Berry

{{Short description|In the culinary sense, small edible fruit}} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{for-multi|the botanical usage|Berry (botany)|other uses}} {{Use dmy dates|date=January 2016}} {|style="width: 300px; height: 300px; float:right; text-align: center;" |<gallery mode="packed-hover" widths="90px" heights="90px"> File:Berberis thunbergii berries.jpg|Japanese barberries File:Norwegian blueberry.jpg|Bilberry File:Ribes rubrum2005-07-17.JPG|Redcurrants File:Lonicera coerulea a3.jpg|Honeysuckle File:Stachelbeere (Ribes uva-crispa).jpg|Gooseberries File:Rubus chamaemorus close-up.JPG|Cloudberry File:Vaccinium corymbosum a2.jpg|Highbush blueberries File:Black Butte blackberry.jpg|Blackberries </gallery> |} A '''berry''' is a small, pulpy, and often edible fruit. Typically, berries are juicy, rounded, brightly colored, sweet, sour or tart, and do not have a stone or pit although many pips or seeds may be present.{{zwj}}<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica"/> Common examples of berries in the culinary sense are strawberries<!--yes, they ARE berries in the sense used in this article, although not in the sense used in the article "Berry (botany)-->, raspberries,<!--also berries in the sense of this article--> blueberries, blackberries, white currants, blackcurrants, and redcurrants.{{zwj}}<ref>{{Cite Merriam-Webster |berry }}</ref> In Britain, '''soft fruit''' is a horticultural term for such fruits.{{zwj}}<ref>{{Cite Collins |soft fruit |access-date=11 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Soft Fruit List: 2014–15 |publisher=Royal Horticultural Society |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/gardens/pdf/wisley/Soft-Fruit-List-2014-2015-final |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150811080039/https://www.rhs.org.uk/gardens/pdf/wisley/Soft-Fruit-List-2014-2015-final |archive-date=11 August 2015 |access-date=11 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Berry|url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Berry|website=The Free Dictionary|access-date=10 August 2015}}</ref>

<!-- Botany --> The common usage of the term "berry" is different from the scientific or botanical definition of a berry, which refers to a fleshy fruit produced from the ovary of a single flower where the outer layer of the ovary wall develops into an edible fleshy portion{{nbsp}}(pericarp). The botanical definition includes many fruits that are not commonly known or referred to as berries,{{zwj}}<ref>{{Cite book |title=Ultimate Family Visual Dictionary |publisher=DK Pub. |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-1434-1954-9 |location=New Delhi |pages=148–151|chapter=Plants|language=en}}</ref> such as grapes, tomatoes, cucumbers, eggplants, bananas, and chili peppers. Fruits commonly considered berries but excluded by the botanical definition include strawberries, raspberries, and blackberries, which are aggregate fruits, and mulberries, which are multiple fruits. Watermelons and pumpkins are giant berries that fall into the category "pepos". A plant bearing berries is said to be {{wikt-lang|en|bacciferous}} or {{wikt-lang|en|baccate}}.

<!-- Society, culture and history --> Berries are eaten worldwide and often used in jams, preserves, cakes, or pies. Some berries are commercially important. The berry industry varies from country to country as do types of berries cultivated or growing in the wild. Some berries such as raspberries and strawberries have been bred for hundreds of years and are distinct from their wild counterparts, while other berries, such as lingonberries and cloudberries, grow almost exclusively in the wild.

<!-- Edibility --> While many berries are edible, some are poisonous to humans, such as those of deadly nightshade and pokeweed. Others, such as the white mulberry, red mulberry,{{zwj}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oardc.ohio-state.edu/weedguide/singlerecord.asp?id=200 |title=White mulberry – ''Morus alba'' |work=Ohio Perennial and Biennial Weed Guide |publisher=The Ohio State University |access-date=20 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120412062338/http://www.oardc.ohio-state.edu/weedguide/singlerecord.asp?id=200 |archive-date=2012-04-12}}</ref> and elderberry,{{zwj}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Elderberry (''Sambucus'' Species)|url=https://novascotia.ca/museum/poison/?section=species&id=117|website=The Poison Plant Patch|publisher= Nova Scotia Museum |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141106212627/https://novascotia.ca/museum/poison/?section=species&id=117|access-date=13 August 2015|archive-date = 6 November 2014}}</ref> are poisonous when unripe, but edible when ripe.

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== History == [[File:Blackthorn - Balatonkenese.JPG|thumb|alt=blackthorn bush|Blackthorn, ''Prunus spinosa'']]

Berries have been valuable as a food source for humans since before the start of agriculture, and remain a food source for other primates. They were a seasonal staple for early hunter-gatherers for thousands of years, and wild berry gathering remains a popular activity in Europe and North America today. In time, humans learned to store berries so that they could be used in the winter. They may be made into fruit preserves, and among Native Americans, mixed with meat and fats as pemmican.{{zwj}}<ref name="cambridge">{{cite book |title=The Cambridge World History of Food |volume =2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vr2qnK_QOuAC&pg=PA1732 |pages=1731–1732 | editor= Kenneth F. Kiple |publisher= Cambridge University Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-521-40215-6 }}</ref>

Berries also began to be cultivated in Europe and other countries. Some species of blackberries and raspberries of the genus ''Rubus'' have been cultivated since the 17th{{nbsp}}century, while smooth-skinned blueberries and cranberries of the genus ''Vaccinium'' have been cultivated in the United States for over a century.{{zwj}}<ref name=cambridge /> In Japan, between the 10th and 18th{{nbsp}}centuries, the terms {{Transliteration|ja|ichibigo}} and {{Transliteration|ja|ichigo}}{{nbsp}}(kanji: {{wikt-lang|ja|苺}}; katakana: {{lang|ja-Kana|イチゴ|nocat=y}}) referred to many berry crops. The most widely cultivated berry of modern times is the strawberry, which is produced globally at twice the amount of all other berry crops combined.{{zwj}}<ref>{{cite journal |title=Fragaria: A genus with deep historical roots and ripe for evolutionary and ecological insights|author1=Aaron Liston |author2=Richard Cronn |author3=Tia-Lynn Ashman |journal= American Journal of Botany |year=2014 |volume=101 |issue=10 |pages=1686–99|doi= 10.3732/ajb.1400140 |pmid=25326614 |bibcode=2014AmJB..101.1686L |doi-access=free }}</ref>

