Antimony

{{Distinguish|||text=antinomy or antiphony}} {{About|the element|other uses|Antimony (disambiguation)}} {{Good article}} {{Use American English|date=September 2019}} {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}} {{Infobox antimony}}

'''Antimony''' is a chemical element with the symbol '''Sb''' ({{etymology|la|stibium}}) and atomic number 51. A lustrous grey metal or metalloid, it occurs in nature mainly in the form of the sulfide mineral stibnite ({{chem2|Sb2S3}}). Antimony compounds have been known since ancient times and were powdered for use as medicine and cosmetics, often known by the Arabic name kohl.

China is the largest producer of antimony and its compounds, with most production coming from the Xikuangshan Mine in Hunan. The industrial methods for refining antimony from stibnite are roasting followed by reduction with carbon, or direct reduction of stibnite with iron.

The most common applications for metallic antimony are in alloys with lead and tin, which have improved properties for solders, bullets, and plain bearings. It improves the rigidity of lead-alloy plates in lead–acid batteries. Antimony trioxide is a prominent additive for halogen-containing flame retardants. Antimony is used as a dopant in semiconductor devices.

==Characteristics==

Antimony is a member of group 15 of the periodic table. As one of the elements called pnictogens, it has an electronegativity of 2.05. In accordance with periodic trends, it is more electronegative than tin or bismuth, and less electronegative than tellurium or arsenic. As a metalloid, it has a Mohs scale hardness of 3.

Antimony is a silvery, lustrous gray solid that is stable in air at room temperature.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ashcheulov |first1=A. A. |last2=Manyk |first2=O. N. |first3=T. O. |last3=Manyk |first4=S. F. |last4=Marenkin |first5=V. R. |last5=Bilynskiy-Slotylo |date=2013 |title=Some Aspects of the Chemical Bonding in Antimony |journal=Inorganic Materials |volume=49 |issue=8 |pages=766–769 |doi=10.1134/s0020168513070017}}</ref> If heated, it reacts with oxygen to produce antimony trioxide,{{chem2|Sb2O3}}.<ref name=w758>Wiberg and Holleman, p. 758</ref> Antimony is attacked by oxidizing acids.

The stable allotrope of antimony crystallises in a trigonal cell, isomorphic with bismuth and the gray allotrope of arsenic.

A yellow allotrope of antimony, assumed to be analogous to yellow arsenic, forms by oxidation of stibine ({{chem2|SbH3}}) with air or oxygen at −90 °C.<ref name="allotropes"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Krebs |first1=H. |last2=Schultze-Gebhardt |first2=F. |last3=Thees |first3=R. |date=1955 |language=de |title=Über die Struktur und die Eigenschaften der Halbmetalle. IX: Die Allotropie des Antimons |journal=Zeitschrift für anorganische und allgemeine Chemie |volume=282 |issue=1–6 |pages=177–195 |doi=10.1002/zaac.19552820121 |bibcode=1955ZAACh.282..177K}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stock |first1=Alfred |last2=Guttmann |first2=Oskar |title=Ueber den Antimonwasserstoff und das gelbe Antimon |journal=Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft |date=1904 |volume=37 |pages=885–900 |doi=10.1002/cber.190403701148}}</ref> At ambient temperatures and in ambient light, it transforms into the more stable black allotrope.<ref name="kirk"/><ref>{{harvnb|Norman|1998}}, [{{GBUrl|vVhpurkfeN4C|PA50}} pp. 50–51]</ref> A rare explosive form of antimony can be formed from the electrolysis of antimony trichloride, but it always contains appreciable chlorine and is not really an antimony allotrope.<ref name="allotropes">{{RubberBible82nd|page=4-4}}</ref> When scratched with a sharp implement, an exothermic reaction occurs and white fumes are given off as metallic antimony forms; when rubbed with a pestle in a mortar, a strong detonation occurs.

