Architecture of Cuba

{{Short description|none}} <!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see WP:SDNONE --> {{See also|History of Cuba}} {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}} [[File:Architecture Travel City Street Tourism Cuba.jpg|thumb|260px|Colourful and eclectic Colonial street architecture in Havana, the capital of Cuba]]

'''Architecture of Cuba''' refers to the buildings, structures and architectural history throughout the Caribbean island nation of Cuba. The unique mix of cultural and artistic influences throughout history have led to Cuba being renowned for its eclectic and diverse architecture, which can be defined as a unique fusion of numerous well-studied architectural styles from around the world.

After being circumnavigated by navigator Sebastián de Ocampo in 1508, Cuba was settled by the Spanish in 1511.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The history of Cuba|last=Staten, Clifford L.|year=2015|isbn=9781786844910|edition=Second|location=Santa Barbara, California|pages=18|oclc=1005001178}}</ref> Being ruled by Spain for more than 400 years following this, Cuban structural architecture is therefore deeply reflective of this colonial period. Various historical events throughout this time, such as trade liberalisation due to major trade reforms in 1778 and 1791 as well as an increase in immigration, contributed to further structural and artistic influences.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The history of Cuba|last=Staten, Clifford L.|year=2015|isbn=9781786844910|edition=Second|location=Santa Barbara, California|pages=16|oclc=1005001178}}</ref> This includes the seamless fusion of both Neoclassical and Baroque architectural styles into Cuban design.

Following the colonial period, Cuba continued to see diverse architectural pursuits into the 20th century. This was mainly due to increased funding into architectural projects because of national prosperity from high sugar exports during World War I.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cubaholidays.co.uk/blogs/posts/118780/a-collage-of-colourful-and-eclectic-monuments-the-best-of-cubas-architecture-and-where-to-see-it|title=A collage of colourful and eclectic monuments – the best of Cuba's architecture and where to see it|last=Corona|first=Daniela|website=cubaholidays.co.uk|access-date=12 May 2019|archive-date=12 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190512133416/https://cubaholidays.co.uk/blogs/posts/118780/a-collage-of-colourful-and-eclectic-monuments-the-best-of-cubas-architecture-and-where-to-see-it|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Art Deco period is also a notable reference point for Cuban architecture prior to the turn of the century.

In modern times, Cuban architecture is continually celebrated by historians and tourists alike. Contemporary issues such as privatisation and how architecture itself is viewed as a profession in Latin America are both relevant topics when considering the future of Cuban architecture.

== Early history==

[[File:CLARK(1899) Cuba p075 - HUT OF THE NATIVES, MADE ENTIRELY OF THE ROYAL PALM TREE.jpg|thumb|A palm tree hut made by Native Indians in Cuba, showcasing the early history of Cuban architecture.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Commercial Cuba. A book for business men ... Illustrated.|last=CLARK, William Jared.|date=1899|publisher=Chapman & Hall|oclc=557985820}}</ref>|right]]

Prior to Christopher Columbus landing in Cuba in 1492, the island was inhabited by Ciboney Indians and Arawak Indians who had migrated around the Caribbean. Thus, early architecture in Cuba was rudimentary and based on the culture and lifestyle of these hunter-gatherer groups.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title=The history of Cuba|last=Staten, Clifford L.|year=2015|isbn=9781786844910|edition=Second|location=Santa Barbara, California|pages=xiii|oclc=1005001178}}</ref> Groups during this Indigenous migration were non-hierarchal and focused on agriculture, and lived in three main types of makeshift housing. This included Caney shelters, Barbacoa (the first Pilotis) and Bohío huts, all constructed from palm trees and leaves.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Obregon|first=Jessica|date=1 December 2014|title=Cuba: Architecture and the Social Order|url=https://surface.syr.edu/architecture_tpreps/264|journal=Architecture Thesis Prep}}</ref>

The first official settlement in Cuba was not until 1511, led by governor Don Diego Velazquez, and as such, there are limited architectural remains in Cuba from before the Colonial Period.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=http://www.authenticubatours.com/cuba-information/overview-cuba-architecture.htm|title=An Presentation on Cuban Architecture by Authentic Cuba Travel|website=authenticubatours.com|access-date=6 June 2019}}</ref> Furthermore, the use of palm leaves as a principal material means rudimentary architectural pursuits were quickly replaced by more permanent construction led by Spanish settlers.

