{{Short description|Type of public marketplace}} {{About||the version control system|GNU Bazaar|other uses}} {{Redirect2|Suq|Souq|other uses|Suq (disambiguation)|and|Souq (company)}} {{Use British English|date=August 2025}} [[File:Turkey (68742801).jpeg|thumb|upright=1.3|The Grand Bazaar in Istanbul, Turkey]] A '''bazaar'''{{efn|{{Langx|fa|بازار|bâzâr}}; {{Langx|ar|بازار}}; {{Langx|ota|پازار|pazar}}; {{langx|uz|бозор/bozor}}; {{langx|hi|बाज़ार|translit=bāzār}}; {{langx|pa|ਬਜ਼ਾਰ।|translit=bazāra}}; {{langx|bn|বাজার|translit=bājār}}; {{langx|ur|بازار|translit=bazār}}; {{langx|ku| بازاڕ|bazar}}}} or '''souk'''{{efn|{{Langx|ar|سوق|sūq}}; {{Langx|he|שׁוּק|šūq}}. In English, the word can also be spelled '''souq''' or '''suq'''.}} is a marketplace consisting of multiple small stalls or shops,<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=bazaar|url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/bazaar|url-status=live|access-date=2021-10-13|website=www.collinsdictionary.com|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120622005410/http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/bazaar |archive-date=2012-06-22 }}</ref> especially in the Middle East,<ref>{{Cite web|title=bazaar|url=https://www.lexico.com/definition/bazaar|url-status=dead|access-date=2021-10-13|website=Lexico Dictionaries {{!}} English|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417110222/https://www.lexico.com/definition/bazaar |archive-date=2021-04-17 }}</ref><ref name=":0" /> the Balkans, Central Asia, North Africa and South Asia.<ref name=":0" /> They are traditionally located in vaulted or covered streets that have doors on each end and served as a city's central marketplace.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Bazaars and Bazaar Merchants {{!}} Encyclopedia.com |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/bazaars-and-bazaar-merchants |access-date=2021-10-13 |website=www.encyclopedia.com}}</ref>
The term ''bazaar'' originates from Persian, where it referred to a town's public market district.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bazaar {{!}} market|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/bazaar|access-date=2021-10-13|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en}}</ref> ''Bazaari'' refers collectively to the merchants, bankers and craftsmen who work in a bazaar. The term ''souk'' comes from Arabic and refers to marketplaces in the Middle East and North Africa.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=souk |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/souk |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090422205606/http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/souk |archive-date=2009-04-22 |access-date=2021-10-13 |website=Merriam-Webster |language=en}}</ref>
Although the lack of archaeological evidence has limited detailed studies of the evolution of bazaars, the earliest evidence for the existence of bazaars or souks dates to around 3000 BCE. Cities in the ancient Middle East appear to have contained commercial districts. Later, in the historic Islamic world, bazaars typically shared in common certain institutions, such as the position of the {{Transliteration|ar|muḥtasib}}, and certain architectural forms, such as roofed streets and courtyard buildings known in English as caravanserais. The exact details of their evolution and organization varied from region to region.
In the 18th and 19th centuries, Western interest in oriental culture led to the publication of many books about daily life in Middle Eastern countries. Souks, bazaars and the trappings of trade feature prominently in paintings and engravings, works of fiction and travel writing.
Shopping at a bazaar or market-place remains a central feature of daily life in many Middle-Eastern and South Asian cities and towns and the bazaar remains the beating heart of West Asian and South Asian life; in the Middle East, souks tend to be found in a city's old quarter. Bazaars and souks are often important tourist attractions. A number of bazaar districts have been listed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites due to their historical and/or architectural significance.
== Terminology ==
=== Bazaar === [[File:Sanandaj Bazaar.jpg|thumb|Bazaar in Sanandaj, Iran]] The origin of the word "bazaar" comes from New Persian ''bāzār'',<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=bazaar|title=bazaar - Origin and meaning of bazaar by Online Etymology Dictionary|website=www.etymonline.com|access-date=29 March 2018}}</ref><ref name="Ayto2009">{{cite book|first=John|last=Ayto|title=Word Origins|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hsRISNLSSHAC&pg=PT104|date=1 January 2009|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=978-1-4081-0160-5|page=104}}</ref> {{Langx|fa|بازار}} from Middle Persian ''wāzār'',<ref name="Daryaee2012">{{cite book|last=Daryaee|first=Touraj|title=The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jxd2Zr9Ilw8C&pg=PA8|date=16 February 2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-973215-9|page=8}}</ref> from Old Persian ''wāčar'',<ref>{{cite web|title=Bazaar|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/bazaar|publisher=Dictionary.com, LLC|access-date=11 March 2015}}</ref> from Proto-Indo-Iranian ''*wahā-čarana''.<ref name="BenvenisteLallot1973">{{cite book |last1=Benveniste |first1=Émile |last2=Lallot |first2=Jean |title=Indo-European Language and Society |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kvawAAAAIAAJ |date=1 January 1973 |publisher=University of Miami Press |isbn=978-0-87024-250-2 |chapter=Chapter Nine: Two Ways of Buying |chapter-url=http://chs.harvard.edu/CHS/article/display/3900 |at=Section Three: Purchase}}</ref> The term spread from Persian into Arabic, now used throughout the Middle East and in the Indian subcontinent.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |date=2024-04-06 |title=bazaar |url=https://www.britannica.com/money |access-date=2024-05-25 |website=Britannica Money |language=en}}</ref>
