Milkfish

{{Short description|Species of fish}} {{Redirect|Bangus|the valley in India|Bangus Valley}} {{For|the electronic musician|Underscores (musician)}} {{Speciesbox | name = Milkfish | fossil_range = {{Fossil range|63|0|refs=<ref name=GC25>{{Cite journal|last1=Guadarrama |first1=A. |last2=Cantalice |first2=K. M. |title=Two contemporaneous morphs of fossil ''Chanos'' Lacepède, 1803 (Gonorynchiformes, Chanidae) from Paleocene (Danian) outcrops near Palenque (Mexico) revealed by geometric morphometrics indicate conservatism in milkfishes after the K/Pg boundary |year=2025 |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=20 |issue=3 |at=e0313912 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0313912 |pmid=40043070 |pmc=11882075 |doi-access=free }}</ref>}}Early Paleocene–present | status = LC | status_system = IUCN3.1 | status_ref = <ref name=iucnredlist>{{cite iucn |author=Freyhof, J. |author2=Sparks, J.S. |author3=Kaymaram, F. |author4=Feary, D. |author5=Bishop, J. |author6=Al-Husaini, M. |author7=Almukhtar, M. |author8=Hartmann, S. |author9=Alam, S. |author10=Al-Khalaf, K. |date=2019 |title=''Chanos chanos'' |volume=2019 |article-number=e.T60324A151598011 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-2.RLTS.T60324A151598011.en |access-date=7 January 2025}}</ref> | image = Chanidae - Chanos chanos.JPG | image_caption = French Polynesia | image2 = Milkfish (Chanos chanos) locally called 'bangus' in a Philippine market.jpg | image2_caption = Milkfish (locally ''bangús'') in a Philippine fish market | genus = Chanos | parent_authority = Lacépède, 1803 | display_parents = 2 | species = chanos | authority = (Forsskål, 1775) | synonyms = *''Butirinus argenteus'' Jerdon, 1849 *''Butirinus maderaspatensis'' Jerdon, 1849 *''Chanos arabicus'' Lacepède, 1803 *''Chanos chloropterus'' Valenciennes, 1847 *''Chanos cyprinella'' Valenciennes, 1847 *''Chanos gardineri'' Regan, 1902 *''Chanos indicus'' (van Hasselt, 1823) *''Chanos lubina'' Valenciennes, 1847 *''Chanos mento'' Valenciennes, 1847 *''Chanos mossambicus'' (Peters, 1852) *''Chanos nuchalis'' Valenciennes, 1847 *''Chanos orientalis'' Valenciennes, 1847 *''Chanos salmoneus'' (Forster, 1801) *''Chanos salmonoides'' Günther, 1879 *''Cyprinus pala'' Cuvier, 1829 *''Cyprinus palah'' (Cuvier, 1829) *''Cyprinus tolo'' Cuvier, 1829 *''Leuciscus palah'' Cuvier, 1829 *''Leuciscus salmoneus'' (Forster, 1801) *''Leuciscus zeylonicus'' Bennett, 1833 *''Lutodeira chanos'' (Forsskål, 1775) *''Lutodeira chloropterus'' (Valenciennes, 1847) *''Lutodeira indica'' van Hasselt, 1823 *''Lutodeira mossambica'' Peters, 1852 *''Lutodeira mossambicus'' Peters, 1852 *''Lutodeira salmonea'' (Forster, 1801) *''Mugil chanos'' Forsskål, 1775 *''Mugil salmoneus'' Forster, 1801 }}

