{{Short description|Breaking or violation of a presumptive contract, trust, or confidence}} {{Other uses}} {{Redirect|Betrayer|other uses|Betrayer (disambiguation)}} [[File:Caravaggio - The Taking of Christ restored.jpg|thumb|''The Taking of Christ'' by Caravaggio (c.1602) shows Judas betraying Jesus.]] '''Betrayal''' is the breaking or violation of a presumptive contract, trust, or confidence that produces moral and psychological conflict within a relationship amongst individuals, between organizations or between individuals and organizations. Often betrayal is the act of supporting a rival group, or it is a complete break from previously decided upon or presumed norms by one party from the others. Someone who betrays others is commonly known as a '''traitor''' or '''betrayer'''.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/traitor | title=Definition of TRAITOR | website=www.merriam-webster.com | access-date=2025-07-01 | archive-date=2019-01-12 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190112140800/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/traitor | url-status=live }}</ref>
Betrayal is a commonly used story element in fiction, sometimes used as a plot twist.
==Definition== Philosophers Judith Shklar and Peter Johnson, authors of ''The Ambiguities of Betrayal'' and ''Frames of Deceit'', respectively, contend that while no clear definition of betrayal is available, betrayal is more effectively understood through literature.<ref name="Jackson2000" />
===Theoretical and practical needs=== Rodger L. Jackson explains why a clear definition is needed: <blockquote>Betrayal is both a "people" problem and a philosopher's problem. Philosophers should be able to clarify the concept of betrayal, compare and contrast it with other moral concepts, and critically assess betrayal situations. At the practical level people should be able to make honest sense of betrayal and also to temper its consequences: to handle it, not be assaulted by it. What we need is a conceptually clear account of betrayal that differentiates between genuine and merely perceived betrayal, and which also provides systematic guidance for the assessment of alleged betrayal in real life.</blockquote>
==Signature and consequences== An act of betrayal creates a constellation of negative behaviours, thoughts, and feelings in both its victims and its perpetrators. Accepting the betrayal and going no contact is seen by some as the best route forward.{{Who|date=February 2026}} The alternative is to stay in connection and realize the trespass can happen again, and may choose to avoid doing certain things to decrease severity.<ref name="ReisRusbult2004"/>
==Betrayal trauma== {{see also|Betrayal trauma}}
Betrayal trauma has symptoms similar to posttraumatic stress disorder,<ref name="freydwhatisbt"/> although the element of amnesia and dissociation is likely to be greater.
The key difference between traditional posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and betrayal trauma is that the former is historically seen as being caused primarily by fear, whereas betrayal trauma is a response to extreme anger. Another key difference is that betrayal trauma involves an individual experiencing a violation of trust between a trusted individual or institution, whereas posttraumatic stress disorder does not involve a violation from a trusted source.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kelley |first1=Lance P. |last2=Weathers |first2=Frank W. |last3=Mason |first3=Elizabeth A. |last4=Pruneau |first4=Genevieve M. |date=2012-07-20 |title=Association of life threat and betrayal with posttraumatic stress disorder symptom severity |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jts.21727 |journal=Journal of Traumatic Stress |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=408–415 |doi=10.1002/jts.21727 |pmid=22821682 |issn=0894-9867|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
==In romantic relationships== John Gottman's ''What Makes Love Last?'' describes betrayal as "a noxious invader, arriving with great stealth" that undermines seemingly stable romances and lies at the heart of every failing relationship, even if the couple is unaware of it. Gottman computed a betrayal metric by calculating how unwilling each partner was to sacrifice for the other and the relationship. A consistently elevated betrayal metric served as an indicator that the couple was at risk for infidelity or another serious disloyalty. Some types of betrayal in romantic relationships include sexual infidelity, conditional commitment, a nonsexual affair, lying, forming a coalition against the partner, absenteeism, disrespect, unfairness, selfishness, and breaking promises.<ref>{{cite book |author=Gottman, John |pages=xvii, 14 |title=What Makes Love Last |date=2012}}</ref>