== Colonial period (1511–1898)==

Colonial architecture in Cuba refers to the buildings and structures that were created during Spanish colonisation. As Cuba was minimally impacted by the destruction of World War I and World War II, these structures remain relatively intact.<ref name=":5" /> The key trends of this era include military structures and fortifications, as well as Neoclassicism influenced by European trends.

The preservation of key colonial structures has also been facilitated by the nomination of Old Havana, known locally as Habana Vieja, as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1982.<ref name=":5" /> Old Havana refers to the southwest coast of Cuba, where Havana was originally founded in the 16th century by Panfilo de Narvaez, a Spanish conquistador.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/destinations/north-america/cuba/havana/old-havana-world-heritage-site/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180912211118/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/destinations/north-america/cuba/havana/old-havana-world-heritage-site/|url-status=dead|archive-date=12 September 2018|title=Discover Old Havana's Vibrant Architectural Heritage|date=12 September 2018|website=Travel|access-date=6 June 2019}}</ref> According to UNESCO, Havana is "the most impressive historical city centre in the Caribbean and one of the most notable in the American continent as a whole."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/204|title=Old Havana and its Fortification System|last=UNESCO|website=World Heritage Convention|access-date=6 June 2019}}</ref> Old Havana is therefore a region abundant with historical architecture from this period, including both military Fortifications and Spanish colonial works.

=== Military architecture===

[[File:Jagua 5839.JPG|thumb|Castillo de Jagua in Cienfuegos, a typical example of military architecture from the Colonial period. |left]]

The Colonial Period was characterised by volatility, meaning military architecture from this period is notable. Military architecture can be defined as the complex structures and Fortifications designed to protect a region during unwanted attacks.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bevilacqua|first=Marco Giorgio|year=2014|title=Military Architecture and Mathematics|journal=Nexus Network Journal|volume=16|issue=3|pages=517–521|doi=10.1007/s00004-014-0220-x|issn=1590-5896|doi-access=free}}</ref> Italian engineer Battista Antonelli was the first to introduce this style of Renaissance military structures to Cuba, which he designed and built just prior to the beginning of the 17th century. Antonelli's work included the Castillo de Ios Tres Reyes del Morrow and the Castillo San Salvador de la Punta, both located in Havana. These structures were also both recognised by UNESCO as World Heritage listed fortifications in 1982.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Niglio|first=Olimpia|date=1 December 2014|title=Geometry and Genius Loci: Battista Antonelli's Fortifications in Havana|journal=Nexus Network Journal|volume=16|issue=3|pages=723–735|doi=10.1007/s00004-014-0202-z|issn=1522-4600|doi-access=free|hdl=2433/200221|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

La Cabaña fort in Havana is another key example of military architecture, driven by elements of French design and therefore a reflection of the Franco-Spanish alliance that impacted Colonial Cuba.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Luengo|first=Pedro|year=2017|title=Military Engineering in Eighteenth-Century Havana and Manila: The Experience of the Seven Years War|journal=War in History|volume=24|issue=1|pages=4–27|doi=10.1177/0968344515620829|s2cid=164280974 |issn=0968-3445}}</ref> Taking over 10 years to build and covering 10 hectares of land, this fortification is the largest Spanish military structure in both North and South America.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.lonelyplanet.com/cuba/havana/attractions/fortaleza-de-san-carlos-de-la-cabana/a/poi-sig/1117034/358014|title=Fortaleza de San Carlos de la Cabaña {{!}} Havana, Cuba Attractions|website=www.lonelyplanet.com|access-date=12 May 2019}}</ref>