Elemental antimony adopts a layered structure (space group R{{overline|3}}m No. 166) whose layers consist of fused, ruffled, six-membered rings. The nearest and next-nearest neighbors form an irregular octahedral complex, with the three atoms in each double layer slightly closer than the three atoms in the next. This relatively close packing leads to a high density of 6.697 g/cm3, but the weak bonding between the layers leads to the low hardness and brittleness of antimony.<ref name=w758/>

===Isotopes=== {{Main|Isotopes of antimony}} Antimony has two stable isotopes: {{chem2|^{121}Sb}} with a natural abundance of 57.21% and {{chem2|^{123}Sb}} with a natural abundance of 42.79%. There are 37 artificial radioactive isotopes known with mass numbers 104 to 142, of which the longest-lived is the fission product {{chem2|^{125}Sb}} with a half-life of 2.758 years. Numerous meta states are known, of which the most stable is {{chem2|^{120m1}Sb}} with a half-life of 5.76 days. Isotopes that are lighter than the stable {{chem2|^{123}Sb}} tend to undergo β+ decay, and those that are heavier experience β− decay, with some exceptions.<ref>{{NUBASE2020}}</ref>

===Occurrence=== {{See also|Category:Antimonide minerals|Category:Antimonate minerals}} [[File:Stibnite.jpg|thumb|Stibnite, China CM29287 Carnegie Museum of Natural History specimen on display in Hillman Hall of Minerals and Gems]] The abundance of antimony in the Earth's crust is estimated at 0.2 parts per million,<ref name="g548">Greenwood and Earnshaw, p. 548</ref> comparable to thallium at 0.5 ppm and silver at 0.07 ppm. It is the 63rd most abundant element in the crust. Even though this element is not abundant, it is found in more than 100 mineral species.<ref>[https://www.mindat.org/chemsearch.php?inc=Sb&exc=&class=0&sub=Search+Minerals Antimony minerals]. mindat.org</ref> Antimony is sometimes found natively (e.g. on Antimony Peak), but more frequently it is found in the sulfide stibnite ({{chem2|Sb2S3}}) which is the predominant ore mineral.<ref name="g548"/>

==Compounds== {{See also|Category:Antimony compounds}} Antimony compounds are often classified according to their oxidation state: Sb(III) and Sb(V). The +5 oxidation state is more common.<ref>Greenwood and Earnshaw, p. 553</ref>

===Oxides and hydroxides=== Antimony trioxide is formed when antimony is burnt in air.<ref>{{cite book |title=Chemistry: Principles and Practice |author=Reger, Daniel L. |author2=Goode, Scott R. |author3=Ball, David W. |name-list-style=amp |edition=3rd |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OUIaM1V3ThsC&pg=PA883 |publisher=Cengage Learning |date=2009 |isbn=978-0-534-42012-3 |page=883}}</ref> In the gas phase, the molecule of the compound is {{chem2|Sb4O6}}, but it polymerizes upon condensing.<ref name=w758/> Antimony pentoxide ({{chem2|Sb4O10}}) can be formed only by oxidation with concentrated nitric acid.<ref name="house">{{cite book |title=Inorganic chemistry |publisher=Academic Press |author=House, James E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ocKWuxOur-kC&pg=PA502 |date=2008 |isbn=978-0-12-356786-4 |page=502}}</ref> Antimony also forms a mixed-valence oxide, antimony tetroxide ({{chem2|Sb2O4}}), which features both Sb(III) and Sb(V).<ref name="house"/> Unlike oxides of phosphorus and arsenic, these oxides are amphoteric, do not form well-defined oxoacids, and react with acids to form antimony salts.