The '''milkfish''' ('''''Chanos chanos''''') is a widespread species of ray-finned fish found throughout the Indo-Pacific. It is the sole living species in the family Chanidae, and the only living member of the genus '''''Chanos'''''.<ref name=CoF>{{cite web |url=http://researcharchive.calacademy.org/research/Ichthyology/catalog/SpeciesByFamily.asp |title=Catalog of Fishes |editor=Eschmeyer, W. N. |editor2=R. Fricke |date=4 January 2016 |publisher=California Academy of Sciences |access-date=25 January 2016}}</ref><ref>{{FishBase family |family=Chanidae |month=October |year=2015}}</ref><ref name=Nelson>{{Cite book| last = Nelson| first = J. S.| title = Fishes of the World| author-link = Joseph S. Nelson| location = Hoboken, NJ| date = 2006| edition = 4th| publisher = John Wiley & Sons| isbn = 978-0-471-25031-9| pages=135–136}}</ref> The repeating scientific name (tautonym) is from Greek {{transliteration|grc|khanos}} ({{wikt-lang|grc|χάνος}} 'mouth').<ref>{{M-W|Chanidae}} "from Greek ''chanos'' mouth"</ref><ref name="JordanEvermann1896">{{cite book | author1 = David Starr Jordan |display-authors=etal | date = 1896 | title = The Fishes of North and Middle America, pt. 1 | publisher = Government Printing Office | page = 414 | oclc = 1052833 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=xaEbAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA414 |quote= from {{lang|grc|χάνος}}, the open mouth}}</ref> They are grouped in the order Gonorhynchiformes and are most closely related to the Ostariophysi—freshwater fishes such as carps, catfish, and loaches.<ref name = "EF"> Bagarinao, T. (1999). ''[http://hdl.handle.net/10862/2976 Ecology and farming of milkfish]''. Aquaculture Department, Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center.</ref>

The species has many common names. The Hawaiian name for the fish is ''awa'', and in Tahitian it is ''ava''. It is called ''bangús'' ({{IPA|tl|bɐˈŋus|lang}}) in the Philippines, where it is popularly known as the national fish, although the National Commission for Culture and the Arts has stated that this is not the case as it has no basis in Philippine law.<ref>{{cite web | last=Pangilinan | first=Leon Jr. | title=In Focus: 9 Facts You May Not Know About Philippine National Symbols | url=http://ncca.gov.ph/about-culture-and-arts/in-focus/9-facts-you-may-not-know-about-philippine-national-symbols/ | date=3 October 2014 | access-date=8 January 2019 | publisher=National Commission for Culture and the Arts | archive-date=26 November 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161126154959/http://ncca.gov.ph/about-culture-and-arts/in-focus/9-facts-you-may-not-know-about-philippine-national-symbols/ }}</ref> In the Nauruan language, it is referred to as {{transliteration|na|ibiya}}. Milkfish is also called ''bandeng'' or ''bolu'' in Indonesia.<ref name=FishBase/> ==Geographic distribution== thumb|left|Estimated geographical range of ''Chanos'' in the Indo-Pacific ''Chanos chanos'' occurs in the Indian Ocean and across the Pacific Ocean, from South Africa to Hawaii and the Marquesas, from California to the Galapagos, north to Japan, south to Australia. A single specimen was reported in 2012 in the eastern Mediterranean Sea.<ref>Atlas of Exotic Fishes in the Mediterranean Sea (''Chanos chanos''). 2nd Edition. 2021. 366p. CIESM Publishers, Paris, Monaco.https://ciesm.org/atlas/fishes_2nd_edition/Chanos_chanos.pdf</ref> In 1877, the California Fish and Game Commission introduced one hundred milkfish from Hawaii to the inland waters of Solano County, California. The introduced population could not establish itself permanently and it is currently unknown how their presence affected the native ecosystem.<ref>Duffy, J. M., & Bernard, H. J. (1985). ''[https://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/factsheet.aspx?SpeciesID=413 MILKFISH, CHANOS-CHANOS (FORSSKAL, 1775), TAKEN IN SOUTHERN-CALIFORNIA ADDS NEW FAMILY (CHANIDAE) TO THE CALIFORNIA MARINE FAUNA.]'' California Fish and Game, 71(2), 122–125.</ref>

Milkfishes commonly live in tropical offshore marine waters around islands and along continental shelves, at depths of {{cvt|1|to|30|m}}. They also frequently enter estuaries and rivers.<ref name="FishBase" />