=== Baroque=== [[File:Havana Cathedral crop.jpg|thumb|The Havana Cathedral, constructed 1748–77, featuring elements of Baroque design including two towers and a theatrical facade. |right]]

Baroque architecture began to influence Cuban projects in the mid-1700s, approximately 50 years after its initial introduction as an architectural style in Italy.<ref name=":5" /> While traditional baroque is defined by grandeur, intricate embellishments and royal palaces, the Cuban style was adapted to include recognisable 'tropical' features.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The story of Baroque architecture|last=Zanlungo|first= Claudia|isbn=9783791345956|oclc=794176255|year = 2012|publisher=Prestel }}</ref><ref name=":5" /> Baroque projects in Cuba are also considered to be a simplified version of European Baroque due to a lack of skilled craftsmen in the country. Contrary to Europe, African slaves were responsible for constructing the majority of architectural projects in Cuba throughout the 17th and 18th centuries.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|url=http://www.bbc.com/travel/story/20121018-cubas-eclectic-architecture|title=Cuba's eclectic architecture|last=Sainsbury|first=Brendan|publisher=BBC|access-date=19 May 2019}}</ref>

This modified style of Baroque architecture in Cuba, known as Spanish Baroque, includes an array of characteristic traits. For example, ''rejas'' were metal bars on windows that enabled improved air circulation, which was evidently a unique geographic requirement for the Cuban landscape. Similarly, sheltered walkways were added to traditional grand Baroque exteriors, known as ''portales,'' in order to provide protection from the Cuban sun and rain.<ref name=":5" /> One of the most prominent Baroque designs in Cuba is the Cathedral of Havana, constructed from 1748 until 1777. The cathedral was influenced by Francesco Borromini, who was one of the most celebrated architects of the Roman Baroque era.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kaup|first=Monika|year=2009|title="¡Vaya Papaya!": Cuban Baroque and Visual Culture in Alejo Carpentier, Ricardo Porro, and Ramón Alejandro|journal=PMLA|volume=124|issue=1|pages=156–171|issn=0030-8129|jstor=25614255|doi=10.1632/pmla.2009.124.1.156|s2cid=162576195 }}</ref>

=== Neoclassicism===

[[File:Hotel Inglaterra (3210157880).jpg|thumb|The symmetrical and proportional Hotel Inglaterra in Havana, as per Neoclassical trends.|right]]

Due to an increase of French immigrants to Cuba in the 19th century, Cuban architecture also became highly influenced by neoclassicism, which was reflective of architectural projects taking place in France. The city of Cienfuegos, located on the south coast, was greatly impacted by these trends, and is considered one of the most neoclassical cities in Cuba. The city was founded by French immigrants in 1819, and features neoclassical styles such as elegant facades and pastel colouring.<ref name=":6" />

In the nation's capital of Havana, notable neoclassical buildings include the El Template and the Hotel Inglaterra.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|url=https://www.lonelyplanet.com/cuba/havana/background/other-features/cc2eca41-d616-4c4c-a7de-283b4522f8c5/a/nar/cc2eca41-d616-4c4c-a7de-283b4522f8c5/358014|title=Havana's Architecture in Havana, Cuba|website=Lonely Planet|access-date=19 May 2019}}</ref> The buildings of Vedado, a district in Havana established in 1859, also reflect the popularity of neoclassicism in Cuba during this period. This is demonstrated by the 'balanced proportions' of all structures in the district, which is a recognisable characteristic of Neoclassical design.<ref name=":4" /> Neoclassical architectural features such as symmetry also began appearing by the mid-19th century throughout other Cuban cities, such as Trinidad and Camagüey.<ref name=":6" />