Antimonous acid {{chem2|Sb(OH)3}} is unknown, but the conjugate base sodium antimonite ({{chem2|[Na3SbO3]4}}) forms upon fusing sodium oxide and {{chem2|Sb4O6}}.<ref>Wiberg and Holleman, p. 763</ref> Transition metal antimonites are also known.<ref name="norman">{{cite book |title=Chemistry of arsenic, antimony, and bismuth |author=Godfrey, S. M. |author2=McAuliffe, C. A. |author3=Mackie, A. G. |author4=Pritchard, R. G. |name-list-style=amp |editor-last=Norman |editor-first=Nicholas C. |publisher=Springer |date=1998 |isbn=978-0-7514-0389-3 |ref={{harvid|Norman |1998}}}}</ref>{{rp|122}} Antimonic acid exists only as the hydrate {{chem2|HSb(OH)6}}, forming salts as the antimonate anion {{chem2|Sb(OH)6-}}. When a solution containing this anion is dehydrated, the precipitate contains mixed oxides.<ref name="norman"/>{{rp|143}}

The most important antimony ore is stibnite ({{chem2|Sb2S3}}). Other sulfide minerals include pyrargyrite ({{chem2|Ag3SbS3}}), zinkenite, jamesonite, and boulangerite.<ref>Wiberg and Holleman, p. 757</ref> Antimony pentasulfide is non-stoichiometric, which features antimony in the +3 oxidation state and S–S bonds.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/0020-1650(69)80231-X |title=The oxidation number of antimony in antimony pentasulfide |date=1969 |last1=Long |first1=G. |journal=Inorganic and Nuclear Chemistry Letters |volume=5 |page=21 |last2=Stevens |first2=J. G. |last3=Bowen |first3=L. H. |last4=Ruby |first4=S. L.}}</ref> Several thioantimonides are known, such as {{chem2|[Sb6S10](2-)}} and {{chem2|[Sb8S13](2-)}}.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.jpcs.2006.12.010 |title=The synthesis and characterisation of four new antimony sulphides incorporating transition-metal complexes |date=2007 |last1=Lees |first1=R. |last2=Powell |first2=A. |last3=Chippindale |first3=A. |journal=Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids |volume=68 |page=1215 |bibcode=2007JPCS...68.1215L |issue=5–6}}</ref>

===Halides=== Antimony forms two series of halides: {{chem2|SbX3}} and {{chem2|SbX5}}. The trihalides {{chem2|SbF3|link=antimony trifluoride}}, {{chem2|SbCl3|link=antimony trichloride}}, {{chem2|SbBr3|link=antimony tribromide}}, and {{chem2|SbI3|link=antimony triiodide}} are all molecular compounds having trigonal pyramidal molecular geometry. The trifluoride is prepared by the reaction of antimony trioxide with hydrofluoric acid:<ref>Wiberg and Holleman, pp. 761–762</ref> {{block indent|{{chem2|Sb2O3 + 6 HF -> 2 SbF3 + 3 H2O}}}} It is Lewis acidic and readily accepts fluoride ions to form the complex anions {{chem2|SbF4-}} and {{chem2|SbF5(2-)}}. Molten antimony trifluoride is a weak electrical conductor. The trichloride is prepared by dissolving stibnite in hydrochloric acid:<ref name="Ullmann"/> {{bi|{{chem2|Sb2S3 + 6 HCl -> 2 SbCl3 + 3 H2S}}}} Arsenic sulfides are not readily attacked by the hydrochloric acid, so this method offers a route to As-free Sb.

thumb|upright|left|Structure of gaseous {{chem2|SbF5}} The pentahalides {{chem2|SbF5|link=antimony pentafluoride}} and {{chem2|SbCl5|link=antimony pentachloride}} have trigonal bipyramidal molecular geometry in the gas phase, but in the liquid phase, {{chem2|SbF5}} is polymeric, whereas {{chem2|SbCl5}} is monomeric.<ref>Wiberg and Holleman, p. 761</ref> Antimony pentafluoride is a powerful Lewis acid used to make the superacid fluoroantimonic acid ({{chem2|H2F+*SbF6-}}).