==Taxonomy== ''Chanos'' is the only surviving genus of the ancient family Chanidae, which has existed since the Early Cretaceous. The only surviving species is the widespread ''C. chanos''. The genus ''Chanos'' originated in North America, with the oldest known fossil species dating as far back as the earliest Paleocene around {{Ma|63}} in Mexico.<ref name=GC25/> The earliest fossil Chanos were found in freshwater Eocene deposits in Europe and North America—hinting that the species first appeared in freshwater environments 40–50 million years ago. It is possible that their invasion into the ocean happened during high sea-level or flooding events after the Eocene. Global cooling during the Mid-Eocene likely wiped out the population of milkfish in the Atlantic, but the species persisted in the Indo-Pacific.<ref name = "SDGL"> Bagarinao, T. (1994). [http://hdl.handle.net/10862/1443 Systematics, distribution, genetics and life history of milkfish, Chanos chanos.] ''Environmental biology of fishes'', 39, 23–41.</ref>

The following fossil species of ''Chanos'' are known:<ref name=":0">{{Citation |last=Taverne |first=Emmanuel Fara, Mireille Gayet, Louis |title=The Fossil Record of Gonorynchiformes |date=2010 |work=Gonorynchiformes and Ostariophysan Relationships |pages=173-226 |url=https://hal.science/hal-00441945v1/file/Fara2009.pdf |access-date=2024-04-03 |publisher=CRC Press |doi=10.1201/b10194-6 |isbn=978-0-429-06156-1}}</ref><ref name=GC25/>

* †''C. brevis'' (Heckel, 1854) – Oligocene of the Chiavon Limestone, Italy * †''C. chautus'' Guadarrama & Cantalice, 2025 – Danian of the Tenejapa-Lacandón Formation, Mexico * †''C. compressus'' Stinton, 1977 [<nowiki/>otolith] – Late Ypresian of the Wittering Formation, England * †''C. forcipatus'' Kner & Steindachner, 1863 – Late Ypresian of Monte Bolca, Italy * †''C. torosus'' Daniltshenko, 1968 – Earliest Ypresian of the Danata Formation, Turkmenistan * †''C. zignoi'' Kner & Steindachner, 1863 – Oligocene of the Chiavon Limestone, Italy

The extinct ''Caeus leopoldi'' from the Early Cretaceous (Albian) of Italy is also sometimes placed in ''Chanos'' as ''Chanos leopoldi'', which would be the earliest record of the genus and extend its occurrence even further back. However, more recent studies have affirmed it being a distinct genus.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Taverne |first1=Louis |last2=Capasso |first2=Luigi |date=2017 |title=Osteology and relationships of Caeus (" Chanos ") leopoldi (Teleostei, Gonorynchiformes, Chanidae) from the marine Albian (Early Cretaceous) of Pietraroja (Campania, southern Italy) |url=https://museodistorianaturale.comune.verona.it/media/_Musei/_StoriaNaturale/_Allegati/Biblioteca/Bollettino/Bollettino%2041(2017)/Geologia/01_Taverne_Capasso_bassa.pdf |journal=Bollettino del Museo Civico di Storia Naturale di Verona |volume=41 |pages=03–20}}</ref>

==Anatomy== The milkfish can grow to {{convert|1.80|m|ftin|0|abbr=on}}, but are most often no more than {{convert|1|m|in|abbr=on}} in length. They can reach a weight of about {{convert|19|kg|lb|abbr=on}} in pond. and an age of 15 years. They have an elongated and almost compressed body, with a generally symmetrical and streamlined appearance, one dorsal fin, falcate pectoral fins and a sizable forked caudal fin. The head is small relative to the body. The mouth is small and toothless. The body is olive green, with silvery flanks and dark bordered fins. They have 13–17 dorsal soft rays, 8–10 anal soft rays and 31 caudal fin rays. There are numerous fine intramuscular bones, which may complicate human consumption of the fish (see "Consumption" below).<ref name=FishBase>{{FishBase |genus=Chanos |species=chanos |month=October |year=2015}}</ref>

Their silvery complexion is similar to many other fish species of the Indo-Pacific. They are often mistaken for species of Clupeidae, ''Megalops cyprinoides'', ''Gonorhynchus gonorhynchus'', and ''Elops machnata''. ''Chanos'' can be distinguished from these species by their size, absence of scutes, tubercle on the lower jaw, fin placement, no gular plate between arms of the lower jaw, and having only four branchiostegal rays.<ref> Fischer, W. and G. Bianchi (eds), [https://www.fao.org/fishery/en/publications/query/Hypoplectrus%20indigo,Indigo%20hamlet* FAO species 1984 identification sheets for fishery purposes. Western Indian Ocean]; (Fishing Area 51). Prepared and printed with the support of the Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA). Rome, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, vols 1–6:pag. var.</ref>