The strawberry was mentioned by ancient Romans, who thought it had medicinal properties,{{zwj}}<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4NTKoIy2TcYC&pg=PA213 |title= 75 Remarkable Fruits for Your Garden |first= Jack |last= Staub |page=213 |publisher= Gibbs Smith |date= 2008 |isbn= 978-1-4236-0881-3}}</ref> but it was then not a staple of agriculture.{{zwj}}<ref name="wild crop"/> Woodland strawberries began to be grown in French gardens in the 14th{{nbsp}}century. The musk strawberry{{nbsp}}(''F. moschata''), also known as the hautbois strawberry, began to be grown in European gardens in the late 16th{{nbsp}}century. Later, the Virginia strawberry was grown in Europe and the United States.{{zwj}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.uvm.edu/vtvegandberry/factsheets/strawberryhistory.html |title=History of the Strawberry |first=Vern |last= Grubinger |publisher= University of Vermont }}</ref>{{When|date=February 2017}} The most commonly consumed strawberry, the garden strawberry{{nbsp}}(''F. ananassa''), is an accidental hybrid of the Virginia strawberry and a Chilean variety ''Fragaria chiloensis''. It was first noted by a French gardener around the mid 18th{{nbsp}}century that, when ''F. moschata'' and ''F. virginiana'' were planted in between rows of ''F. chiloensis'', the Chilean strawberry would bear abundant and unusually large fruits. Soon after, {{langr|fr|Antoine Nicolas Duchesne}} began to study the breeding of strawberries and made several discoveries crucial to the science of plant breeding, such as the sexual reproduction of strawberry.{{zwj}}<ref name="duchesne">{{cite book |url=http://specialcollections.nal.usda.gov/speccoll/collectionsguide/darrow/Darrow_TheStrawberry.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130707160406/http://specialcollections.nal.usda.gov/speccoll/collectionsguide/darrow/Darrow_TheStrawberry.pdf |archive-date=7 July 2013 |title=The strawberry; history, breeding, and physiology |year=1966 |publisher=New York Holt Rinehart and Winston |first=George M. |last= Darrow |pages=38–43 |via= US National Agricultural Library }}</ref> Later, in the early 1800s, English breeders of strawberry made varieties of ''F. ananassa'' which were important in strawberry breeding in Europe,{{zwj}}<ref>{{cite book |url=http://specialcollections.nal.usda.gov/speccoll/collectionsguide/darrow/Darrow_TheStrawberry.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130707160406/http://specialcollections.nal.usda.gov/speccoll/collectionsguide/darrow/Darrow_TheStrawberry.pdf |archive-date=7 July 2013 |title=The strawberry; history, breeding, and physiology |year=1966 |publisher=New York Holt Rinehart and Winston|author=George M. Darrow |pages=73–83}}</ref> and hundreds of cultivars have since been produced through the breeding of strawberries.{{zwj}}<ref name="wild crop">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kAJ_mUrdpWMC&pg=PA22 |title=Wild Crop Relatives: Genomic and Breeding Resources: Temperate Fruits|editor= Chittaranjan Kole |pages=22–23 |publisher=Springer|year= 2011 |isbn=978-3-642-16057-8 }}</ref>

=== Etymology === The Old English word {{wikt-lang|ang|berie}} ({{gloss|berry, grape}}) comes from Proto-Germanic, variously reconstructed as {{wikt-lang|gem-pro|*basją}}, {{wikt-lang|gem-pro|*bazją}}, {{lang|gem-x-proto|basjom}} (source also of Old Norse{{nbsp}}{{wikt-lang|non|ber}}, Middle Dutch{{nbsp}}{{wikt-lang|dum|bere}}, German{{nbsp}}{{wikt-lang|de|Beere}}, {{gloss|berry}}, Old Saxon{{nbsp}}{{wikt-lang|osx|winberi}}, Gothic{{nbsp}}{{wikt-lang|got|weinabasi}}, {{gloss|grape}}), which is of unknown origin. This and "apple" are the only fruit names in modern English which are descended from "native" Germanic words.{{zwj}}<ref>{{Cite web|title= berry {{!}} Etymology of berry |date= 28 September 2017 |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/berry#etymonline_v_11063|url-status=live |website= etymonline |publisher= Douglas Harper |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190501170452/https://www.etymonline.com/word/berry |archive-date=1 May 2019 }}</ref>

== Botanical definition == {{main|Berry (botany)}} {{multiple image | direction = | total_width = 400 | header = Culinary berries but not botanical berries | caption_align = center | header_align = center | image1 = Ripe, ripening, and green blackberries.jpg | caption1 = Blackberries – botanically: aggregate fruits | image2 = Closeup of blackthorn aka sloe aka prunus spinosa sweden 20050924.jpg | caption2 = Sloe berries – botanically: stone fruits or drupes }}{{multiple image | direction = | total_width = 400 | header = Berries in the culinary and botanical sense | caption_align = center | header_align = center | image1 = Tyttebær.jpg | alt1 = | caption1 = Lingonberries | image2 = Cranberrys beim Ernten.jpeg | caption2 = Cranberries }}{{multiple image | direction = | total_width = 400 | header = Botanical berries but not culinary berries | caption_align = center | header_align = center | image2 = Bananavarieties.jpg | alt2 = | caption2 = Bananas | image1 = Watermelons.jpg | caption1 = Watermelons }}

In botanical terminology, a berry is a simple fruit with seeds and pulp produced from the ovary of a single flower. It is fleshy throughout, except for the seeds. It does not have a special "line of weakness" along which it splits to release the seeds when ripe (i.e. it is indehiscent).{{zwj}}<ref>{{cite web |first1=Robert W. |last1=Kiger |first2=Duncan M. |last2=Porter |date=2001 |title=Find term 'berry' |website=Categorical Glossary for the Flora of North America Project |url=http://fmhibd.library.cmu.edu/HIBD-DB/FNA/findrecords.php |access-date=14 August 2015 |name-list-style=amp |archive-date=20 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190520101251/http://fmhibd.library.cmu.edu/HIBD-DB/FNA/findrecords.php |url-status=dead }}</ref> A berry may develop from an ovary with one or more carpels (the female reproductive structures of a flower). The seeds are usually embedded in the fleshy interior of the ovary, but there are some non-fleshy examples such as peppers, with air rather than pulp around their seeds. The differences between the everyday and botanical uses of "berry" result in three categories: those fruits that are berries under both definitions; those fruits that are botanical berries but not commonly known as berries; and those parts of plants commonly known as berries that are not botanical berries, and may not even be fruits.