In North America and Europe, the English word "bazaar" can denote more generically a shop or market selling miscellaneous items. It can also refer in particular to a sale or fair to raise money for charitable purposes (e.g. charity bazaar).<ref>{{Cite web |title=bazaar |url=https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/bazaar |access-date=25 May 2024 |website=Oxford Learner's Dictionaries}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date= |title=Bazaar |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bazaar |access-date=2024-05-25 |website=Merriam-Webster Dictionary |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":6" />
=== Souk === [[File:PS-Amman 6501.JPG|thumb|Souk in Amman, Jordan]] The word "souk" in the Arabic-speaking world is roughly equivalent to "bazaar".<ref name=":0522" /> The Arabic word is a loan from Aramaic "šūqā" ("street, market"), itself a loanword from the Akkadian "sūqu" ("street").<ref>{{Cite book |last=Corriente |first=Federico |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N_hAzIqriakC&dq=arabic+suq+etymology&pg=PA25 |title=Dictionary of Arabic and Allied Loanwords: Spanish, Portuguese, Catalan, Galician and Kindred Dialects |publisher=Brill |year=2008 |isbn=978-90-04-16858-9 |pages=25 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Huehnergard |first=John |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hyU9EAAAQBAJ&dq=arabic+souk+etymology&pg=PA1506 |title=History of the Akkadian Language (2 vols) |publisher=Brill |year=2021 |isbn=978-90-04-44521-5 |editor-last=Vita |editor-first=Juan-Pablo |volume=2 |pages=1506 |language=en |chapter=The Legacy of Akkadian}}</ref> The Arabic word ''{{Transliteration|ar|sūq}}'' was then borrowed into English via French ({{Lang|fr|souk}}) by the 19th century.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Harper |first=Douglas |title=Etymology of souk |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/souk |access-date=2024-05-25 |website=Online Etymology Dictionary |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |author1=Press Boulevard Company |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0t5ZAAAAMAAJ |title=The Oxford Essential Dictionary of Foreign Terms in English |author2=Oxford University Press |date=1999 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-425-16995-7 |language=en |chapter=souk}}</ref> The English word can also be spelled "suq" or "souq".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hamza |first=Neveen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wah6EAAAQBAJ&pg=PT20 |title=Architecture and Urban Transformation of Historical Markets: Cases from the Middle East and North Africa |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2022 |isbn=978-1-000-64546-0 |pages=2 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Waite |first=Maurice |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mYicAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA695 |title=Paperback Oxford English Dictionary |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-19-964094-2 |pages=695 |language=en}}</ref>
In Modern Standard Arabic the term {{Transliteration|ar|al-sūq}} refers to markets in both the physical sense and the abstract economic sense (e.g., an Arabic-speaker would speak of the ''{{Transliteration|ar|sūq}}'' in the old city as well as the ''{{Transliteration|ar|sūq}}'' for oil, and would call the concept of the free market {{Lang|ar|السوق الحرّ}}, {{Transliteration|ar|as-sūq al-ḥurr}}).
In Israel, the term ''shuk'' or ''shuq'' ({{Langx|he|שׁוּק|translit=šūq}}) shares a common Aramaic origin with the Arabic ''souk'', and holds a prominent role in everyday life.{{Citation needed|date=May 2024|reason=citation needed in particular to verify etymology of the Hebrew word}} Markets such as Mahane Yehuda in Jerusalem are often covered rows of stalls much like those seen elsewhere in the region, selling produce, spices, halvah, and even clothing.
==== Variations ====
In northern Morocco, the Spanish corruption ''socco'' is often used as in the Grand Socco and Petit Socco of Tangiers.<ref>{{Cite book |last= |first= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=voh5EAAAQBAJ&pg=PT228 |title=DK Eyewitness Morocco |publisher=DK |year=2022 |isbn=978-0-7440-8192-3 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Shoemake |first=Josh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S7iKDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT61 |title=Tangier: A Literary Guide For Travellers |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-85773-376-4 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Rivière |first=Paul-Louis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DGAQAQAAIAAJ |title=Villes et solitudes: croquis d'Europe et d'Afrique |publisher=Plon, Nourrit et Cie |year=1908 |location=Paris |pages=219 |language=fr |quote=Socco est l'altération espagnole du mot arabe souk (...)}}</ref>
[[File:Mahane Yehuda (I) (45298221191).jpg|thumb|Shuk Mahane Yehuda, a popular ''shuk'' in Jerusalem, often simply called ''the Shuk'' ({{Langx|he|השוק|translit=ha-Šūq}})]]
== History ==
=== Origins in antiquity ===
Scholar Mohammad Gharipour has pointed out that in spite of the centrality of bazaars in Persian history, relatively little is known due to the lack of archaeological evidence.<ref name=":5" /> Historical records document the concept of a bazaar existing in Iran as early as 3000 BCE, where some large cities contained districts dedicated to trade and commerce.<ref name=":4"/><ref name=":52">{{Cite book |last=Gharipour |first=Mohammad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GGpjEAAAQBAJ |title=The Bazaar in the Islamic City: Design, Culture, and History |publisher=American University in Cairo Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-61797-346-8 |editor-last=Gharipour |editor-first=Mohammad |pages=3–15 |language=en |chapter=Introduction – The Culture and Politics of Commerce: Bazaars in the Islamic world}}</ref> Archeological data also suggests the existence of market districts in ancient Mesopotamia.<ref name=":52" /> Markets centers must have existed in Egypt to conduct international trade, but no archeological evidence for them has been found.<ref name=":52" /> In Achaemenid Persia (550–330 BCE), documents indicate that crafts were sold in markets close to Persepolis.<ref name=":52" /> A network of bazaars had sprung up alongside ancient caravan trade routes. Bazaars located along these trade routes formed networks, linking major cities with each other and in which goods, culture, people and information could be exchanged.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hanachi |first1=Pirooz |last2=Yadollahi |first2=Solmaz |date=2011 |title=Tabriz Historical Bazaar in the context of change |url=http://openarchive.icomos.org/id/eprint/1331/ |journal=ICOMOS Conference Proceedings |language=en |location=Paris, France |pages=1028–1039}}</ref> Sources from around the same era also indicate that ancient Greeks regulated trade in areas at the center of their cities around ''stoa'' buildings. The ideas of Greek city planning were spread to the Middle East during the Seleucid period, following the conquests of Alexander the Great.<ref name=":52" />