Variant milkfish body types have occasionally been found. The "goldfish-type" milkfish was discovered in the Philippines and is characterized by distinctly elongated dorsal, pelvic, and anal fins, and a caudal fin as long as the body. In Hawaii, Indonesia, and Australia, dwarf or hunchback 'shad-type' specimens have been recorded. They have a standard length-to-depth ratio of 2.0–2.5 instead of the usual 3.5–4.0. In Northern Australia, a milkfish with a red head, red fins, and blue dorsal coloration was reported.<ref name=SDGL />

==Life history== Reproduction of milkfish in nature is far less understood than populations of milkfish bred and propagated in captivity (see "Aquaculture" below). In the wild, milkfish take 3–5 years to mature. Females can produce 0.5–6 million eggs and have the ability to spawn more than once a year. Spawning takes place at night, may be lunar periodic, and is strongly seasonal. Milkfish eggs are pelagic and range between {{cvt|1.1|and|1.25|mm}} in diameter. Spawning sites are clear, warm, shallow waters above sand or coral reefs. It is believed milkfish prefer these locations to minimize predation from benthic planktivores.<ref name=SDGL />

Milkfish larvae have a pelagic planktonic stage. Younger larvae occur mostly at the surface, or sometimes deeper ({{cvt|20|–|30|m}}). Older larvae are only found at the surface and in near-shore environments.<ref name=SDGL /> Larvae metamorphose into fry and become benthic-feeding juveniles that are opportunistically herbivorous, detritivorous, or omnivorous, depending on the predominant food types in the habitat.<ref>Kumagai, S., & Bagarinao, T. (1981). [http://hdl.handle.net/10862/1115 Studies on the habitat and food of juvenile milkfish in the wild.] ''Fisheries Research Journal of the Philippines'', 6(1), 1–10.</ref>

Juvenile milkfish larger than {{cvt|20|mm}} typically bear the characteristics of adults. They have complete fin rays, a forked caudal fin, scales, and silvery coloration. Juveniles have been found to inhabit a diverse range of shallow-water ecosystems such as coral lagoons, estuaries, marsh flats, tidal creeks, and tide pools.<ref name=SDGL />

===Diet=== Milkfish are omnivorous opportunistic feeders. Juvenile milkfish eat a variety of foods including phytoplankton, zooplankton, filamentous green algae, and small invertebrates. Similarly to juveniles, adults also eat benthic invertebrates and additionally planktonic and nektonic items such as clupeid juveniles.<ref name=SDGL />

===Habitat=== Adults tend to school around coasts and islands with coral reefs. The young fry live at sea for two to three weeks and then migrate during the juvenile stage to mangrove swamps, estuaries, and sometimes lakes, and return to sea to mature sexually and reproduce. Juveniles prefer to settle in undisturbed coastal ecosystems that are semi-enclosed, calm, shallow, free from predators, and rich in aquatic vegetation. In their natural habitats, milkfish are very adaptable to both changes in environmental conditions and diet.<ref>Kumagai, S., Bagarinao, T., & Unggui, A. (1985). [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/250213986_Growth_of_juvenile_milkfish_Chanos_chanos_in_a_natural_habitat Growth of juvenile milkfish Chanos chanos in a natural habitat.] ''Marine ecology progress series''. Oldendorf, 22(1), 1–6.</ref> Milkfish are good osmoregulators and extremely euryhaline.<ref>Swanson, C. (1998). [https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/201/24/3355/13539/Interactive-Effects-of-Salinity-On-Metabolic-Rate Interactive effects of salinity on metabolic rate, activity, growth and osmoregulation in the euryhaline milkfish (Chanos chanos)]. ''Journal of Experimental Biology'', 201(24), 3355–3366.</ref>

The wide geographic distribution of milkfish has led to genetic variation in the species across the Indo-Pacific. Milkfish populations differ between the Hawaiian islands, the central Pacific islands, Tonga, Tahiti, Philippines-Taiwan-Indonesia, Thailand-Malaysia, India, and Africa. However, all populations are thought to be inter-breeding, thus they are all considered one species, and their genetic diversity is low. However, populations may still differ in their reproductive, migratory, and survival methods.<ref name=SDGL />