Berries under both definitions include blueberries, cranberries, lingonberries, and the fruits of many other members of the heather family, as well as gooseberries, goji berries and elderberries. The fruits of some "currants" (''Ribes'' species), such as blackcurrants, red currants and white currants, are botanical berries, and are treated as horticultural berries (or as soft fruit in the UK), even though their most commonly used names do not include the word "berry".

Botanical berries not commonly known as berries include bananas,{{zwj}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/banana.html |title=Banana |website=Fruits of Warm Climates |first=Julia |last=Morton |publisher= Purdue University |access-date=16 April 2009| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090415160027/http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/banana.html| archive-date=15 April 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://waynesword.palomar.edu/fruitid1.htm|last=Armstrong |first=Wayne P.|title=Identification of Major Fruit Types |website=Wayne's Word: An On-Line Textbook of Natural History|access-date=17 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111120221956/http://waynesword.palomar.edu/fruitid1.htm|archive-date=20 November 2011}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=August 2015}} tomatoes,{{zwj}}<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica"/> grapes, eggplants (aubergines), persimmons, watermelons, and pumpkins.

There are several different kinds of fruits which are commonly called berries, but are not botanical berries. Blackberries, raspberries, and strawberries are kinds of aggregate fruit;{{zwj}}<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica" /> they contain seeds from different ovaries of a single flower. In aggregate fruits like blackberries, the individual "fruitlets" making up the fruit can be clearly seen. The fruits of blackthorn may be called "sloe berries",{{zwj}}<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Lea|first1=Andrew G. H.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0aWR3fuA7QIC&q=%22sloe+berries%22&pg=PA299|title=Fermented Beverage Production|last2=Piggott|first2=John Raymond|last3=Piggott|first3=John R.|date=2003-06-30|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-0-306-47706-5|language=en}}</ref> but botanically are small stone fruits or drupes, like plums or apricots.

Junipers and yews are commonly said to have berries, but these plants do not produce botanical fruits at all: they are gymnosperms, specifically conifers, not angiosperms (flowering plants). Their "berries" are highly-modified seed-bearing cones. In juniper berries, used to flavour gin, the cone scales, which are hard and woody in most conifers, are instead soft and fleshy when ripe. The bright red berries of yews consist of a fleshy outgrowth{{nbsp}}(aril) almost enclosing the poisonous seed. The resemblance of these plant structures to botanical berries provides a striking example of convergent evolution in different plant clades.

== Cultivation == [[Image:Brambleberries.svg|thumb|''Rubus'' berries have been crossbred to create a diverse range of brambleberries with desirable traits]]

Strawberries have been grown in gardens in Europe since the 14th{{nbsp}}century.{{zwj}}<ref name="wild crop"/> Blueberries were domesticated starting in 1911, with the first commercial crop in 1916.{{zwj}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Blueberries&nbsp;– Celebrating 100 Years|url=http://www.blueberrycouncil.org/about-blueberries/history-of-blueberries/|website=Blueberry Council|access-date=11 August 2015}}</ref> Huckleberries of all varieties are not fully domesticated, but domestication was attempted from 1994 to 2010 for the economically significant western huckleberry.{{zwj}}<ref>{{cite web|last1=Russell|first1=Betsy Z.|title=Wild huckleberry nearly tamed|url=http://idahoptv.org/Outdoors/shows/tasteofidaho/russellarticle.cfm|website=idahoptv|access-date=11 August 2015|archive-date=3 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180803071930/http://idahoptv.org/outdoors/shows/tasteofidaho/russellarticle.cfm}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Pittaway|first1=Jenna|title=Dr Barney Interview on the Western Huckleberry|url=http://wildhuckleberry.com/2014/04/10/dr-barney-western-huckleberry/|website=wildhuckleberry|date=10 April 2014|access-date=11 August 2015}}</ref> Many other varieties of ''Vaccinium'' are likewise not domesticated, with some being of commercial importance.

[[File:Ostružiník moruška ve Finsku.jpg|thumb|Cloudberry, common flowering plant in the cool temperate regions, alpine and arctic tundra and boreal forest.{{zwj}}<ref name="thiem">{{cite journal|author=Thiem B|year=2003|title=''Rubus chamaemorus'' L. – a boreal plant rich in biologically active metabolites: a review|journal=Biological Letters|volume=40|issue=1|pages=3–13|url=http://www.biollett.amu.edu.pl/biollett_40_1_3_13.pdf|access-date=17 September 2020|archive-date=9 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809003409/http://www.biollett.amu.edu.pl/biollett_40_1_3_13.pdf}}</ref>]]

=== Agricultural methods === Like most other food crops, berries are commercially grown, with both conventional pest management and integrated pest management{{nbsp}}(IPM) practices. Organically certified berries are becoming more widely available.{{zwj}}<ref name="Zhao2007"/>^:5