The Greek historian, Herodotus, noted that in Egypt, roles were reversed compared with other cultures and Egyptian women frequented the market and carried on trade, while the men remain at home weaving cloth.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Thamis |date=18 January 2012 |title=Herodotus on the Egyptians |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/article/86/herodotus-on-the-egyptians/ |access-date=2023-06-15 |website=World History Encyclopedia |language=en}}</ref> He also described The Babylonian Marriage Market.<ref>''Herodotus: The History of Herodotus,'' Book I (The Babylonians), c. 440BC, translated by G.C. Macaulay, c. 1890</ref>{{Relevance inline|date=March 2022|reason=Is this relevant to a discussion of bazaars/souqs in the Middle East? Is Herodotus mentioning something that resembled a bazaar or is he simply talking about any market}}
Sassanid rule in Iran was an important period for the development of urbanization and commerce.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Pourjafar |first1=Mohammadreza |last2=Amini |first2=Masoome |last3=Hatami Varzaneh |first3=Elham |last4=Mahdavinejad |first4=Mohammadjavad |date=2014-03-01 |title=Role of bazaars as a unifying factor in traditional cities of Iran: The Isfahan bazaar |journal=Frontiers of Architectural Research |language=en |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=10–19 |doi=10.1016/j.foar.2013.11.001 |issn=2095-2635|doi-access=free }}</ref> In Sassanid Iran, the bazaar was usually the heart of a town or city, where it spread outwards and affected the development of other neighbourhoods. The bazaar usually contained, or was adjoined by, an open-air plaza that served as a forum of socio-economic activity.<ref name=":4" />
Historically, bazaars were also held outside cities at locations where incoming caravans stopped and merchants displayed their goods for sale.{{Citation needed|date=March 2022|reason=This is a traditional common practice in many places, but is there a source saying when (and where) this became common?}} Bazaars were established at caravanserai, places where a caravan or caravans arrived and remained for rest and refreshments. Since this might be infrequent, souks often extended beyond buying and selling goods to include major festivals involving various cultural and social activities. Any bazaar may serve a social function as being a place for people to meet in, in addition to its commercial function.<ref name=":522">{{Cite book |last=Gharipour |first=Mohammad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GGpjEAAAQBAJ |title=The Bazaar in the Islamic City: Design, Culture, and History |publisher=American University in Cairo Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-61797-346-8 |editor-last=Gharipour |editor-first=Mohammad |pages=14–15 |language=en |chapter=Introduction – The Culture and Politics of Commerce: Bazaars in the Islamic world}}</ref>
In pre-Islamic Arabia, two types of souks existed: permanent urban markets and temporary seasonal markets. The temporary seasonal markets were held at specific times of the year and became associated with particular types of produce. Suq Hijr in Bahrain was noted for its dates while Suq 'Adan was known for its spices and perfumes. In spite of the centrality of the Middle East in the history of souks, relatively little is known due to the lack of archaeological evidence. However, documentary sources point to permanent marketplaces in cities from as early as 550 BCE.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Gharipour |first=Mohammad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GGpjEAAAQBAJ |title=The Bazaar in the Islamic City: Design, Culture, and History |publisher=American University in Cairo Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-61797-346-8 |editor-last=Gharipour |editor-first=Mohammad |pages=4–5 |language=en |chapter=Introduction – The Culture and Politics of Commerce: Bazaars in the Islamic world}}</ref>
=== Islamic period === [[File:خان مرجان.jpg|thumb|Khan al-Mirjan in Baghdad (14th century), one of the oldest preserved urban commercial structures in the Islamic world]] According to traditional Muslim narratives, Muhammad established a market place ({{Transliteration|ar|sūq}}) in Medina shortly after arriving there during the Hijrah in 622 CE. He designated an open, unbuilt space as the market area and forbade both the construction of permanent structures and the levying of taxes in this area.<ref name=":0522" /> Eight years later, he is said to have appointed a market inspector ({{Transliteration|ar|'āmil 'alā l-sūq}}), a position that likely evolved into the later {{Transliteration|ar|muḥtasib}} in Islamic cities, an official in charge of overseeing public morality and regulating weights and measures.<ref name=":0522" />