Neoclassicism also became popular in urban design and residential projects during this period. Many homes in and around Old Havana followed traditional Cuban design principles, but were complemented by subtle neoclassical ironwork and columns.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ovpm.org/city/havana-cuba/|title=Old Havana and its Fortifications|website=Organisation of World Heritage Cities|access-date=6 June 2019}}</ref> By the late 19th-century, homes in the neighbourhoods of Cerro and El Vedado had become heavily influenced by neoclassical design, featuring modern structures and spacious gardens.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://amanoempire.com/havana-solar-el-impredecible-solar-habanero/|title=HAVANA SOLAR / EL IMPREDECIBLE SOLAR HABANERO|last=Núñez|first=Clara|date=25 August 2018|website=Amano Empire|access-date=7 June 2019}}{{Dead link|date=May 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

== 20th century == {{See also|Republic of Cuba (1902-1959)}} The architecture of Cuba throughout the 20th century took influence from visiting architects from around the world, and is therefore characterised by international artistic trends such as the Art Nouveau and Art Deco styles. Political and Social changes also led to an increase in public works, and thus civil architecture from this period is notable. Cuba also saw a building boom post-revolution due to an influx of wealth, with architectural choices that reflect the values held by Cuban society at the time.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Lynch|first=James|year=1979|title=Cuban Architecture since the Revolution|journal=Art Journal|volume=39|issue=2|pages=101|doi=10.2307/776395|issn=0004-3249|jstor=776395}}</ref>

=== Art Nouveau and Art Deco=== [[File:Bacardi Building, Havana 2006.jpg|thumb|The geometric focus of Art Deco architecture can be seen through the Bacardi Building, Havana 2006.| left]] In an attempt to keep up with fast developing cultural styles abroad, Cuba was quick to follow the trend of Art Nouveau and Art Deco architecture at the beginning of the 20th century.

Art Nouveau, which translates from French as 'new' art, was an ornamental style of architecture that become immensely popular in Europe at the Turn of the century.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Black|first=Iain|date=1 November 2000|title=Art Nouveau 1890–1914|journal=The London Journal|volume=25|issue=2|pages=110–118|doi=10.1179/ldn.2000.25.2.110|s2cid=161429517 |issn=0305-8034}}</ref> The style was first introduced in Cuba due to the 1905 Paris Exhibition.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rodríguez|first1=Eduardo Luis|last2=Beusterien|first2=John|last3=Menocal|first3=Narciso G.|year=1996|title=The Architectural Avant-Garde: From Art Deco to Modern Regionalism|journal=The Journal of Decorative and Propaganda Arts|volume=22|pages=256|doi=10.2307/1504156|issn=0888-7314|jstor=1504156}}</ref>

Art Deco inspiration was soon to follow, becoming a stylistic choice for both public and residential designs by private Architects in Cuba, particularly in the 1930s. A key example of this is The Bacardi Building, located in Havana, which is celebrated as an iconic building that draws inspiration from the Art Deco period. The result of an architectural design competition, the building is characterised by its marble and red granite facade.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lahabana.com/guide/edificio-bacardi/|title=Edificio Bacardí|date=17 December 2013|website=Havana City Guide|access-date=19 May 2019|archive-date=23 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160823114423/http://www.lahabana.com/guide/edificio-bacardi/|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Bacardi Building was also the very first skyscraper to be built in the city of Havana.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.atlasobscura.com/places/bacardi-building|title=Bacardi Building|website=Atlas Obscura|access-date=19 May 2019}}</ref>

=== Civil architecture=== [[File:Lonja del comercio.jpg|thumb|Lonja del Comercio building in Havana, intentionally designed for civil use as a bank and Stock exchange.|right]] After reaching independence in 1902, Cuba saw an immense building boom, with a particular focus on civil works.<ref name=":3" /> This was largely driven by an increase in population, with the number of residents in the capital of Havana doubling from 1900 to 1930, mostly due to new laws which facilitated higher rates of immigration.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lejeune|first1=Jean-François|last2=Beusterien|first2=John|last3=Menocal|first3=Narciso G.|year=1996|title=The City as Landscape: Jean Claude Nicolas Forestier and the Great Urban Works of Havana, 1925–1930|journal=The Journal of Decorative and Propaganda Arts|volume=22|pages=158|doi=10.2307/1504152|issn=0888-7314|jstor=1504152}}</ref>