Many soft fruit berries require a period of temperatures between {{convert|0 and 10|C}} for breaking dormancy. In general, strawberries require 200–300{{nbsp}}hours, blueberries 650–850{{nbsp}}hours, blackberries 700{{nbsp}}hours, raspberries 800–1,700{{nbsp}}hours, currants and gooseberries 800–1,500{{nbsp}}hours, and cranberries 2,000{{nbsp}}hours.{{zwj}}<ref name=SiteBerry>{{cite web |url= http://www.plantgrower.org/uploads/6/5/5/4/65545169/sitesoireqsmfru.rev.pdf |title= Site and soil requirements for small fruit crops |author= Dr. Marvin Pritts |date= March 2012 |publisher= Cornell University |access-date=January 11, 2026 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240701114927/http://www.plantgrower.org/uploads/6/5/5/4/65545169/sitesoireqsmfru.rev.pdf |archive-date=July 1, 2024 }}</ref> However, too low a temperature will kill the crops: blueberries do not tolerate temperatures below {{convert|−29|C}}, raspberries, depending on variety, may tolerate as low as {{convert|−31|C}}, and blackberries are injured below {{convert|−20|C}}.{{zwj}}<ref name=SiteBerry /> Spring frosts are, however, much more damaging to berry crops than low winter temperatures. Sites with moderate slopes{{nbsp}}({{val|3|–|5|u=%}}), facing north or east in the Northern Hemisphere, near large bodies of water, which regulate spring temperature, are considered ideal in preventing spring frost injury to the new leaves and flowers.{{zwj}}<ref name=SiteBerry /> All berry crops have shallow root systems.{{zwj}}<ref name=SiteBerry /> Many US land-grant university extension offices suggest that strawberries should not be planted more than five years on the same site, due to the danger of black root rot (though many other illnesses go by the same name), which in the past has been controlled in major commercial production by annual methyl bromide fumigation<ref>Multiple sources: * {{cite web|last1=Handley|first1=David T.|title=Growing Strawberries|url=http://umaine.edu/publications/2067e/|website=University of Maine Extension|access-date=13 August 2015}} * {{cite web|title=Growing Strawberries|url=http://extension.illinois.edu/strawberries/growing.cfm|website=University of Illinois Extension|access-date=13 August 2015}} * {{cite web|last1=Whiting|first1=David|title=Growing Strawberries in Colorado Gardens|url=http://www.ext.colostate.edu/mg/Gardennotes/763.html|website=Colorado State University Extension|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150821083825/http://www.ext.colostate.edu/mg/Gardennotes/763.html|archive-date=21 August 2015}} * {{cite web|last1=Gao|first1=Gary|title=Strawberries are an Excellent Fruit for the Home Garden|url=http://ohioline.osu.edu/hyg-fact/1000/1424.html|website=Ohio State University Extension|access-date=13 August 2015}} * {{cite web|last1=Kluepfel|first1=Marjan|last2=Polomski|first2=Bob|title=Growing Strawberries|url=http://www.clemson.edu/extension/hgic/plants/vegetables/small_fruits/hgic1405.html|website=Clemson Cooperative Extension|access-date=13 August 2015}} * {{cite web|title=Strawberry Production Systems|url=http://www.mofga.org/Publications/MaineOrganicFarmerGardener/Spring2012/Strawberries/tabid/2136/Default.aspx|website=Maine Organic Farmers and Gardners Association|access-date=13 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906013154/http://www.mofga.org/Publications/MaineOrganicFarmerGardener/Spring2012/Strawberries/tabid/2136/Default.aspx|archive-date=6 September 2015}} * {{cite web|last1=Ruttan|first1=Denise|title=Plant strawberries and boost your health|url=http://extension.oregonstate.edu/gardening/plant-strawberries-and-boost-your-health|website=Oregon State University Extension Service|access-date=13 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150928001154/http://extension.oregonstate.edu/gardening/plant-strawberries-and-boost-your-health|archive-date=28 September 2015}}</ref><ref name=OrganicBerry>{{cite web|last1=Pritts|first1=Dr. Marvin|title=Key Features of Organic Berry Crop Production|url=https://www.fruit.cornell.edu/berry/production/pdfs/Keyfeatorgberrycropprod.pdf|website=Cornell Fruit|access-date=11 August 2015}}</ref> but which is largely prohibited now.{{zwj}}{{Where|date=March 2025}} Besides the number of years in production, soil compaction, the frequency of fumigation, and herbicide usages increase the appearance of black root rot in strawberries.{{zwj}}<ref name=OrganicBerry /> Raspberries, blackberries, strawberries, and many other berries are susceptible to verticillium wilt. Blueberries and cranberries grow poorly if the clay or silt content of the soil is more than 20%, while most other berries tolerate a wide range of soil types.{{zwj}}<ref name=SiteBerry /> For most berry crops, the ideal soil is well drained sandy loam, with a pH of 6.2–6.8 and a moderate to high organic content; however, blueberries have an ideal pH of 4.2–4.8 and can be grown on muck soils, while blueberries and cranberries prefer poorer soils with lower cation exchange, lower calcium, and lower levels of phosphorus.{{zwj}}<ref name=SiteBerry />

Growing most berries organically requires the use of proper crop rotation, the right mix of cover crops, and the cultivation of the correct beneficial microorganisms in the soil.{{zwj}}<ref name=OrganicBerry /> As blueberries and cranberries thrive in soils that are not hospitable to most other plants, and conventional fertilizers are toxic to them, the primary concern when growing them organically is bird management.{{zwj}}<ref name=OrganicBerry />

Postharvest small fruit berries are generally stored at {{val|90|–|95|u=%}} relative humidity and {{convert|0|C}}.{{zwj}}<ref name=StoreBerry>{{cite web|last1=DeEll|first1=Dr. Jennifer|title=Postharvest Handling and Storage of Berries|url=http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/facts/storage_berries.htm|website=omafra|access-date=12 August 2015}}</ref> Cranberries, however, are frost sensitive, and should be stored at {{convert|3|C}}.{{zwj}}<ref name=StoreBerry /> Blueberries are the only berries that respond to ethylene, but flavor does not improve after harvest, so they require the same treatment as other berries. Removal of ethylene may reduce disease and spoilage in all berries.{{zwj}}<ref name=StoreBerry /> Precooling within one to two hours post-harvest to storage temperature, generally{{nbsp}}{{convert|0|C}}, via forced air cooling increases the storage life of berries by about a third.{{zwj}}<ref name=StoreBerry /> Under optimum storage conditions, raspberries and blackberries last for two to five days, strawberries 7–10{{nbsp}}days, blueberries two to four weeks, and cranberries two to four months.{{zwj}}<ref name=StoreBerry /> Berries can be shipped under high carbon dioxide or modified atmosphere of {{val|10|–|15|u=%}} carbon dioxide for high carbon dioxide or {{val|15|–|20|u=%}} carbon dioxide and {{val|5|–|10|u=%}} oxygen for a modified atmosphere container to increase shelf life and prevent grey mold rot.{{zwj}}<ref name=StoreBerry />