Despite the importance of the bazaar to economic life and the prominence of marketplace terminology in the Quran, not much is known about the early history of bazaars and it remains a topic of ongoing research.<ref name=":0522" /> Most of the surviving urban commercial structures in the Islamic world date from the 16th century or later, though some preserved urban caravanserais (commonly known as a {{Transliteration|ar|funduq}}, {{Transliteration|ar|khān}}, or {{Transliteration|ar|wakāla}}) date from earlier periods.<ref name=":242">{{Cite book |last= |first= |title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=9780195309911 |editor-last=M. Bloom |editor-first=Jonathan |volume=2 |location= |pages=464–465 |language=en |chapter=Market, covered |editor-last2=S. Blair |editor-first2=Sheila}}</ref> The oldest of these is the Khan al-Mirjan in Baghdad, built in 1359 as part of a larger architectural complex.<ref name=":24">{{Cite book |last= |first= |title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=9780195309911 |editor-last=M. Bloom |editor-first=Jonathan |volume=1 |location= |pages=353–355 |language=en |chapter=Caravanserai |editor-last2=S. Blair |editor-first2=Sheila}}</ref> [[File:Al-Hamidiyeh souq, Damascus, Syria - 2.jpg|left|thumb|Al-Hamidiyah Souq in Damascus]] Muhammad's prohibition against constructing permanent buildings and levying taxes in the market began to be disregarded as early as the Umayyad period (7th to 8th centuries). The Umayyad caliphs Mu'awiya I and Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik both built structures in the market of Medina and levied taxes there, while purpose-built markets were built in early Islamic cities further abroad such as Basra in Iraq, Fustat in Egypt, and Kairouan in Tunisia. This process seems to have accelerated during the reign of Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik ({{Reign|724|743}}) in particular.<ref name=":0522" /> Markets that sold the most important or expensive goods were usually located near the city's central Friday mosque.<ref name=":0522" /> In some cities, such as Cairo and Aleppo, the main bazaar was initially focused along one important street and then progressively grew and branched off into the surrounding streets.<ref name=":242" />
During the Islamic period in Iran, bazaars developed along the same lines as those of the Sassanid period.<ref name=":4" /> Up to the 11th century, the bazaar developed more commonly in the suburbs outside the city walls that enclosed the {{Transliteration|fa|shahristān}}, the formal city. This was especially true in Central Asia, though there were exceptions in some regions where the bazaar was grouped with the citadel and the city's Friday mosque inside the city walls.<ref name=":05222" /> After the 11th century, the growing importance of the suburbs and the commercial districts resulted in most of them being enclosed within newly expanded city walls. From the 10th century onward, the bazaar became the financial center of a city and was heavily patronized and developed by ruling elites. The grouping of a bazaar, citadel, and Friday mosque also became more common.<ref name=":05222" />[[File:Old Bazaar of Prishtina 7.jpg|thumb|The Old Bazaar of Pristina, Kosovo]] In the Mamluk Sultanate (13th to 16th centuries) and in the Ottoman Empire (14th to 20th centuries), the construction of commercial buildings in and around the bazaar was often sponsored by sultans, ruling elites, or by members of the Ottoman royal family. The revenues generated by these buildings were typically earmarked to support the upkeep of religious complexes sponsored by these same patrons, through the legal framework of a ''waqf'' (legal endowment).<ref name=":05223" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Behrens-Abouseif |first=Doris |title=Cairo of the Mamluks: A History of Architecture and its Culture |publisher=The American University in Cairo Press |year=2007 |isbn=9789774160776 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite book |title=Le Khan al-Khalili et ses environs: Un centre commercial et artisanal au Caire du XIIIe au XXe siècle |publisher=Institut français d'archéologie orientale |year=1999 |editor-last=Denoix |editor-first=Sylvie |location=Cairo |editor-last2=Depaule |editor-first2=Jean-Charles |editor-last3=Tuchscherer |editor-first3=Michel}}</ref>
=== 21st century === [[File:Morocco Fes Camel.jpg|thumb|upright|Mule moving goods around in the car-free Medina quarter, Fes, Morocco]] In the Middle East, the bazaar is considered to be "the beating heart of the city and a symbol of Islamic architecture and culture of high significance."<ref>Karimi, M., Moradi, E. and Mehr, R., "Bazaar, As a Symbol of Culture and the Architecture of Commercial Spaces in Iranian-Islamic Civilization,"</ref> Today, bazaars are popular sites for tourists and some of these ancient bazaars have been listed as world heritage sites or national monuments on the basis of their historical, cultural or architectural value.
The Medina of Fez, Morocco, which includes numerous long market streets (e.g. Tala'a Kebira) and bazaar areas (e.g. Kissariat al-Kifah), was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1981.<ref>UNESCO, ''Medina of Fez,'' https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/170</ref> Al-Madina Souk in Aleppo is the largest covered historic market in the world, with an approximate length of 13 kilometers.<ref>{{cite web |title=eAleppo: The old Souks of Aleppo (in Arabic) |url=http://www.esyria.sy/ealeppo/index.php?p=stories&category=round&filename=201010291220021 |access-date=2013-10-05 |publisher=Esyria.sy}}</ref>{{Additional citation needed|date=June 2023|reason=Cited source may be partly promotional in nature. An exceptional claim requires more support from reliable sources.}} It is part of the Ancient Aleppo, a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1986 in Syria.<ref name="Aleppo plan">{{cite web |title=eAleppo:Aleppo city major plans throughout the history |url=http://www.esyria.sy/ealeppo/index.php?p=stories&category=misc&filename=201009251220032 |language=ar}}</ref> The Bazaar complex in Tabriz, Iran, was listed by UNESCO in 2010.<ref>UNESCO, ''Tabriz Historic Bazaar Complex,'' https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1346</ref> The Bazaar of Qaisiyariye in Lar, Iran, is on the tentative list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites since 2007.<ref>{{cite web |last1=UNESCO |title=Bazaar of Qaisariye in Laar - UNESCO World Heritage Center |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5196/ |website=whc.unesco.org |language=en}}</ref> Kemeraltı Bazaar in İzmir was placed on tentative list in 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/culture/turkeys-bazaar-added-to-temporary-unesco-heritage-list/1807947|title=Turkey's bazaar added to temporary UNESCO Heritage list|website=www.aa.com.tr}}</ref>
