|first1=Thomas|last2=Garrard|first2=Jan|last3=Giles-Corti|first3=Billie|date=2 January 2016|title=Cycling as a Part of Daily Life: A Review of Health Perspectives|journal=Transport Reviews|volume=36|issue=1|pages=45–71|doi=10.1080/01441647.2015.1057877|hdl=10536/DRO/DU:30078063|s2cid=152653005|issn=0144-1647|hdl-access=free}}</ref> and reduces the risk of cancers, heart disease, diabetes and obesity that are prevalent in sedentary lifestyles.<ref name="WHO">{{cite web |url=http://www.euro.who.int/document/e75662.pdf|title=A Physically Active Life through Everyday Transport|publisher=World health Organisation|access-date=29 September 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090928174944/http://www.euro.who.int/document/e75662.pdf|archive-date=28 September 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Celis-Morales |first=Carlos A |last2=Lyall |first2=Donald M |last3=Welsh |first3=Paul |last4=Anderson |first4=Jana |last5=Steell |first5=Lewis |last6=Guo |first6=Yibing |last7=Maldonado |first7=Reno |last8=Mackay |first8=Daniel F |last9=Pell |first9=Jill P |last10=Sattar |first10=Naveed |last11=Gill |first11=Jason M R |date=2017-04-19 |title=Association between active commuting and incident cardiovascular disease, cancer, and mortality: prospective cohort study |url=https://www.bmj.com/content/357/bmj.j1456 |journal=BMJ |language=en |volume=357 |article-number=j1456 |doi=10.1136/bmj.j1456 |issn=0959-8138 |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20260319075001/https://www.bmj.com/content/357/bmj.j1456 |archive-date=2026-03-19}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">{{Cite journal |last1=Sabyrbekov|first1=Rahat|last2=Overland|first2=Indra|date=21 September 2020|title=Why Choose to Cycle in a Low-Income Country?|journal=Sustainability|language=en|volume=12|issue=18|page=7775|doi=10.3390/su12187775|issn=2071-1050|doi-access=free|bibcode=2020Sust...12.7775S}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Taddei|first1=Cristina|last2=Gnesotto|first2=Roberto|last3=Forni|first3=Silvia|last4=Bonaccorsi|first4=Guglielmo|last5=Vannucci|first5=Andrea|last6=Garofalo|first6=Giorgio|date=30 April 2015|title=Cycling Promotion and Non-Communicable Disease Prevention: Health Impact Assessment and Economic Evaluation of Cycling to Work or School in Florence|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=10|issue=4|article-number=e0125491|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0125491|issn=1932-6203|pmc=4415918|pmid=25928421|bibcode=2015PLoSO..1025491T|doi-access=free}}</ref> Bike sharing schemes can improve health outcomes by encouraging more people to cycle. Cycling is also much less likely to cause harm to other road users, when compared with driving a car.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cycling UK |title=The case for cycling |url=https://www.cyclinguk.org/briefing/case-cycling-health#F1 |access-date=2026-03-25 |website=www.cyclinguk.org}}</ref>
In the US it is estimated that bike-sharing trips result in an annual reduction of 4.7 premature deaths and 36 million $USD in health economic impacts mostly due to increased physical activity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Clockston |first=Raeven Lynn M. |last2=Rojas-Rueda |first2=David |date=2021-11-01 |title=Health impacts of bike-sharing systems in the U.S. |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0013935121010033 |journal=Environmental Research |volume=202 |article-number=111709 |doi=10.1016/j.envres.2021.111709 |issn=0013-9351}}</ref> Another study in Europe found that the bike sharing schemes in 12 major cities were also making a significant impact on health and saving millions in health costs.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Otero |first=I. |last2=Nieuwenhuijsen |first2=M. J. |last3=Rojas-Rueda |first3=D. |date=2018-06-01 |title=Health impacts of bike sharing systems in Europe |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160412017321566 |journal=Environment International |volume=115 |pages=387–394 |doi=10.1016/j.envint.2018.04.014 |issn=0160-4120}}</ref> Bike sharing schemes also provided an important alternative to public transport for essential workers world-wide during the Covid-19 pandemic leading to recommendations that bike sharing can increase the sustainability and resilience of transport systems during disruptive public health events.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Teixeira |first=João Filipe |last2=Silva |first2=Cecília |last3=Moura e Sá |first3=Frederico |date=11 April 2023 |title=Potential of Bike Sharing During Disruptive Public Health Crises: A Review of COVID-19 Impacts |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/03611981231160537 |journal=Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board |language=en |volume=2678 |issue=12 |pages=480–492 |doi=10.1177/03611981231160537 |issn=0361-1981 |pmc=10186132}}</ref>