The Lonja del Comercio building was constructed in 1908 by architects Tomás Our and José Mata to be used as a commercial bank and stock exchange. The design, featuring a high Renaissance inspired facade, was a reflection of new architectural preferences at the beginning of the 20th century.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lejeune|first1=Jean-François|last2=Beusterien|first2=John|last3=Menocal|first3=Narciso G.|year=1996|title=The City as Landscape: Jean Claude Nicolas Forestier and the Great Urban Works of Havana, 1925–1930|journal=The Journal of Decorative and Propaganda Arts|volume=22|pages=159|doi=10.2307/1504152|issn=0888-7314|jstor=1504152}}</ref>

=== Tropical Modernism and International Style ===

From the 1940s through the late 1950s, Cuban architecture underwent a period of rapid change that coincided with economic growth and a strong increase in international tourism. During these years, modern architecture became increasingly visible, particularly in Havana, where new hotels, entertainment venues, and civic buildings were constructed.

Tourism played an important role in encouraging large-scale architectural projects. Notable examples include the Havana Riviera Hotel, completed in 1957, and the Habana Hilton hotel,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Beyond the Supersquare: Art and Architecture in Latin America after Modernism|last=Torres|first=Mario|date=2014|publisher=Fordham University|isbn=9780823260799|pages=84|jstor=j.ctt1c5chz5|chapter=Beyond the Supersquare|doi=10.2307/j.ctt1c5chz5}}</ref> now known as the Hotel Tryp Habana Libre. The Habana Hilton was designed by North American architect Welton Becket,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.hotelhabanalibre.com/en/architects,-builders.html|title=Hotel Habana Libre – Architecture|website=hotelhabanalibre.com|access-date=7 June 2019}}</ref> and reflected the influence of international corporate modernism on the city’s skyline.

Alongside hotel construction, modern architecture also appeared in cultural and entertainment buildings. One of the most widely recognized examples is the Tropicana Cabaret, designed by Cuban architect Max Borges. Its open-air structure and use of thin concrete shells are often cited as an example of how modern architectural ideas were adapted to the tropical environment.

The period also saw the development of major cultural and institutional projects, including the National Art Schools (Cuba), designed by Ricardo Porro, Vittorio Garatti, and Roberto Gottardi, as well as the Ministry of the Interior (Cuba). These projects expanded the range of modern architecture beyond commercial and tourist-oriented buildings.

Many modern buildings constructed before the Cuban Revolution remain standing and, in some cases, largely unchanged. Cuban modern architecture is often noted for its adaptation of international modernist principles to local climatic conditions, incorporating elements such as shading, natural ventilation, and a strong relationship between buildings and landscape. Other architects associated with Cuban modernism include Mario Romañach and Frank Martínez, who contributed to the development of residential and civic architecture during this period.

=== Post-revolution (1959–1999) === After the Cuban Revolution in 1959, architecture in Cuba shifted from a largely private practice to a system dominated by state planning and public construction. Most new projects were centrally approved, and architectural priorities focused on housing, education, healthcare, and government buildings rather than commercial or private development. The U.S. embargo, introduced in the early 1960s, further limited access to construction materials and technology, strongly influencing design choices and building methods. <ref name="Lynch1979">{{Cite journal|last=Lynch|first=James|year=1979|title=Cuban Architecture since the Revolution|journal=Art Journal|volume=39|issue=2|pages=101–105|doi=10.2307/776395|issn=0004-3249|jstor=776395}}</ref>

In the early 1960s, there was a brief period of creative freedom and experimentation. Architects explored expressive forms and alternative construction techniques, often using local materials out of necessity. This moment is best represented by the ''National Art Schools'' in Havana, whose brick vaults, curving plans, and integration with the landscape contrasted sharply with earlier modernist architecture and later standardised approaches. <ref>{{Cite web|title=National Art Schools|website=World Monuments Fund|url=https://www.wmf.org/monuments/national-art-schools|access-date=2025-12-13}}</ref>