==Conservation status== According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature, as of 2019, milkfish were not a threatened species.<ref name=iucnredlist/> However, little information is available on wild stocks.<ref name=iucnredlist/>

Although milkfish populations are not threatened with extinction, they are at risk of ingesting or absorbing pollutants. Milkfish frequent environments that have been affected by industrial pollutants, land runoff, and plastics. Asia is one of the largest contributors of plastic litter into both the ocean and freshwater systems. A population of milkfish from San Jose, Northern Samar, Philippines, was found to have concentrations of lead in the meaty part of their bodies.<ref>Dagalea, F. M. S., Somoray, M. J. M., Alvarez, M. L. C., & Lim, K. M. C. (2022). [https://journalcsij.com/index.php/CSIJ/article/view/808 Qualitative Test of Heavy Metals in Chanos chanos (Bangus) Found in the First District of Northern Samar.] ''Chemical Science International Journal'', 31(2), 15–20.</ref> Pollutants have also affected the aquaculture industry. In an aquaculture system in Butuan, Philippines, 97% of the fish sampled had microplastics in their gastrointestinal tracts. A similar study in Indonesia showed similar results. The presence of pollutants in milkfish poses a threat to the species' health, aquaculture, and humans.<ref>Similatan, K. M., Arcadio, C. G. L. A., Navarro, C. K. P., Capangpangan, R. Y., & Bacosa, H. P. (2023). [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2023.115409 Microplastic ingestion by adult milkfish Chanos chanos (Forsskål, 1775) in aquaculture system: The case of Butuan Bay, Philippines.] ''Marine Pollution Bulletin'', 194, 115409.</ref>

==Fishing== In the Philippines, it is illegal to catch adult milkfish (''sabalo'') measuring over {{cvt|60|cm}}. While the 1975 law was enacted in an effort to protect spawning stocks of fish, ''sabalo'' are still incidentally caught in fish corrals and are products of bycatch. This ban was reinforced by the Philippine Fisheries Code of 1998, which punishes violators with imprisonment for 6 months to 8 years, and/or a fine of {{Philippine peso|80,000|link=yes}}, forfeiture of the catch and fishing equipment used, and revocation of their fishing license.<ref name=SDGL />

==Consumption== {{Multi image | image1 = Bandeng Asap, Indonesian Smoked Milkfish.JPG | caption1 = Smoked milkfish, sold in Juanda International Airport, Surabaya | image2 = Food 乾煎虱目魚, 阿英台灣料理, 阿英台灣小吃, 台北 (18403495293).jpg | caption2 = Fried milkfish belly fillet served at restaurant in Taipei, Taiwan | total_width = 250 | perrow = 1 }} The milkfish is an important seafood in Southeast Asia and some Pacific Islands. Because it is notorious for being much bonier than other food fish, deboned milkfish, called "boneless ''bangús''" in the Philippines, has become popular in stores and markets. Despite the notoriety however, many people in the Philippines continue to enjoy the fish cooked regularly and even prepared raw using kalamansi juice or vinegar to make ''kiniláw na bangús''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.atbp.ph/2017/01/20/kilawin-na-bangus-milkfish-ceviche/|title=Kilawin na Bangus (Milkfish Ceviche)|last=Atbp|date=2017-01-20|website=ATBP|language=en-US|access-date=2020-03-24}}</ref>

Popular presentations of milkfish in Indonesia include ''bandeng duri lunak'' (soft-boned milkfish, ''ikan bandeng'' is Indonesian for milkfish) from Central and East Java or ''bandeng presto'', which is pressure cooked milkfish until the thorns are rendered tender, and ''bandeng asap'' or smoked milkfish. Either fresh or processed, milkfish is the popular seafood product of Indonesian fishing towns, such as Juwana near Semarang in Central Java, and Sidoarjo near Surabaya in East Java.{{Citation needed|date=February 2021}}

Milkfish is the most popular fish in Taiwanese cuisine; it is valued for its versatility as well as its tender meat and economical price. Popular presentations include as a topping for congee, pan fried, braised, and as fish balls. There is a milkfish museum in Anping District and city of Kaohsiung holds an annual milkfish festival.<ref name="CNN 2015" >{{cite web |last1=Hiufu Wong |first1=Maggie |title=40 of the best Taiwanese foods and drinks |url=https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/40-taiwan-food/index.html |website=www.cnn.com |date=24 July 2015 |publisher=CNN |access-date=29 September 2020}}</ref>

Milkfish is an oily fish, and is rich in omega-3 fatty acids.