=== Reduced car parking === Bike-share programs, especially the earlier services that required docking areas along urban streets, may encroach upon the space available for on-street car parking and other auto-centric uses. While some argue that this is a negative, it is generally considered a positive side effect, since it helps further the transition away from car-dependency.<ref name="NG Parking">{{cite news |last1=Garthwaite |first1=Josie |title=To Curb Driving, Cities Cut Down on Car Parking |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/energy/2011/07/110713-cutting-down-on-city-parking/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191209201916/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/energy/2011/07/110713-cutting-down-on-city-parking/ |archive-date=9 December 2019 |access-date=9 December 2019 |work=National Geographic News |date=14 July 2011 }}</ref>[[File:Bike share clutter Beijing.jpg|thumb|Bike-share company Mobike's bicycles clutter a sidewalk in 798 Arts District in Beijing, China.]] === Urban clutter === In some cities, the many dockless bike-share bicycles have cluttered streets and sidewalks, degrading the urban aesthetic environment and blocking pedestrian traffic. In particular, cycles on Chinese city streets have created sections of clogged sidewalks no longer walkable, and piles of illegally parked bicycles.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2017/nov/25/chinas-bike-share-graveyard-a-monument-to-industrys-arrogance|title=Chinese bike share graveyard a monument to industry's 'arrogance'|last=Haas|first=Benjamin|date=25 November 2017|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=5 March 2018}}</ref> Dockless cycles left randomly on public footpaths may impede access for wheelchair users and others who use mobility aids, and may be dangerous to people with visual impairments.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.bikebiz.com/dockless-bikes-impounded-by-council-for-blocking-parking-spaces/ |title = Dockless bikes impounded by council for "blocking parking spaces"| date=4 August 2017 }}</ref> Due to the vehicles being left in the public right of way, or abandoned obstructing pedestrians, the dockless vehicles have been called "litter bikes".<ref>{{cite news |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Cities vow to crack down on "litter bikes" |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/cities-vow-to-crack-down-on-litter-bikes/ |publisher=CBS News |location=United States |date=30 April 2018 |access-date=16 August 2018 }}</ref> === Transport poverty and inequality === {{See also|Transport divide}} Public Health Scotland has defined transport poverty as 'the lack of transport options that are available, reliable, affordable, accessible or safe that allow people to meet their daily needs and achieve a reasonable quality of life'.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Public Health Scotland |date=16 January 2024 |title=Transport poverty – a public health issue |url=https://publichealthscotland.scot/news/2024/january/transport-poverty-a-public-health-issue/ |access-date=2026-03-23 |website=publichealthscotland.scot}}</ref> Transport is linked to inequalities in three main ways. Firstly, where people live determines what transport and travel options they have. Proximity to good transport affects land value and housing costs, therefore, people with more money have more options for where to live and how to travel. Secondly, opportunities and access to education, employment, amenities and healthcare is often determined by transport. Thirdly, the transport systems themselves determine accessibility including cost, geographical distribution and scheduling.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gates |first=Shivonne |url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/953951/Transport_and_inequality_report_document.pdf |title=Transport and inequality: An evidence review for the Department for Transport |last2=Gogescu |first2=Fiona |last3=Grollman |first3=Chris |date=10 July 2019 |publisher=NatCen Social Research |location=London}}</ref>