Oxohalides are more common for antimony than for arsenic and phosphorus. Antimony trioxide dissolves in concentrated acid to form oxoantimonyl compounds such as SbOCl and {{chem2|(SbO)2SO4}}.<ref>Wiberg and Holleman, p. 764</ref>

===Antimonides, hydrides, and organoantimony compounds=== Compounds in this class generally are described as derivatives of {{chem2|Sb(3-)}}. Antimony forms antimonides with metals, such as indium antimonide (InSb) and silver antimonide ({{chem2|Ag3Sb}}).<ref>Wiberg and Holleman, p. 760</ref> The alkali metal and zinc antimonides, such as {{chem2|Na3Sb}} and {{chem2|Zn3Sb2}}, are more reactive. Treating these antimonides with acid produces the highly unstable gas stibine, {{chem2|SbH3}}:<ref>{{cite book |title=Outlines of Chemistry – A Textbook for College Students |author=Kahlenberg, Louis |publisher=READ BOOKS |date=2008 |isbn=978-1-4097-6995-8 |pages=324–325}}</ref> {{bi|{{chem2|Sb(3-) + 3 H+ -> SbH3}}}} Stibine can also be produced by treating {{chem2|Sb(3+)}} salts with hydride reagents such as sodium borohydride. Stibine decomposes spontaneously at room temperature. Because stibine has a positive heat of formation, it is thermodynamically unstable and thus antimony does not react with hydrogen directly.<ref>Greenwood and Earnshaw, p. 558</ref>

Organoantimony compounds are typically prepared by alkylation of antimony halides with Grignard reagents.<ref>Elschenbroich, C. (2006) "Organometallics". Wiley-VCH: Weinheim. {{ISBN|3-527-29390-6}}</ref> A large variety of compounds are known with both Sb(III) and Sb(V) centers, including mixed chloro-organic derivatives, anions, and cations. Examples include triphenylstibine ({{chem2|Sb(C6H5)3}}) and pentaphenylantimony ({{chem2|Sb(C6H5)5}}).<ref>Greenwood and Earnshaw, p. 598</ref>

==History== [[File:antimony symbol.svg|upright=0.3|thumb|alt=An unshaded circle surmounted by a cross.|One of the alchemical symbols for antimony]]

Antimony(III) sulfide, {{chem2|Sb2S3}}, was recognized in predynastic Egypt as an eye cosmetic (kohl) as early as about 3100 BC, when the cosmetic palette was invented.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1475-4754.2006.00279.x |title=Application of Lead Isotope Analysis to a Wide Range of Late Bronze Age Egyptian Materials |date=2006 |last1=Shortland |first1=A. J. |journal=Archaeometry |volume=48 |issue=4 |page=657 |bibcode=2006Archa..48..657S}}</ref>

An artifact, said to be part of a vase, made of antimony dating to about 3000 BC was found at Telloh, Chaldea (part of present-day Iraq), and a copper object plated with antimony dating between 2500 BC and 2200 BC has been found in Egypt.<ref name="kirk"/> Austen, at a lecture by Herbert Gladstone in 1892, commented that "we only know of antimony at the present day as a highly brittle and crystalline metal, which could hardly be fashioned into a useful vase, and therefore this remarkable 'find' (artifact mentioned above) must represent the lost art of rendering antimony malleable."<ref name="moorey">{{cite book |last=Moorey |first=P. R. S. |date=1994 |title=Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: the Archaeological Evidence |place=New York |publisher=Clarendon Press |page=241 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P_Ixuott4doC&pg=PA241 |isbn=978-1-57506-042-2}}</ref>

The British archaeologist Roger Moorey was unconvinced the artifact was indeed a vase, mentioning that Selimkhanov, after his analysis of the Tello object (published in 1975), "attempted to relate the metal to Transcaucasian natural antimony" (i.e. native metal) and that "the antimony objects from Transcaucasia are all small personal ornaments."<ref name="moorey"/> This weakens the evidence for a lost art "of rendering antimony malleable".<ref name="moorey"/>