==Aquaculture==

===History=== [[File:Bangus22jf.JPG|thumb|left|Grilled ''bangus'' (milkfish) in the Philippines]] [[File:Milkfish, aquaculture production, million tonnes, 1950-2022.svg|thumb|Global aquaculture production of Milkfish (''Chanos chanos'') in million tonnes from 1950 to 2022, as reported by the FAO<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fisheries and Aquaculture - Global Production |url=https://www.fao.org/fishery/en/collection/global_production?lang=en |access-date=2024-05-06 |website=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)}}</ref>]] Milkfish aquaculture first occurred around 1800 years ago in the Philippines and spread to Indonesia, Taiwan, and into the Pacific.<ref name=fao/> Traditional milkfish aquaculture relied upon restocking ponds by collecting wild fry. This led to a wide range of variability in quality and quantity between seasons and regions.<ref name=fao/>

In the late 1970s, farmers first successfully spawned breeding fish. However, they were hard to obtain and produced unreliable egg viability.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.mixph.com/2008/08/milkfish-bangus-breeding-and-fry-hatchery-technology.html|title= Milkfish (Bangus) Breeding and Fry Hatchery Technology|access-date= 2010-09-12|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131213081533/http://www.mixph.com/2008/08/milkfish-bangus-breeding-and-fry-hatchery-technology.html|archive-date= 2013-12-13}}</ref> In 1980, the first spontaneous spawning happened in sea cages. These eggs were found to be sufficient to generate a constant supply for farms.<ref name=" Milkfish (Bangus) Breeding and Fry Hatchery Technology ">Milkfish (Bangus) Breeding and Fry Hatchery Technology</ref>

Milkfish aquaculture accounts for 14% of all aquaculture production worldwide. Indonesia and the Philippines were the leading producers of the species in 2017. The fish is especially desirable for aquaculture because of its rapid growth rate, disease resistance, acclimation to captivity, low mortality, high market value, and high-quality flesh.<ref>Jose, D. M., & Divya, P. R. (2022). [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/371139001_A_REVIEW_ON_AQUACULTURE_IMPORTANT_FISH_Chanos_chanos_FORSSKAL_1775_THE_MILKFISH A REVIEW ON AQUACULTURE IMPORTANT FISH Chanos chanos, FORSSKÅL 1775, THE MILKFISH.] ''Journal of Aquaculture in the Tropics'', 37(1-4), 1–26.</ref>