thumb|Example of color contrast in (mostly inedible) wild berries

=== Breeding === Several discoveries in the science of breeding berries were made in the 18th{{nbsp}}century by {{langr|fr|Antoine Nicolas Duchesne}} in his work on strawberries.{{zwj}}<ref name="duchesne"/> In the traditional technique of plant breeding, berries with specific desirable characteristics were chosen and allowed to sexually reproduce with other berries, and offspring with improved traits could then be selected and used for further crossing. Plants may be hybridized with different species within the same genus; hybridization between different genus may also be possible, but more difficult. Breeding may seek to increase the size and yield of the fruit, improve the flavor and quality of its nutrient content, such as antioxidants, expand the harvest season, and produce cultivars with resistance to diseases, tolerance of hot or cold conditions, and other desirable traits.{{zwj}}<ref name="folta">{{cite book|author1=Kevin M. Folta|author-link1=Kevin Folta|author2=Chittaranjan Kole|title=Genetics, Genomics and Breeding of Berries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=buzRBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA96|date=16 May 2011|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-4398-5660-4}}</ref> Advancements in molecular biology and genetic engineering allow for a more efficient and better targeted approach in the selection for a desirable genotype, via marker-assisted selection, for example.{{zwj}}<ref>{{cite journal |title= Marker assisted selection for seedlessness in table grape breeding |author=Eda Karaagac |author2=Alba M. Vargas |author3=María Teresa de Andrés |author4=Iván Carreño |author5=Javier Ibáñez |author6=Juan Carreño |author7=José Miguel Martínez-Zapater |author8=José Antonio Cabeza |journal=Tree Genetics & Genomes|date=October 2012 |volume= 8|issue =5 |pages= 1003–1015 |doi=10.1007/s11295-012-0480-0|doi-access=free |hdl=10261/292721 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Genetic modification techniques can also be used for breeding berries.{{zwj}}<ref name=folta/>

=== Horticultural soft fruit berries === Some fruit not commonly referred to as berries and not always botanically berries are included by US land-grant university extension offices in their guides for berry cultivation, or in guides for identifying local wild edible and non-edible berries. Examples include beach plums,{{zwj}}<ref>{{cite web|last1=Whitlow|first1=Dr. Thomas|title=Beach Plum|url=https://www.beachplum.cornell.edu/|website=Cornell|access-date=13 August 2015}}</ref> American persimmons, pawpaws, Pacific crabapples, and prickly pears.{{zwj}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Edible Berries of the Pacific Northwest|url=http://northernbushcraft.com/guide.php?ctgy=edible_berries&region=pnw|website=Northern Bushcraft|access-date=13 August 2015}}</ref>

== Commercial production == <!--Reporting on the production of berries by such organizations as FAOSTAT includes strawberries, raspberries, gooseberries, black, red and white currants, blueberries, cranberries, blackberries, loganberries, huckleberry, dangleberries, myrtle berry, mulberry, and other fruits of the genus ''Vaccinium'' as being the category 'berries'.{{zwj}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Berries NES deffinition|url=http://www.fao.org/waicent/faoinfo/economic/faodef/fdef08e.htm#8.06|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|access-date=10 August 2015}}</ref>-->

In the year 2005, there were {{convert|1.8|e6acre|abbr=off}} of land worldwide cultivating berries, with {{convert|6.3|e6ST|abbr=off|lk=on}} produced.{{zwj}}<ref name="Zhao2007">{{cite book |first= Yanyun |last= Zhao|title=Berry Fruit: Value-Added Products for Health Promotion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tTw9oDAYgNgC|date=6 June 2007|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-4200-0614-8}}</ref>^:4{{outdated statistic|date=March 2025}}

=== Economics === {{Globalize section|the Western world|date=March 2025}} thumb|right|Mixed frozen berries In certain regions, berrypicking can be a large part of the economy, and it is becoming increasingly common for western European countries such as Sweden and Finland to import cheap labor from Thailand or Bulgaria to do berry picking.{{zwj}}<ref name="Economist">{{Cite news|title = Berrypickers, unite!|url = https://www.economist.com/europe/2012/08/04/berrypickers-unite|newspaper = The Economist |access-date = 12 August 2015|issn = 0013-0613}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title = Record number of Thai berry pickers to arrive in Finland |url = http://www.helsinkitimes.fi/finland/finland-news/domestic/13418-record-number-of-thai-berry-pickers-to-arrive-in-finland.html|newspaper = Helsinki Times |access-date = 12 August 2015|first = Aleksi|last = Teivainen|date = 23 June 2015 |language= en }}</ref> This practice has come under scrutiny in the past years because of the low wages and poor living standard for the "berry-pickers", as well as the lack of worker safety.{{zwj}}<ref name="Economist" />

In the late 2010s in the US, reduced migration from Mexico and Central America and increased minimum wage standards have made finding "stoop-work" labourers to pick the strawberry crop difficult and costly.{{zwj}}<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Goodyear |first1=Dana |title=How Driscoll's Reinvented the Strawberry |magazine=The New Yorker |date=August 14, 2017 |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2017/08/21/how-driscolls-reinvented-the-strawberry/amp |access-date=13 December 2020 |quote=With a sharp decline in migration from Mexico and Central America, the primary sources of agricultural labor for half a century, "stoop work"—jobs requiring harvesters to crouch doubled over for hours a day—has become difficult to hire for. Nearly every farm I passed in Watsonville, in May and June, had a sign by the road saying ''Se Solicitan Piscadores''. At the same time, changing minimum-wage and overtime laws have made labor more expensive.}}</ref>