By the late 1960s, architectural policy shifted toward Soviet-influenced models that emphasised efficiency, repetition, and industrialised construction. Prefabricated concrete systems became the dominant method for housing and public buildings, allowing faster construction but often producing uniform and austere environments. Large housing developments such as Alamar in eastern Havana illustrate this phase of mass production. <ref name="Lynch1979" />

Material use followed a similar trajectory. Early projects relied heavily on brick, terracotta, and labour-intensive techniques such as masonry vaulting. In later decades, large-panel prefabrication and modular concrete systems, including the ''sistema Girón'', became widespread, reflecting the drive for speed and standardisation in construction. <ref>{{Cite web|title=Sistema Constructivo Girón|website=De Formas y Funciones|url=https://www.togores.net/arquitectura-y-diseno/budapest/giron|access-date=2025-12-13}}</ref>

Housing shortages remained one of the central challenges of the revolutionary period. In response, the state introduced ''microbrigades'' (''microbrigadas''), in which workers were temporarily released from their regular jobs, while continuing to receive their salaries, to build housing for their own communities or workplaces. Although the programme produced a significant number of dwellings, it was also criticised for inconsistent construction quality and infrastructure limitations. <ref>{{Cite journal|title=Microbrigadas in Cuba: A collective form of self-help housing|journal=Housing and Environment|volume=4|issue=1|year=1989|url=https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/BF02498031.pdf|access-date=2025-12-13}}</ref>

Alongside housing, the period produced major institutional and civic buildings tied to national development goals. University expansion was expressed in large campus projects such as the ''Ciudad Universitaria José Antonio Echeverría (CUJAE)''. One of the most prominent late-20th-century public buildings is the ''Havana Convention Center'' in Havana, completed in 1979 for the Sixth Summit of the Non-Aligned Movement. <ref>{{Cite web|title=Palacio de las Convenciones de La Habana|website=Prensa Latina|date=2024-05-29|url=https://media.prensa-latina.cu/tv/2024/05/29/palacio-de-las-convenciones-de-la-habana/|access-date=2025-12-13}}</ref>

From the 1980s onward, architectural preservation became increasingly important, particularly in Old Havana. A comprehensive restoration programme began in 1981 under the Office of the Historian of Havana, and in 1982 the historic centre was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. <ref>{{Cite web|title=Old Havana and its Fortification System|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/204|access-date=2025-12-13}}</ref>

The economic crisis of the 1990s, known as the ''Special Period'', sharply reduced new construction. At the same time, it reinforced a shift toward tourism and heritage-led development. In Old Havana, restoration projects increasingly relied on revenue generated by hotels, museums, and cultural institutions, making conservation a defining aspect of late-20th-century Cuban architectural practice. <ref>{{Cite web|title=Old Havana and its Fortification System|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/204|access-date=2025-12-13}}</ref>

== 21st century ==

=== Contemporary architecture===

While the rich history of Cuban architecture is celebrated, contemporary architecture receives less coverage in Cuba. Some academics note that modern architecture does not play an important role in Cuban culture and that architecture is not necessarily viewed in contemporary times as a desirable profession.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|url=https://cubanartnews.org/2016/02/18/on-cubas-new-unacknowledged-architecture/|title=On Cuba's New Unacknowledged Architecture|last=Paneque|first=Maya Quiroga|access-date=6 June 2019|archive-date=10 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210510070724/https://cubanartnews.org/2016/02/18/on-cubas-new-unacknowledged-architecture/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> The journal ''Arquitectura de Cuba'' was relaunched in the 1960s, however, the publication lacks funding. There remains no other modern mass media sources, including both print and television, dedicated to the architecture of Cuba at a national level.<ref name=":8" /> Cuban architects and historians suggest that the government decision to halt construction of the National Art Schools was the end of Cuba's architectural 'golden age.'<ref>{{Cite book|title=Havana modern – twentieth-century architecture and interiors.|last=Connors|first= Michael|isbn=9780847843466|oclc=1023162753|year = 2014|publisher=Rizzoli }}</ref>