===Farming methods=== [[File:Cardona,Rizaljf5184 09.JPG|thumb|left|Milkfish aquaculture in fish ponds in Cardona, Rizal, the Philippines]] Fry are raised in either sea cages, large saline ponds (Philippines), or concrete tanks (Indonesia, Taiwan).<ref name=fao>{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/fishery/culturedspecies/Chanos_chanos/en |title=''Chanos chanos'' (Forsskal, 1775) |work=Cultured Aquatic Species Information Programme |publisher=FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department }}</ref> Milkfish reach sexual maturity at {{convert|1.5|kg|abbr=on}}, which takes five years in floating sea cages, but eight to 10 years in ponds and tanks. Once they reach {{convert|6|kg|abbr=on}}, (eight years), 3–4 million eggs are produced each breeding cycle.<ref name=fao/> This is mainly done using natural environmental cues. However, attempts have been made using gonadotropin-releasing hormone analogue (GnRH-A) to induce spawning.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://fishbase.mnhn.fr/Aquaculture/AquacultureProfileSummary.php?ID=80&GenusName=Chanos&SpeciesName=chanos|title=Aquaculture|website=fishbase.mnhn.fr}}</ref> Some still use the traditional wild stock method, capturing wild fry using nets.<ref name=fao/> Milkfish hatcheries, like most hatcheries, contain a variety of cultures, for example, rotifers, green algae, and brine shrimp, as well as the target species.<ref name=fao/><ref name=leeleung>{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=C.-S.|last2=Leung|first2=P.-S.|last3=Su|first3=M.-S. |year=1997 |title=Bioeconomic evaluation of different fry production systems for milkfish (''Chanos chanos'') |journal=Aquaculture |volume=155 |issue=1–4 |pages=367–376 |doi=10.1016/S0044-8486(97)00104-X|bibcode=1997Aquac.155..367L }}</ref> They can either be intensive or semi-intensive.<ref name=fao/> Semi-intensive methods are more profitable at {{US$|6.67|link=yes|1998}} per thousand fry in 1998, compared with {{US$|27.40|1998}} for intensive methods.<ref name=leeleung/> However, the experience required by labour for semi-intensive hatcheries is higher than intensive.<ref name=leeleung/> Milkfish nurseries in Taiwan are highly commercial and have densities of about 2000/L.<ref name=fao/> Indonesia achieves similar densities, but has more backyard-type nurseries.<ref name=fao/> The Philippines has integrated nurseries with grow-out facilities and densities of about 1000/L.<ref name=fao/> The three methods of outgrowing are pond culture, pen culture, and cage culture. * Shallow ponds are found mainly in Indonesia and the Philippines. These are shallow ({{cvt|30|-|40|cm}}), brackish ponds with benthic algae, usually used as feed.<ref name=fao/> They are usually excavated from ''nipa'' or mangrove areas and produce about {{cvt|800|kg/ha}} per year. Deep ponds ({{cvt|2|–|3|m}}) have more stable environments and their use began in 1970. They so far have shown less susceptibility to disease than shallow ponds.<ref name=fao/> * In 1979, pen culture was introduced in Laguna de Bay, which had high primary production.<ref name=fao/> This provided an excellent food source. Once this ran out, fertilizer was applied.<ref name=fao/> They are susceptible to disease. * Cage culture occurs in coastal bays.<ref name=fao/> These consist of large cages suspended in open water. They rely largely on natural sources of food.<ref name=fao/> Most food is natural (known as ''lab-lab'') or a combination of phytoplankton and macroalgae.<ref name=fao/><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gapasin|first1=R.S.J|last2=Bombeo|first2=R|last3=Lavens|first3=P|last4=Sorgeloos|first4=P|last5=Nelis|first5=H |year=1998 |title=Enrichment of live food with essential fatty acids and vitamin C: effects on milkfish (''Chanos chanos'') larval performance |journal=Aquaculture |volume=162 |issue=3–4 |pages=269–286 |doi=10.1016/S0044-8486(98)00205-1|bibcode=1998Aquac.162..269G }}</ref> Traditionally, this was made on site; food is now made commercially to order.<ref name=fao/> Harvest occurs when the individuals are {{cvt|20|to|40|cm}} long and {{cvt|250|to|500|g}} in weight. Partial harvests remove uniformly sized individuals with seine nets or gill nets. Total harvest removes all individuals and leads to a variety of sizes. Forced harvest happens when an environmental problem occurs, such as depleted oxygen due to algal blooms, and all stock is removed. Possible parasites include nematodes, copepods, protozoa, and helminths. Many of these are treatable with chemicals and antibiotics.<ref name=fao/>

===Challenges=== Modern milkfish aquaculture faces some challenges: acquiring viable milkfish fry, overcoming their status as a low-value species, attempting to expand outside of an ethnic market and struggling to find a sustainable cost-production balance. In 1987, Taiwan developed the outdoor hatchery technique, which resulted in lower-cost technology, and their fry production surpassed that of the wild. Since then, Taiwan has been one of the biggest hatchery fry producers in the Indo-Pacific. To stimulate market demand, sellers have been taking a fast-food approach, to make the product more accessible and desirable to common consumers.<ref>Su, M. S., Lee, C. S., & Liao, I. C. (2002). [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/248945500_Technical_Responses_to_Challenges_in_Milkfish_Aquaculture Technical responses to challenges in milkfish aquaculture.] ''Reviews in Fisheries Science'', 10(3-4), 451–464.</ref>