== Organization and institutions == {{See also|Islamic economics}}Shopping at a souk or market place is part of daily life throughout much of the Middle East.<ref>"Doha's Sprawling Souk Enters the Modern Era, ''The National'' [UAE edition], 25 February 2011, " https://www.thenationalnews.com/business/travel-and-tourism/doha-s-sprawling-souk-enters-the-modern-age-1.420872; Ramkumar, E.S., "Eid Shopping Reaches Crescendo," ''Arab News,'' 13 October 2007, http://www.arabnews.com/node/304533</ref> Prices are commonly set by bargaining, also known as haggling, between buyers and sellers.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Islam |first=Sanam |date=2010-03-27 |title=Perfecting the haggle: why it's always worth walking away |url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/lifestyle/perfecting-the-haggle-why-it-s-always-worth-walking-away-1.546397 |access-date=2023-07-03 |website=The National |language=en}}</ref>
Bazaars or souks are traditionally divided into specialized sections dealing in specific types of product, each usually housed in a few narrow streets and named after the product it specializes in such as the gold souk, the textile souk, the spice souk, the leather souk, the booksellers' souk, etc. This promotes competition among sellers and helps buyers easily compare prices.<ref name=":524" /> Merchants specialized in each trade were also organized into guilds, which provided support to merchants but also to clients. The exact details of the organizations varied from region to region. Each guild had rules that members were expected to follow, but they were loose enough to allow for competition. Guilds also fulfilled some functions similar to trade unions and were able to negotiate with the government on behalf of merchants or represent their interests when needed.<ref name=":524" />
Though each neighbourhood within the city would have a local souk selling food and other essentials, the main bazaar was one of the central structures of a large city, selling durable goods, luxuries and providing services such as money exchange. Workshops where goods for sale are produced (in the case of a merchant selling locally made products) are typically located away from the souk itself.
Historically, in Islamic cities, the {{Transliteration|ar|muḥtasib}} was the official in charge of regulating and policing the bazaar and other aspects of urban life. They monitored things such as weights and measures, pricing, cleanliness, noise, and traffic circulation, as well as being responsible for other issues of public morality.<ref name=":0522" /><ref name=":524">{{Cite book |last=Gharipour |first=Mohammad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GGpjEAAAQBAJ |title=The Bazaar in the Islamic City: Design, Culture, and History |publisher=American University in Cairo Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-61797-346-8 |editor-last=Gharipour |editor-first=Mohammad |pages=1–50 |language=en |chapter=Introduction – The Culture and Politics of Commerce: Bazaars in the Islamic world}}</ref> They also investigated complaints about cheating or the quality of goods.<ref name=":524" /> The equivalent official could be known by other titles in different regions, such as the ''kedkhoda'' in Istanbul or the ''amir-i bazariyan'' in Delhi. In the Maghreb (northwestern Africa), the {{Transliteration|ar|muḥtasib}} also shared responsibilities with other officials such as the ''qadi'' or the {{Transliteration|ar|hakim}}.<ref name=":524" />
== Layout and architecture == [[File:Sebah, Pascal (1823-1886) - Khan el-Khalili, Cairo - ca. 1880s.JPG|thumb|Khan el-Khalili, the central bazaar of Cairo (photo from 1880s)]]Permanent bazaars were established in urban zones, usually within the city walls and close to the heart of the city. In much of the Middle East and North Africa, the bazaar is a network of interconnected spaces, including streets and buildings, with diverse architectural forms. Its boundaries are not sharply defined and can vary according to circumstance, as the bazaar is closely integrated with its urban surroundings and with other important institutions of the city.<ref name=":0522">{{Cite book |last=O'Meara |first=Simon |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three |publisher=Brill |year=2011 |isbn=9789004161658 |editor-last=Fleet |editor-first=Kate |location= |pages= |language=en |chapter=Bazaar, Arab lands |editor-last2=Krämer |editor-first2=Gudrun |editor-last3=Matringe |editor-first3=Denis |editor-last4=Nawas |editor-first4=John |editor-last5=Rowson |editor-first5=Everett}}</ref> Although there is great variety among the bazaars of this region, there are three recurring elements, in addition to the general network of market streets. One element is the individual shops or booths that line each side of a market street. The shops are usually small spaces open to the street and occupied by merchants. They are typically equipped with large shutters which can be closed and locked when the shopkeeper is away.<ref name=":0522" /> Another element is a more secure market area, usually centrally located and consisting of streets that were covered or roofed. This complex is variably known as a {{Transliteration|ar|qayṣariyya}}'', {{Lang|tr|bedesten}}'', or ''{{Transliteration|ar|khān}}'', depending on the city or historical period. It usually hosted the most prestigious and profitable trades such as jewelry, perfumes, and textiles. In order to protect these goods, the entrances to this area could be closed and locked at night or in times of danger.<ref name=":0522" /> The other recurring element is the presence of courtyard buildings entered via a single large doorway. Often translated into English as a caravanserai, this type of building is known in different regions as a {{Transliteration|ar|funduq}}, {{Transliteration|ar|khān}}, {{Transliteration|ar|samsara}}, or {{Transliteration|ar|wakāla}}. They could serve a variety of functions including an inn for travelers and merchants, a manufacturing center, a trade venue, or a warehouse.