However, although it does not play a large role in public discourse, contemporary architecture in Cuba does still exist. One recent project is the art space Factoria Habana, which was designed by Abiel San Miguel in 2009. The building was converted from an old industrial building, and features elements characteristic of modern architecture such as high ceilings, concrete floors and an open floor plan.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://designobserver.com/feature/cuba-libre-contemporary-architecture-in-havana/30568|title=Young architects struggle to update the face of Cuba|website=Design Observer|access-date=20 May 2019}}</ref>

Hotel buildings are also being increasingly reimagined, particularly as the Cuban government opens up to input from private sectors.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Freeman|first=Belmont|date=1 December 2014|title=History of the Present: Havana|url=https://placesjournal.org/article/history-of-the-present-havana/|journal=Places Journal|issue=2014|doi=10.22269/141201|doi-access=free}}</ref> The Gran Hotel Manzana in Havana is a key example of this, where renovations began in 2012 by French company Bouygues Bâtiment International on the original commercial building known as the Manzana de Gómez.<ref name=":10">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/09/realestate/commercial/cubas-new-luxury-hotels-look-to-lure-waves-of-us-tourists.html|title=Cuba's New Luxury Hotels Look to Lure Waves of U.S. Tourists|last=McConnon|first=Aili|date=9 May 2017|work=The New York Times|access-date=7 June 2019|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Maintaining original Art Deco features, the hotel has now been redesigned to include contemporary elements and facilities, including a rooftop terrace and pool.<ref name=":10" /> Through such buildings, it is evident that contemporary architectural structures are beginning to integrate and coexist with historic Cuban structures and buildings.

=== Future=== There have been several notable debates about the future direction of architecture in Cuba. Many contemporary architects argue that Cuban civil infrastructure, particularly in Havana, is outdated and therefore no longer providing for its citizens.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bullivant|first=Lucy|date=November 2010|title=A revolution in Cuban architecture? Castro opens up private sector|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/294674551|journal=Architectural Review|volume=228|pages=29–30}}</ref> Although a lot of architectural restoration work has been done and the city is nevertheless celebrated by tourists, Old Havana still has many buildings which are in a state of disrepair, poorly maintained or abandoned.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/man-who-saved-havana-180968735/|title=The Man Who Saved Havana|last=Perrottet|first=Néstor Martí Tony|website=Smithsonian|access-date=20 May 2019}}</ref> Many of these current restoration projects are directed by the Office of the Historian of Havana.<ref name=":0" />

However, such restoration projects are typically only in favour of buildings which drive tourism. On a wider scale and aside from government funded restoration, the economy of Cuba remains weak. The Gross domestic product (GDP) per capita was only US$12,300 in 2016; particularly low due to the oil crisis of Venezuela, a nation that is a crucial trading partner for Cuba.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/cuba/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110102915/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/cuba|url-status=dead|archive-date=10 January 2021|title=Central America :: Cuba – The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency|website=cia.gov|access-date=7 June 2019}}</ref><ref name=":10" /> Therefore, without foreign investment, Joint ventures or the restructuring of the Cuban economy, the ability for lavish architectural projects in the future is limited.<ref name=":9" />

== See also == {{portal|Architecture}} * Outline of architecture

== References== {{reflist}}

== External links== {{Commons category|Architecture of Cuba}}

* [https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/cu UNESCO World Heritage Listed Sites and Buildings in Cuba] * [https://havanaheritage.org/ The Havana Heritage Foundation] * [https://compass.fivecolleges.edu/collections/digital-photographic-archive-historic-havana/ Digital Photographic Archive of Historic Havana]- a digital archive of 1055 significant buildings in the Historic Center of Havana

{{Architecture of North America}} {{Havana landmarks|state=collapsed}} {{Authority control}}

Category:Architecture in Cuba