==Double cross== '''Double cross''' is a phrase meaning to deceive by double-dealing.<ref name="MW1"/>
== Betrayal blindness == Betrayal blindness is the unawareness, not-knowing, and forgetting exhibited by people towards betrayal.<ref name="Definition of Betrayal Trauma Theory">{{Cite web|url=http://pages.uoregon.edu/dynamic/jjf/defineBT.html|title=Definition of Betrayal Trauma Theory|website=pages.uoregon.edu|access-date=2016-12-02|archive-date=2016-11-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161123073413/http://pages.uoregon.edu/dynamic/jjf/defineBT.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
The term "betrayal blindness" was introduced in 1996 by Freyd, and expanded in 1999 by Freyd and then again in 2013 by Freyd and Birrell through the Betrayal Trauma Theory.<ref name="Definition of Betrayal Trauma Theory" /> This betrayal blindness may extend to betrayals that are not considered traditional traumas, such as adultery, and inequities. Betrayal blindness is not exclusive to victims. Perpetrators, and witnesses may also display betrayal blindness in order to preserve personal relationships, their relationships with institutions, and social systems upon which they depend.<ref name="Definition of Betrayal Trauma Theory" />
The term "Institutional Betrayal" refers to wrongdoings perpetrated by an institution upon individuals dependent on that institution. This includes failure to prevent or respond supportively to wrongdoings by individuals (e.g. sexual assault) committed within the context of the institution.<ref name="Definition of Betrayal Trauma Theory" />
==See also== {{columns-list|colwidth=30em| * Betrayal trauma * Creonte * Defection * Embezzlement * Infidelity * Liar * Psalm 54 * Stab-in-the-back legend * Treason }}
==References== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="ReisRusbult2004">{{harvnb|Reis|Rusbult|2004|pp=296}}</ref> <ref name="freydwhatisbt">{{cite web |first=Jennifer J. |last=Freyd |title=What is a Betrayal Trauma? What is Betrayal Trauma Theory? |url=http://dynamic.uoregon.edu/~jjf/defineBT.html |publisher=University of Oregon |access-date=2010-09-26 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100706231018/http://dynamic.uoregon.edu/~jjf/defineBT.html |archive-date=July 6, 2010 }} [Link is now: http://pages.uoregon.edu/dynamic/jjf/defineBT.html Retrieved 2014-03-08]</ref> <ref name="MW1">{{cite web |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/double-cross |title=double-cross |access-date=2010-07-18 |publisher=Merriam-Webster |archive-date=2010-04-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100409054752/http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/double-cross |url-status=live }}</ref> <ref name="Jackson2000">{{harvnb|Jackson|2000|pp=72–73}}</ref> }}
===Bibliography for references=== {{refbegin|30em}} * Arnett, J. J. (2000). Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from the late teens through the twenties. ''American Psychologist, 55,''5, 469–480. * Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. * Freyd, J. J. (1994). Betrayal-trauma: Traumatic amnesia as an adaptive response to childhood abuse. ''Ethics & Behavior, 4,'' 307–329. * Freyd, J. J. (1996). Betrayal trauma: The logic of forgetting childhood abuse. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. * Freyd, J. J., & Birrell, P. J. (2013). [http://sites.google.com/site/betrayalbook/the-book Blind to Betrayal: Why we fool ourselves we aren't being fooled] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150507041750/https://sites.google.com/site/betrayalbook/the-book |date=2015-05-07 }}. Somerset, NJ: Wiley. * Freyd, J. J ., Klest, B., & Allard, C. B. (2005) Betrayal trauma: Relationship to physical health, psychological distress, and a written disclosure intervention. ''Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 6''(3), 83-104. * Hensley, A. L. (2004). ''Why good people go bad: A psychoanalytic and behavioral assessment of the Abu Ghraib Detention Facility staff.'' An unpublished courts-martial defense strategy presented to the Area Defense Counsel in Washington DC on December 10, 2004. * {{cite web|last=Hensley|first=A. L.