<ref name=":0522" /> [[File:Mozaffariyeh, Bazzar of Tabriz in Iran.jpg|left|thumb|A covered market street in the Bazaar of Tabriz]] In Iran and Central Asia, the permanent bazaar is likewise in the centre of a city and had common architectural elements. These bazaars acted as financial centers of the city and were traditionally overseen by the state.<ref name=":05222">{{Cite book |last=Floor |first=Willem |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three |publisher=Brill |year=2011 |isbn=9789004161658 |editor-last=Fleet |editor-first=Kate |location= |pages= |language=en |chapter=Bazaar, Iran and Central Asia |editor-last2=Krämer |editor-first2=Gudrun |editor-last3=Matringe |editor-first3=Denis |editor-last4=Nawas |editor-first4=John |editor-last5=Rowson |editor-first5=Everett}}</ref> Some Iranian bazaars are organized around one long market street from which other market streets branch off (e.g. in Isfahan or Tehran), while others are large rectangular zones with a grid-like network of parallel and intersecting streets (e.g. as in Tabriz).<ref name=":05222" /> The streets are lined with structures of one or two storeys that contain spaces for shops. The streets are typically roofed with brick vaults, pierced by skylights to allow for light and air circulation. The shops are often adjacent or connected to the workshops where the goods are also produced, so that manufacturing and retail are often concentrated in the same areas, though some production (especially of textiles) was also distributed in other parts of the city.<ref name=":05222" /> Like the bazaars further west, there were also many ''khān''s (caravanserais) built in the area. They acted as warehouses, production centers, wholesale centers, hostels for merchants, and offices for conducting business.<ref name=":05222" /> [[File:Selimiye complex arasta DSCF5873.jpg|thumb|The ''arasta'' of the Selimiye Mosque complex in Edirne]] In the cities that developed under the Ottoman Empire, there was generally one central bazaar area, known in Turkish as the {{Lang|tr|çarşı}}. The Grand Bazaar in Istanbul, known locally as the {{Lang|tr|Kapalıçarşı}} ('covered market'), is a famous example. Additionally, several types of market structures were common: the {{Lang|tr|bedesten}}, the {{Lang|tr|arasta}}, and the {{Lang|tr|han}} (Turkish cognate of ''khān'').<ref name=":05223">{{Cite book |last=Kuban |first=Doğan |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three |publisher=Brill |year=2011 |isbn=9789004161658 |editor-last=Fleet |editor-first=Kate |location= |pages= |language=en |chapter=Bazaar, Anatolia and the Balkans |editor-last2=Krämer |editor-first2=Gudrun |editor-last3=Matringe |editor-first3=Denis |editor-last4=Nawas |editor-first4=John |editor-last5=Rowson |editor-first5=Everett}}</ref> The Ottoman ''bedesten'' was a solid stone building, typically rectangular and roofed by domes, with shops inside. Like the {{Transliteration|ar|qayṣariyya}} or ''{{Lang|tr|bedesten}}'' in other regions, it hosted the most important and luxurious trades.<ref name=":05223" /> The {{Lang|tr|arasta}} is usually an elongated market structure or market street with shops lining its façades. ''Arasta''s could be independent markets built outside the main bazaar area, such as those built as part of large religious complexes like the Selimiye Mosque complex in Edirne or the Sultanahmet Mosque complex in Istanbul. The Spice Bazaar or {{Lang|tr|Mısır Çarşısı}} ('Egyptian Market') in Istanbul is also one of the largest and best-known examples.<ref name=":05223" /> The {{Lang|tr|han}} is similar in function to other ''{{Transliteration|ar|khān}}'' or caravanserai buildings elsewhere, with a courtyard enclosed by two storeys. The ground floor was usually used for storage and for stabling horses, while the upper floor housed merchants.<ref name=":05223" />
== Temporary souks == [[File:Souk Al Milh, Sana, Yemen (4324865585).jpg|thumb|Cayenne peppers at the Souk Al Milh in Sanaa, Yemen]]
A temporary, seasonal souk is held at a set time that might be yearly, monthly or weekly. The oldest souks were set up annually, and were typically general festivals held outside cities. For example, Souk Ukadh was held yearly in pre-Islamic times in an area between Mecca and Ta’if during the sacred month of Dhu al-Qi'dah. While a busy market, it was more famous for its poetry competitions, judged by prominent poets such as Al-Khansa and Al-Nabigha. An example of an Islamic annual souk is Al Mirbid just outside Basra, also famed for its poetry competitions in addition to its storytelling activities.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Nejad |first=Reza Masoudi |date=2005 |title=Social bazaar and commercial bazaar: comparative study of spatial role of Iranian bazaar in the historical cities in different socio-economical context |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228469734 |journal=5th International Space Syntax Symposium Proceedings |location=Netherlands |publisher=Techne Press}}</ref> Temporary souks tended to become known for specific types of produce. For example, Suq Hijr in Bahrain was noted for its dates while Suq 'Adan was known for its spices and perfumes.<ref name=":523">{{Cite book |last=Gharipour |first=Mohammad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GGpjEAAAQBAJ |title=The Bazaar in the Islamic City: Design, Culture, and History |publisher=American University in Cairo Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-61797-346-8 |editor-last=Gharipour |editor-first=Mohammad |page=4|chapter=Introduction – The Culture and Politics of Commerce: Bazaars in the Islamic world}}</ref> Political, economic and social changes have left only the small seasonal souks outside villages and small towns, primarily selling livestock and agricultural products.
Weekly markets have continued to function throughout the Arab world. Most of them are named from the day of the week on which they are held. They usually have open spaces specifically designated for their use inside cities. Examples of surviving markets are the Wednesday Market in Amman that specializes in the sale of used products, the Ghazl market held every Friday in Baghdad specializing in pets; the Fina’ Market in Marrakesh offers performance acts such as singing, music, acrobats and circus activities.