===Processing and marketing=== Traditional post-harvest processing include smoking, drying, and fermenting. Bottling, canning, and freezing are of recent origin.<ref name=fao/> Demand has been steadily increasing since 1950.<ref name=fao/> In 2005, {{convert|595,000|t}} were harvested worth US$616 million.<ref name=fao/>

A trend toward value-added products is occurring.<ref name=fao/> In recent years, the possibility of using milkfish juveniles as bait for tuna long-lining has started to be investigated, opening up new markets for fry hatcheries.<ref>{{cite book|author=FitzGerald, William J. |year=2004 |title=Milkfish aquaculture in the Pacific: potential for the tuna longline fishery bait market |publisher=Noumea, New Caledonia: Secretariat of the Pacific Community |url=http://www.spc.int/DigitalLibrary/Doc/FAME/Reports/FitzGerald_04_Milkf.pdf}}</ref>

===Golden ''bangus''=== On April 21, 2012, a Filipino fisherman donated a milkfish with yellowish coloring to the Philippine Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources, which was later on called the "golden ''bangus''".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sunstar.com.ph/pangasinan/local-news/2012/04/21/fisheries-bureau-releases-golden-milkfish-217502|title=Fisheries bureau releases golden milkfish|website=SunStar }}</ref> However, the fish soon died, allegedly because of a lower level of oxygen in the pond to which it was transferred.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/238401/plan-to-breed-golden-bangus-dies-with-lone-specimen|title= Plan to breed 'golden' bangus dies with lone specimen|date= 28 July 2012}}</ref>

==Cultural significance== thumb|Street dancers in Dagupan depicting the bountiful harvest of ''bangus'' Milkfish have appeared in the traditions and mythology of the native Pohnpeians, Hawaiians, Tongans, and Nauruans in the Pacific.<ref name=SDGL />

===''Bangus'' Festival=== The city of Dagupan in Pangasinan, northern Philippines, hosts an annual ''Bangus'' Festival. The event was initially a ''bangus'' harvest or ''Gilon'' conceptualized in the 1990s by Mayor Al Fernandez. It has since become an extravagant occasion, including a street dance competitions named ''Gilon-gilon ed Dalan'' made to celebrate the ''bangus'' harvest. The festival also honors the city's patron saint, John the Apostle, who was originally a fisherman in the Sea of Galilee and figures prominently in several Gospel episodes featuring bountiful catches.<ref>Bangus Festival Archives. The Official Website of the City Government of Dagupan. (2023). https://www.dagupan.gov.ph/category/bangus-festival/</ref> Dagupan is considered the country's top producer of milkfish cultured in marine cages and pens. Two types of milkfish are cultured in the city, the more popular being Bonoan ''Bangus'', often sold deboned and butterflied.<ref>Mendoza, C. (2015). [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/373756224_Historical_Socio-Political_and_Economic_Implications_of_Festival_Celebrations_in_Pangasinan Historical, Socio-Political and Economic Implications of Festival Celebrations in Pangasinan.] </ref>

==See also== * ''Sate Bandeng'' * Milkfish congee

==References== {{Reflist}} * Francisco José Poyato-Ariza, ''A revision of the ostariophysan fish family Chanidae, with special reference to the Mesozoic forms'' (Verlag Dr. Friedrich Pfeil, 1996)

==External links== *{{Commons category-inline|Chanos chanos}} * {{Wikispecies-inline|Chanos chanos}} * [http://www.bonelessbangus.com Boneless Bangus] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200717065802/https://bonelessbangus.com/ |date=2020-07-17 }} * [http://www.fishbase.org/Summary/SpeciesSummary.cfm?id=80 FishBase entry for milkfish] * [http://www.seafdec.org.ph/commodities/milkfish_hatchery.html SEAFDEC milkfish hatchery info] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070913041849/http://www.bar.gov.ph/Agritech/Fisheries/Bangus/bangus_description.htm DA, Philippines, About Bangus] * {{sealifephotos|217625}}

Category:Chanidae Category:Fish of the Pacific Ocean Category:Fish of Southeast Asia Category:Fish of the Philippines Category:Filipino cuisine Category:Fish of the Red Sea Category:Fish of Hawaii Category:Fish of Micronesia Category:Fish of Palau  Category:Fish described in 1775 Category:Taxa named by Peter Forsskål Category:Extant Ypresian first appearances