Bicycle sharing schemes have the potential to reduce transport poverty and inequalities by providing a new transport mode that may be more available, reliable, affordable, accessible and safe than other options, as well as being available in poorly served locations and facilitating access to opportunities and amenities.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lopes |first=André |last2=Moura |first2=Filipe |last3=Vale |first3=David |date=2025-10-01 |title=The effects of bike-sharing-transit integration on accessibility equity |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0966692325002352 |journal=Journal of Transport Geography |volume=128 |article-number=104344 |doi=10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2025.104344 |issn=0966-6923}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Caggiani |first=Leonardo |last2=Colovic |first2=Aleksandra |last3=Ottomanelli |first3=Michele |date=October 2020 |title=An equality-based model for bike-sharing stations location in bicycle-public transport multimodal mobility |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0965856420306972 |journal=Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice |language=en |volume=140 |pages=251–265 |doi=10.1016/j.tra.2020.08.015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cheng |first=Jianke |last2=Hu |first2=Liyang |last3=Lei |first3=Da |last4=Bi |first4=Hui |date=2024-12-16 |title=How Bike-Sharing Affects the Accessibility Equity of Public Transit Systems—Evidence from Nanjing |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2073-445X/13/12/2200 |journal=Land |language=en |volume=13 |issue=12 |page=2200 |doi=10.3390/land13122200 |doi-access=free|issn=2073-445X}}</ref> For example, evidence from the London bicycle sharing scheme shows that registered users from the most deprived areas had doubled over time.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Goodman |first=Anna |last2=Cheshire |first2=James |date=2014-12-01 |title=Inequalities in the London bicycle sharing system revisited: impacts of extending the scheme to poorer areas but then doubling prices |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0966692314000659 |journal=Journal of Transport Geography |volume=41 |pages=272–279 |doi=10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2014.04.004 |issn=0966-6923}}</ref>
Some critics claim that bike-share programs fail to reach more low-income communities.<ref name=":2">{{cite news|url=https://www.outsideonline.com/2136406/do-bike-share-systems-actually-work|title=Do Bike Share Systems Actually Work?|last=Lindsey|first=Joe|date=1 December 2016|work=Outside Online|access-date=5 March 2018}}</ref> Some efforts have attempted to address this issue, such as New York City's Citi Bike's discounted membership program, which is aimed at increasing ridership among low-income residents. However, around 80% of study respondents reported that they had no knowledge of the program's discount.<ref name=":2" />
A further criticism describes increasing discriminatory technical and organizational hurdles. In addition to registration—providing addresses, or security deposits, of money or bank card data—many systems require smartphones with certain operating systems and user accounts, usually by Apple or Google,<ref>{{cite book | title=Bicycling Science | url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/bicycling-science/ | last1=Wilson|first1= David Gordon | last2=Schmidt | first2= Theodor | edition=4th paperback | date= May 2020 | publisher=The MIT Press | location=Cambridge, MA |display-authors=etal}}</ref> or even a permanent or temporary mobile data connection for unlocking and returning the bicycles. Others offer the same functions via SMS, telephone, or a previously purchased chip card.
== See also == {{Portal|Transport}} {{div col |colwidth = 30em }} * Alternatives to the automobile * Automobile dependency * Bicycle cooperative * Bike rental *Bicycle-sharing systems in Kraków * Carsharing and peer-to-peer carsharing * Collaborative consumption * Electric two-wheeler sharing * List of bicycle-sharing systems * Outline of cycling * Scooter-sharing system * Sustainable transport * Public–private partnership * Tandem bicycle * Orphan bicycle, an abandoned bicycle in the public {{div col end}}
== Notes == {{NoteFoot}}
== References == {{Reflist}}
== External links == * {{Commons category-inline|Bicycle-sharing systems}}
{{Sharing economy}} {{Bicycle sharing systems}} {{Cycling}} {{Utility cycling}} {{Cycling infrastructure}} {{Modes of Public Transport}} {{Authority control}}
Sharing system Category:Bicycle sharing Category:Articles containing video clips