== Phytochemicals and color== Once ripened, berries have a contrasting color to their background (often of green leaves), making them visible and attractive to frugivorous animals and birds.{{zwj}}<ref name="lee">{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M3e5wyFJY-8C&q=pigments | title=Nature's Palette: The Science of Plant Color | publisher=University of Chicago Press |last= Lee |first= David | year=2010 | pages=58–59 | isbn=978-0-226-47105-1}}</ref> This assists the wide dispersal of the plants' seeds.{{zwj}}<ref name=lee/>

Berry colors are due to natural phytochemicals, including plant pigments, such as anthocyanins, together with other flavonoids localized mainly in berry skins, seeds and leaves.{{zwj}}<ref name=lee/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/ss01/anthocyanin.html|title=The Possible Health Benefits of Anthocyanin Pigments and Polyphenolics|last=Wrolstad|first=Ronald E.|year=2001|publisher=Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University|access-date=7 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707173920/http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/ss01/anthocyanin.html |archive-date=7 July 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|journal=J Agric Food Chem|year=2006|volume=54|issue=20|pages=7692–702|title=Metabolite profiling of grape: Flavonols and anthocyanins|vauthors=Mattivi F, Guzzon R, Vrhovsek U, Stefanini M, Velasco R |pmid=17002441|doi=10.1021/jf061538c|bibcode=2006JAFC...54.7692M }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|journal=Phytochemistry|year=2015|volume=110|pages=46–57|doi=10.1016/j.phytochem.2014.11.018|title=Fruit-localized photoreceptors increase phenolic compounds in berry skins of field-grown Vitis vinifera L. cv. Malbec |vauthors=González CV, et al |pmid=25514818|bibcode=2015PChem.110...46G |hdl=11336/17493|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Although berry pigments have antioxidant properties ''{{nowrap|in vitro}}'',{{zwj}}<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Wu X, Beecher GR, Holden JM, Haytowitz DB, Gebhardt SE, Prior RL |s2cid=25573388 |title=Lipophilic and hydrophilic antioxidant capacities of common foods in the United States |journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry|volume=52 |issue=12 |pages=4026–37 |date=June 2004 |pmid=15186133 |doi=10.1021/jf049696w |bibcode=2004JAFC...52.4026W }}</ref> there is no physiological evidence established to date that berry pigments have actual antioxidant or any other functions within the human body.{{zwj}}<ref>{{cite web | url=http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/dietary-factors/phytochemicals/flavonoids | title=Flavonoids | publisher=Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University, Corvallis | work=Micronutrient Information Center | date=2016 | access-date=2 November 2016}}</ref> Consequently, it is not permitted to claim that foods containing polyphenols have antioxidant health value on product labels in the US or Europe.{{zwj}}<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110605114915/http://www.fda.gov/OHRMS/DOCKETS/98fr/FDA-1995-N-0400-GDL.pdf Guidance for Industry, Food Labeling; Nutrient Content Claims; Definition for "High Potency" and Definition for "Antioxidant" for Use in Nutrient Content Claims for Dietary Supplements and Conventional Foods] U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, June 2008</ref><ref name=efsa>{{cite journal |author=EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies |title=Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to various food(s)/food constituent(s) and protection of cells from premature aging, antioxidant activity, antioxidant content and antioxidant properties, and protection of DNA, proteins and lipids from oxidative damage pursuant to Article 13(1) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006 |journal=EFSA Journal |volume=8 |issue=10 |page=1752 |year=2010 |location=Parma, Italy |doi=10.2903/j.efsa.2010.1752|doi-access=free }}</ref>

== Culinary significance == {{Globalize section|Anglosphere|date=March 2025}}

=== Use in baked goods === thumb|Blueberry|alt=A slice of blueberry pie [[File:Elderberry-jam.JPG|thumb|Elderberry|alt=Dark red jam on bread]]

Berries are commonly used in pies or tarts, such as blueberry pie, blackberry pie, and strawberry pie.

Berries are often used in baking, such as blueberry muffins, blackberry muffins, berry cobblers, berry crisps, berry cakes, berry buckles, berry crumb cakes, berry teacakes, and berry cookies.{{zwj}}<ref name=DesBerry>{{cite web|title=60 Berry desserts|url=http://www.marthastewart.com/274895/60-berry-desserts|website=Martha Stewart|access-date=13 August 2015}}</ref> Berries are commonly incorporated whole into the batter for baking, and care is often taken so as to not burst the berries. Frozen or dried berries may be preferable for some baked berry products.{{zwj}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Baking with Blueberries|url=http://www.blueberrycouncil.org/blueberry-cooking-tips/baking-blueberries/|website=U.S. Highbush Blueberry Council|access-date=13 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Gordon|first1=Megan|title=Frozen Berries In Off-Season Baking: Should You Thaw Before Using?|url=http://www.thekitchn.com/bakers-tip-how-to-best-use-frozen-berries-for-offseason-baking-177519|website=The Kitchn|access-date=13 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Fresh Fruit vs Frozen Fruit in baking recipes|url=http://bakingbites.com/2012/07/fresh-vs-frozen-fruit-in-baking-recipes/|website=Baking Bites|date=26 July 2012|access-date=13 August 2015}}</ref> Fresh berries are also often incorporated into baked berry desserts, sometimes with cream, either as a filling to the dessert or as a topping.{{zwj}}<ref name=DesBerry />