In tribal areas, where seasonal souks operated, neutrality from tribal conflicts was usually declared for the period of operation of a souk to permit the unhampered exchange of surplus goods. Some of the seasonal markets were held at specific times of the year and became associated with particular types of produce such as Suq Hijr in Bahrain, noted for its dates while Suq 'Adan was known for its spices and perfumes. In spite of the centrality of the Middle Eastern market place, relatively little is known due to the lack of archaeological evidence.<ref name=":5" />
== In art and literature – Orientalism == {{Further|Orientalism}}
During the 18th and 19th centuries, Europeans conquered and excavated parts of North Africa and the Levant. These regions now make up what is called the Middle East, but in the past were known as the ''Orient.'' Europeans sharply divided peoples into two broad groups – the ''European West'' (the ''Occident'', ultimately from the Latin language) and the ''East'' (or ''Orient''); ''us'' and the ''other.'' Europeans often saw Orientals as the opposite of Western civilization; the peoples could be threatening- they were "despotic, static and irrational whereas Europe was viewed as democratic, dynamic and rational."<ref>Nanda, S. and Warms, E.L., ''Cultural Anthropology,'' Cengage Learning, 2010, p. 330</ref> At the same time, the Orient was seen as exotic, mysterious, a place of fables and beauty. This fascination with the other gave rise to a genre of painting known as Orientalism. A proliferation of both Oriental fiction and travel writing occurred during the early modern period.
===Subject-matter===
Many of these works were lavishly illustrated with engravings of every day scenes of Oriental lifestyles, including scenes of market places and market trade.<ref>Houston, C., ''New Worlds Reflected: Travel and Utopia in the Early Modern Period,'' Routledge, 2016</ref> Artists focused on the exotic beauty of the land – the markets, caravans and snake charmers. Islamic architecture also became favorite subject matter. Some of these works were propaganda designed to justify European imperialism in the East, however many artists relied heavily on their everyday experiences for inspiration in their artworks.<ref>Meagher, J., "Orientalism in Nineteenth-Century Art," [The Metropolitan Museum of Art Essay], Online: http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/euor/hd_euor.htm</ref> For example, Charles D'Oyly, who was born in India, published the ''Antiquities of Dacca'' featuring a series of 15 engraved plates of Dacca [now Dhaka, Bangladesh] featuring scenes of markets, commerce, buildings and streetscapes.<ref>D'Oyly, Charles, ''Antiquities of Dacca,'' London, J. Landseer, 1814 as cited in Bonham's ''Fine Books and Manuscripts Catalogue,'' 2012, https://www.bonhams.com/auctions/20048/lot/2070/</ref> European society generally frowned on nude painting – but harems, concubines and slave markets, presented as quasi-documentary works, satisfied European desires for pornographic art. The Oriental female wearing a veil was a particularly tempting subject because she was hidden from view, adding to her mysterious allure.<ref>Nanda, S. and Warms, E.L., ''Cultural Anthropology,'' Cengage Learning, 2010, pp 330–331</ref>
===Notable Orientalist artists===
Notable artists in the Orientalist genre include: Jean-Léon Gérôme Delacroix (1824–1904), Alexandre-Gabriel Decamps (1803–1860), Frederic Leighton (1830–1896), Eugène Alexis Girardet 1853-1907 and William Holman Hunt (1827–1910) who all found inspiration in Oriental street scenes, trading and commerce. French painter Jean-Étienne Liotard visited Istanbul in the 17th century and painted pastels of Turkish domestic scenes. British painter John Frederick Lewis who lived for several years in a traditional mansion in Cairo, painted highly detailed works showing realistic genre scenes of Middle Eastern life. Edwin Lord Weeks was a notable American example of a 19th-century artist and author in the Orientalism genre. His parents were wealthy tea and spice merchants who were able to fund his travels and interest in painting. In 1895 Weeks wrote and illustrated a book of travels titled ''From the Black Sea through Persia and India.'' Other notable painters in the Orientalist genre who included scenes of street life and market-based trade in their work are Jean-Léon Gérôme Delacroix (1824–1904), Alexandre-Gabriel Decamps (1803–1860), Frederic Leighton (1830–1896), Eugène Alexis Girardet 1853–1907 and William Holman Hunt (1827–1910), who all found inspiration in Oriental street scenes, trading and commerce.<ref>Davies, K., ''Orientalists: Western Artists in Arabia, the Sahara, Persia,'' New York, Laynfaroh, 2005; Meagher, J., "Orientalism in Nineteenth-Century Art," [The Metropolitan Museum of Art Essay], Online: http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/euor/hd_euor.htm</ref>
=== Orientalist literature ===
A proliferation of both Oriental fiction and travel writing occurred during the early modern period.<ref>Houston, C., ''New Worlds Reflected: Travel and Utopia in the Early Modern Period,'' Routledge, 2016</ref>