|year=2006|title=Contracts don't always begin on the dotted line: Psychological contracts and PTSD in female service members in Iraq|access-date=October 10, 2010|url=http://www.aaets.org/article170.htm|archive-date=November 24, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101124234507/http://www.aaets.org/article170.htm|url-status=dead}} * Hensley, A. L. (2007). Why good people go bad: A case study of the Abu Ghraib Courts-Martials. In G. W. Dougherty, ''Proceedings of the 5th annual proceedings of the Rocky Mountain Region Disaster Mental Health Conference.'' Ann Arbor, MI: Loving Healing Press. * Hensley, A. L. (2009a). Gender, personality, and coping: Unraveling gender in military post-deployment wellbeing (preliminary results). In G. Dougherty (Ed.). ''Return to equilibrium: Proceedings of the 7th Rocky Mountain Region Disaster Mental Health Conference'' (pp. 105–148). Ann Arbor, MI: Loving Healing Press. * Hensley, A. L. (2009b). ''Gender, personality and coping: Unraveling gender in military post-deployment physical and mental wellness.'' Ann Arbor, MI: ProQuest UMI. * Hensley, A. L. (2009c). Betrayal trauma: Insidious purveyor of PTSD. In G. Dougherty (Ed.). ''Return to equilibrium: Proceedings of the 7th Rocky Mountain Region Disaster Mental Health Conference'' (pp. 105–148). Ann Arbor, MI: Loving Healing Press. * Hersey, B. & Buhl, M.(January/February 1990). The Betrayal of Date Rape. ''InView.'' * {{cite journal|first=R. L.|last=Jackson|url=http://www.nhinet.org/jackson13-2.pdf|title=The Sense and Sensibility of Betrayal: Discovering the Meaning of Treachery through Jane Austen|publisher=National Humanities Institute|volume=XIII|issue=2|year=2000|journal=Humanitas|pages=72–89|doi=10.5840/humanitas200013211 |access-date=2005-12-02|archive-date=2021-05-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508183013/http://www.nhinet.org/jackson13-2.pdf|url-status=dead}} * Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1983). ''Mental Models: Towards a Cognitive Science of Language, Inference, and Consciousness. Cambridge'': Cambridge University Press. * Maslow, A. (1954). ''Motivation and personality.'' New York: Harper. * McNulty, F. (1980). The burning bed. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. * Musen, K. & Zimbardo, P. G. (1991). ''Quiet rage: The Stanford prison study.'' Videorecording. Stanford, CA: Psychology Dept., Stanford University. * {{cite book|title=''Close relationships: key readings''|first1=H. T.|last1=Reis|first2=C. E.|last2=Rusbult|publisher=Psychology Press|year=2004|isbn=978-0-86377-596-3}} {{refend}}
==Further reading== {{Wiktionary|betrayal}} * {{cite encyclopaedia|article=Betrayal|author=Robin Marie Kowalski|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Human Relationships|volume=1|editor1=Harry T. Reis |editor2=Susan Sprecher |editor3=Susan K. Sprecher |publisher=SAGE|date=2009|isbn=978-1-4129-5846-2|pages=174–176}} * {{cite encyclopaedia|article=Betrayal|author=James Allen Grady|pages=74–76|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of love in world religions|volume=1|editor=Yudit Kornberg Greenberg|publisher=ABC-CLIO|date=2008|isbn=9781851099801}} * {{cite encyclopaedia|last=Freyd|first=Jennifer J.|year=2008|article=Betrayal trauma|editor=G. Reyes |editor2=J.D. Elhai |editor3=J.D.Ford |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Psychological Trauma|pages=76|location=New York|publisher=John Wiley & Sons}} * {{cite book|title=Betrayal and treason: violations of trust and loyalty|series=Crime & society|author=Nachman Ben-Yehuda|publisher=Westview Press|year=2001|isbn=978-0-8133-9776-4}} * {{cite encyclopaedia|article=Betrayal trauma|encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Psychological Trauma|author1=Gilbert Reyes |author2=Jon D. Elhai |author3=Julian D. Ford |name-list-style=amp |publisher=John Wiley and Sons|date=2008|isbn=978-0-470-44748-2}} * {{cite conference|book-title=Return to Equilibrium: The Proceedings of the 7th Rocky Mountain Region Disaster Mental Health Conference|editor=George W. Doherty|publisher=Loving Healing Press|year=2009|isbn=978-1-932690-86-6|title=Betrayal Trauma: Insidious Purveyor of PTSD|author=Alan L. Hensley}} * {{cite book|title=Betrayal and betrayers: the sociology of treachery|author=Malin Åkerström|publisher=Transaction Publishers|year=1991|isbn= 978-0-88738-358-8}} * {{cite book|title=Handbook of personality psychology|editor1=Robert Hogan |editor2=John A. Johnson |editor3=Stephen R. Briggs |publisher=Gulf Professional Publishing|year=1997|isbn= 978-0-12-134646-1|chapter=Trust and Betrayal|author1=Warren H. Jones |author2=Laurie Couch |author3=Susan Scott |name-list-style=amp }}
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Category:Deception Category:Psychological abuse Category:Social concepts Category:Interpersonal relationships