=== Beverages === Berries are often added to water and/or juiced, as in cranberry juice, which accounts for 95% of cranberry crop usage,{{zwj}}<ref>{{cite web|last1=Geisler|first1=Malinda|title=Cranberries Profile|url=http://www.agmrc.org/commodities__products/fruits/cranberries-profile/|website=AgMRC|access-date=13 August 2015}}</ref> blueberry juice, raspberry juice, goji berry juice, acai juice, aronia berry juice, and strawberry juice.{{zwj}}<ref>{{cite web|last1=Beck|first1=Margery A.|title=Aronia berry gaining market foothold in U.S.|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/business/2014/07/12/aronia-berry-gaining-market-foothold-in-us/12571761/|website=USA Today|access-date=13 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Fruit Juices|url=http://www.agr.gc.ca/eng/industry-markets-and-trade/statistics-and-market-information/by-region/united-states/fruit-juices/?id=1410083148489|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141204215009/http://www.agr.gc.ca/eng/industry-markets-and-trade/statistics-and-market-information/by-region/united-states/fruit-juices/?id=1410083148489|archive-date=4 December 2014|website=Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada|access-date=13 August 2015}}</ref> Wine is the principal alcoholic beverage made from berries{{nbsp}}(grapes). Fruit wines are commonly made out of other berries. In most cases, sugars must be added to the berry juices in the process of chaptalization to increase the alcohol content of the wine.{{zwj}}{{citation needed|reason= Need sourcing for necessity & prevalence of chaptalization |date=March 2025}} Examples of fruit wines made from berries include: elderberry wine, strawberry wine, blueberry wine, blackberry wine, redcurrant wine, huckleberry wine, goji wine and cranberry wine.{{zwj}}<ref>{{cite web|last1=Wright|first1=John|title=How to make Blackberry Wine and Whisky|url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/wordofmouth/2011/aug/31/how-make-blackberry-wine-whisky|website=The Guardian|date=31 August 2011|access-date=13 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Kime|first1=Robert|title=Strawberry Wine|url=https://www.fruit.cornell.edu/berry/enologyvalueadded/evapdfs/strawberrywine.pdf|website=Berry Resources Cornell|access-date=13 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Bring on the Blueberry Wine|url=http://www.winemag.com/Web-2012/Bring-on-the-Blueberry-Wine/|website=Wine Mag|date=19 September 2012|access-date=13 August 2015|archive-date=28 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151128172037/http://www.winemag.com/Web-2012/Bring-on-the-Blueberry-Wine/}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Rudebeck|first1=Clare|title=A berry nice vintage: It's time to rediscover the ancient art of fermenting fruit wines|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/food-and-drink/features/a-berry-nice-vintage-its-time-to-rediscover-the-ancient-art-of-fermenting-fruit-wines-1784404.html|newspaper= The Independent |access-date=13 August 2015|archive-date=24 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180824164748/https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/food-and-drink/features/a-berry-nice-vintage-its-time-to-rediscover-the-ancient-art-of-fermenting-fruit-wines-1784404.html |language=en-uk }}</ref> Berries are used in some styles of beer, particularly framboise (made with raspberry) and other fruit lambics.

=== Dried === [[File:Dried berries.jpg|thumb|Various dried berries]] Currants, raisins and sultanas are examples of dried grape berries, and many other commercially important berries are available in dried form.

=== Fruit preserves === {{main|Fruit preserves}}

Berries are perishable fruits with a short shelf life, and are often preserved by drying, freezing, pickling or making fruit preserves. Berries such as blackberry, blueberry, boysenberry, lingonberry, loganberry,{{zwj}}<ref name="Taylor & Francis 2014 p. 121">{{cite book | title=The Jam Book | publisher=Taylor & Francis | year=2014 | isbn=978-1-317-84605-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eyGsAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA121 | page=121}}</ref> raspberry, and strawberry are often used in jams and jellies. In the United States, Native Americans were "the first to make preserves from blueberries".{{zwj}}<ref name="Grotto 2007 p. 53"/>

=== Other usages === Chefs have created quick pickled soft fruit, such as blackberries,{{zwj}}<ref>{{cite web|last1=Satterfield|first1=Steven|title=Spiced and Pickled Blackberries|url=http://www.foodandwine.com/recipes/spiced-and-pickled-blackberries|website=Food and Wine|access-date=11 August 2015}}</ref> strawberries,{{zwj}}<ref>{{cite web|last1=O'Brady|first1=Tara|title=Pickled Strawberry Preserves|url=http://www.davidlebovitz.com/2015/06/pickled-strawberry-preserves-recipe/|website=david lebovitz|date=29 June 2015|access-date=11 August 2015}}</ref> and blueberries.{{zwj}}<ref>{{cite web|last1=Kord|first1=Tyler|title=Pickled Blueberries|url=http://www.saveur.com/article/Recipes/Pickled-Blueberries|website=Saveur|date=15 April 2011|access-date=11 August 2015}}</ref> Strawberries can be battered and quickly fried in a deep fryer.{{zwj}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Deep Fried Strawberries|url=http://www.driscolls.com/recipes/view/7474/Deep-Fried-Strawberries|website=Driscoll's|access-date=31 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Fortune|first1=Fia|title=Deep-Fried Cheesecake-Stuffed Strawberries|url=http://forkable.net/2013/07/02/deep-fried-cheesecake-stuffed-strawberries/|website=Forkable|date=2 July 2013 |access-date=31 August 2015|archive-date=21 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150821135616/http://forkable.net/2013/07/02/deep-fried-cheesecake-stuffed-strawberries/}}</ref> Sauces made from berries, such as cranberry sauce, can be frozen until hard, battered, and deep fried.{{zwj}}<ref>{{cite web|last1=Deen|first1=Paula|author-link=Paula Deen|title=Cranberry Sauce fritters recipe|url=http://www.foodnetwork.com/recipes/paula-deen/deep-fried-cranberry-sauce-fritters-recipe.html|website=Foodnetwork.com|access-date=31 August 2015|archive-date=24 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924042646/http://www.foodnetwork.com/recipes/paula-deen/deep-fried-cranberry-sauce-fritters-recipe.html}}</ref> Cranberry sauce is a traditional food item for Thanksgiving, and similar sauces can be made from many other berries such as blueberries, raspberries, blackberries, and huckleberries.{{zwj}}<ref>{{cite web|last1=Deen|first1=Paula|title=Leopold's Huckleberry Sauce|url=http://www.foodnetwork.com/recipes/paula-deen/leopolds-huckleberry-sauce-recipe.html|website=Food Network.com|access-date=31 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Currah|first1=Allice|title=Simple Homemade Blackberry Sauce|url=https://www.pbs.org/parents/kitchenexplorers/2013/08/15/simple-homemade-blackberry-sauce/|website=PBS.org|access-date=31 August 2015|archive-date=11 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150911180232/http://www.pbs.org/parents/kitchenexplorers/2013/08/15/simple-homemade-blackberry-sauce/}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Lagasse|first1=Emeril|author-link=Emeril Lagasse|title=Raspberry Sauce|url=http://www.foodnetwork.com/recipes/emeril-lagasse/raspberry-sauce-recipe.html|website=Food Network.com|access-date=31 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150820072015/http://www.foodnetwork.com/recipes/emeril-lagasse/raspberry-sauce-recipe.html|archive-date=20 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Perfect Cranberry Sauce|url=http://www.foodnetwork.com/recipes/food-network-kitchens/perfect-cranberry-sauce-recipe.html|website=Food Network.com|access-date=31 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Garten|first1=Ina|author-link=Ina Garten|title=Baked Blintzes with Fresh Blueberry Sauce|url=http://www.foodnetwork.com/recipes/ina-garten/baked-blintzes-with-fresh-blueberry-sauce-recipe.html|website=Food Network.com|access-date=31 August 2015}}</ref>