Many English visitors to the Orient wrote narratives around their travels. British Romantic literature in the Orientalism tradition has its origins in the early eighteenth century, with the first translations of ''The Arabian Nights'' (translated into English from the French in 1705–08). The popularity of this work inspired authors to develop a new genre, the Oriental tale. Samuel Johnson's ''History of Rasselas, Prince of Abyssinia,'' (1759) is mid-century example of the genre.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Norton Anthology of English Literature: The Romantic Age: Topic 4: Overview |url=https://www.wwnorton.com/college/english/nael/romantic/topic_4/welcome.htm |website=www.wwnorton.com}}</ref> Byron's ''Oriental Tales,'' is another example of the Romantic Orientalism genre.<ref>Kidwai, A.R., ''Literary Orientalism: A Companion,'' New Delhi, Viva Books, 2009, {{ISBN|978-813091264-6}}</ref>
Although these works were purportedly non-fiction, they were notoriously unreliable. Many of these accounts provided detailed descriptions of market places, trading and commerce.<ref>MacLean, G., ''The Rise of Oriental Travel: English Visitors to the Ottoman Empire, 1580–1720,'' Palgrave, 2004, p. 6</ref> Examples of travel writing include: ''Les Mysteres de L'Egypte Devoiles'' by Olympe Audouard published in 1865<ref>Audouard, O. (de Jouval), ''Les Mystères de l'Égypte Dévoilés'', (French Edition) (originally published in 1865), Elibron Classics, 2006</ref> and Jacques Majorelle's ''Road Trip Diary of a Painter in the Atlas and the Anti-Atlas'' published in 1922<ref>Marcilhac, F., ''La Vie et l'Oeuvre de Jacques Majorelle: 1886–1962,'' [The Orientalists Volume 7], ARC Internationale edition, 1988.</ref>
=== Gallery of paintings and drawings === <gallery class="center" mode="packed" caption=""> File:The Moorish Bazaar.jpg|''The Moorish Bazaar'', painting by Edwin Lord Weeks, 1873 File:Street Scene in India.JPG|''Street Scene in India'', by Edwin Lord Weeks, circa 1885 File:Cashmere Travellers in a Street of Delhi.jpg|''Cashmere Travellers in a Street of Delhi'' by Edwin Lord Weeks, 1880s File:'Claudius Bombarnac' by Léon Benett 28.jpg|''Bazaar in Samarkand'', illustration by Léon Benett for a Jules Verne novel, 1893 File:Alexandre Defaux - The Bazaar, 1856.jpg|''The Bazaar'', by Alexandre Defaux, 1856 File:Amadeo Preziosi - The Grand Bazaar - Google Art Project.jpg|''The Grand Bazaar'', Istanbul, by Amadeo Preziosi, late 19th century File:Amadeo Preziosi - The Silk Bazaar - Google Art Project.jpg|''The Silk Bazaar'' by Amedeo Preziosi, late 19th century File:Anton Robert Leinweber - Souk des étoffes, Tunis.jpg|''Souk des étoffes,'' Tunis by Anton Robert Leinweber, before 1921 File:Carpet Merchant in the Khan el Khaleel (1878) - TIMEA.jpg|''Carpet Merchant in the Khan el Khaleel'', from Georg Ebers, ''Egypt: Descriptive, Historical, and Picturesque,'' Vol. 1, 1878 File:Charles Wilda - Inside the Souk, Cairo 1892.jpg|''Inside the Souk'', Cairo by Charles Wilda, 1892 File:David Roberts bazaar coppersmiths.jpg|''Bazaar of the Coppersmiths'' in Cairo by David Roberts, 1838 File:David Roberts Bazaar El Moo Ristan.jpg|''Bazaar El Moo Ristan'' in Cairo, by David Roberts, 1838 File:Teemcheh.jpg|Timcheh Amin-o-Dowleh in the Kashan Bazaar, Iran, {{Circa|1800}} </gallery>
== List of bazaars and souks == {{Further|List of bazaars and souks}}
== See also == * List of Orientalist artists * Bazaari
Types of markets, bazaars and souks: * Haat bazaar – (also known as a ''hat'') an open air bazaar or market in South Asia. * Indoor swap meet - a regional American term for a bazaar-like market. * Landa bazaar – a terminal market or market for second hand goods (South Asia) * Meena Bazaar – a bazaar that raises money for non-profit organisations. * Pasar malam – a night market in Malaysia, Indonesia and Singapore that opens in the evening, typically held in the street in residential neighbourhoods. * Pasar pagi – a morning market, typically a wet market that trades from dawn until midday, found in Malaysia, Indonesia and Singapore. * Shōtengai - a style of Japanese commercial district, typically in the form of a local market street that is closed to vehicular traffic.
Markets and retail in general: * Marketplace * Shopping mall * Arcade – a covered passageway with stores along one or both sides. * History of marketing
==Notes== {{notelist}}
== References == {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}
== Further reading == * ''The Persian Bazaar: Veiled Space of Desire'' (Mage Publications) by Mehdi Khansari * ''The Morphology of the Persian Bazaar'' (Agah Publications) by Azita Rajabi. * {{cite journal|last=Assari|first=Ali|author2=T.M.Mahesh|title=Compararative Sustainability of Bazaar in Iranian Traditional Cities: Case Studies in Isfahan and Tabriz|journal=International Journal on Technical and Physical Problems of Engineering|date=December 2011|volume=3|issue=9|pages=18–24|url=http://www.iotpe.com/IJTPE/IJTPE-2011/IJTPE-Issue9-Vol3-No4-Dec2011/3-IJTPE-Issue9-Vol3-No4-Dec2011-pp18-24.pdf|access-date=6 January 2013}}
== External links == {{Wiktionary}} {{Commons category|Bazaars}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071230174333/http://www.iranchamber.com/architecture/bazaar_of_isfahan1.php Iran Chamber Society on Architecture of the Bazaar at Isfahan] (archived 30 December 2007) * {{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Bazaar |volume=3 |page=559}}
{{Islamic architecture}} {{Retail}} {{Authority control}}
Category:Bazaars Category:Islamic culture Category:Persian words and phrases Category:Iranian folklore Category:Shopping (activity)