==In culture== ===Dye=== Berries have been used in some cultures for dyeing. Many berries contain juices that can easily stain, affording use as a natural dye. For example, blackberries are useful for making dyes, especially when ripe berries can easily release juice to produce a colorfast effect.{{zwj}}<ref name="brambleberriesintherain">{{cite web | url=http://brambleberriesintherain.com/2011/09/dyeing-with-blackberries/ | title=Dyeing with blackberries | date=15 September 2011 | access-date=12 August 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150803121035/http://brambleberriesintherain.com/2011/09/dyeing-with-blackberries/ | archive-date=3 August 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Culturally and Economically Important Nontimber Forest Products of Northern Maine: Blueberry|url=http://www.nrs.fs.fed.us/sustaining_forests/conserve_enhance/special_products/maine_ntfp/plants/blueberry/|website=US Forest Service|access-date=12 August 2015|archive-date=21 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151121033759/http://www.nrs.fs.fed.us/sustaining_forests/conserve_enhance/special_products/maine_ntfp/plants/blueberry/}}</ref><ref name=FSDyeBerry>{{cite web|title=Native Plant Dyes|url=http://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/ethnobotany/dyes.shtml|website=US Forest Service|access-date=12 August 2015}}</ref> ''Rubus'' berries, such as blackberry, raspberry, black raspberry, dewberry, loganberry, and thimbleberry all produce dye colors. These were once used by Native Americans.{{zwj}}<ref name=FSDyeBerry /><ref name="Mahady Fong Farnsworth 2001 p. 47"/> In Hawaii, the native Hawaiian raspberry called {{langr|haw|ʻĀkala}} was used to dye tapa cloth with lavender and pink hues, whereas berries from the dianella lily were used for blue coloration, and berries from the black nightshade were used to produce green coloration.{{zwj}}<ref name="Krohn-Ching 1980 p. 13"/>

==Research== Berry consumption is under preliminary research for the potential to improve nutrition and affect chronic diseases.{{zwj}}<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Martini D, Marino M, Angelino D, Del Bo' C, Del Rio D, Riso P, Porrini M|title=Role of berries in vascular function: a systematic review of human intervention studies|journal=Nutrition Reviews|date=2020 |volume=78|issue=3|pages=189–206|article-number=nuz053 |doi=10.1093/nutrit/nuz053 |doi-access=free |pmid=31365093|hdl=2434/669748|hdl-access=free}}</ref> A 2016 meta-analysis found that berry consumption can significantly lower body mass index, low density lipoprotein (LDL) and systolic blood pressure.{{zwj}}<ref name="Huang">{{cite journal|vauthors=Huang H, Chen G, Liao D, Zhu Y, Xue X|title=Effects of Berries Consumption on Cardiovascular Risk Factors: A Meta-analysis with Trial Sequential Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials|journal=Scientific Reports|date=2016|volume=6|issue=|article-number=23625|doi=10.1038/srep23625 |doi-access=free |pmid=27006201|pmc=4804301|bibcode=2016NatSR...623625H}}</ref>

== See also == <!--Don't add wikilinks already in the article, as per MOS:NOTSEEALSO--> * List of berries

== References == {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="Mahady Fong Farnsworth 2001 p. 47">{{cite book | last1=Mahady | first1=G.B. | last2=Fong | first2=H.H.S. | last3=Farnsworth | first3=N.R. | title=Botanical Dietary Supplements | publisher=Taylor & Francis | year=2001 | isbn=978-90-265-1855-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TiU-Dz2wxyAC&pg=PA47 | page=47}}</ref> <ref name="Grotto 2007 p. 53">{{cite book | last=Grotto | first=D. | title=101 Foods That Could Save Your Life | publisher=Random House Publishing Group | year=2007 | isbn=978-0-553-90451-2 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l4NIwOljrxYC&pg=PA53 | page=53}}</ref> <ref name="Krohn-Ching 1980 p. 13">{{cite book | last=Krohn-Ching | first=V. | title=Hawaii Dye Plants and Dye Recipes | publisher=University Press of Hawaii | year=1980 | isbn=978-0-8248-0698-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zO7Gv4OqA2oC&pg=PA13 | page=13}}</ref> <!--unused<ref name="Shujaa Shujaa 2015 p. 382">{{cite book | last=Shujaa | first=M.J. | last2=Shujaa | first2=K.J. | title=The SAGE Encyclopedia of African Cultural Heritage in North America | publisher=SAGE Publications | year=2015 | isbn=978-1-4833-4638-0 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ooVNCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA382 | page=382}}</ref>--> <ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica">{{cite Britannica | url=https://www.britannica.com/science/berry-plant-reproductive-body | title=Berry (Plant reproductive body) | access-date=16 August 2015}}</ref> }}

== Further reading == * {{Cite book |last= Bowling |first= B.L. |date= 2005 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=7G8cAQAACAAJ |title= The Berry Grower's Companion |publisher= Timber Press |isbn= 978-0-88192-726-9 }}

== External links == {{commons and category|Berries|Berries}} {{wiktionary}}

* {{official website|http://nationalberrycrops.org}} of the National Berry Crops Initiative (United States)

{{Fruits}} {{Non-timber forest products}} {{Botany}}

{{Authority control}}

Category:Berries Category:Fruit morphology Category:Non-timber forest products