The Roman scholar Pliny the Elder described several ways of preparing antimony sulfide for medical purposes in his treatise ''Natural History'', around 77 AD.<ref name="mellor">{{cite book |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/comprehensivetre0009mell/page/338/ |chapter=Antimony |page=339 |title=A comprehensive treatise on inorganic and theoretical chemistry |volume=9 |author=Mellor, Joseph William |date=1964}}</ref> Pliny the Elder also made a distinction between "male" and "female" forms of antimony; the male form is probably the sulfide, while the female form, which is superior, heavier, and less friable, has been suspected to be native metallic antimony.<ref>Pliny, ''Natural history'', 33.33; W.H.S. Jones, the Loeb Classical Library translator, supplies a note suggesting the identifications.</ref>

The Greek naturalist Pedanius Dioscorides mentioned that antimony sulfide could be roasted by heating by a current of air. It is thought that this produced metallic antimony.<ref name="mellor"/>

[[File:Specola, medaglione di vannoccio biringucci.JPG|thumb|right|upright=0.9|The Italian metallurgist Vannoccio Biringuccio described a procedure to isolate antimony in 1540.]]

Antimony was frequently described in alchemical manuscripts, including the ''Summa Perfectionis'' of Pseudo-Geber, written around the 14th century.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1515/9783110668711 |title=Antimony |date=2021 |editor1-last=Filella |editor1-first=Montserrat |isbn=978-3-11-066871-1 |url=https://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige:153699 |page=4 |publisher=De Gruyter}}</ref> A description of a procedure for isolating antimony is later given in the 1540 book ''De la pirotechnia'' by Vannoccio Biringuccio,<ref>Vannoccio Biringuccio, [https://library.si.edu/digital-library/book/delapirotechnial00biri ''De la Pirotechnia''] (Venice (Italy): Curtio Navo e fratelli, 1540), Book 2, chapter 3: ''Del antimonio & sua miniera, Capitolo terzo'' (On antimony and its ore, third chapter), pp. 27–28. [Note: Only every second page of this book is numbered, so the relevant passage is to be found on the 74th and 75th pages of the text.] (in Italian)</ref> predating the more famous 1556 book by Agricola, ''De re metallica''. In this context Agricola has been often incorrectly credited with the discovery of metallic antimony. The book ''Currus Triumphalis Antimonii'' (The Triumphal Chariot of Antimony), describing the preparation of metallic antimony, was published in Germany in 1604. It was purported to be written by a Benedictine monk, writing under the name Basilius Valentinus in the 15th century; if it were authentic, which it is not, it would predate Biringuccio.{{efn|Already in 1710 Wilhelm Gottlob Freiherr von Leibniz, after careful inquiry, concluded the work was spurious, there was no monk named Basilius Valentinus, and the book's author was its ostensible editor, Johann Thölde (c. 1565 – c. 1624). Professional historians now agree the ''Currus Triumphalis ...'' was written after the middle of the 16th century and Thölde was likely its author.<ref>{{cite book |editor=Priesner, Claus |editor2=Figala, Karin |date=1998 |title=Alchemie. Lexikon einer hermetischen Wissenschaft |isbn=3406441068 |place=München |publisher=C.H. Beck |language=de}}</ref> Harold Jantz was perhaps the only modern scholar to deny Thölde's authorship, but he too agrees the work dates from after 1550.<ref>[https://assets.cengage.com/gale/psm/2025000R.pdf Harold Jantz Collection of German Baroque Literature Reel Listing].</ref>|name=priesner}}<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1021/ed009p11 |title=The discovery of the elements. II. Elements known to the alchemists |date=1932 |last1=Weeks |first1=Mary Elvira |author-link1=Mary Elvira Weeks |journal=Journal of Chemical Education |volume=9 |issue=1 |page=11 |bibcode=1932JChEd...9...11W}}</ref>

The metal antimony was known to German chemist Andreas Libavius in 1615 who obtained it by adding iron to a molten mixture of antimony sulfide, salt, and potassium tartrate. This procedure produced antimony with a crystalline or starred surface.<ref name="mellor"/>

With the advent of challenges to phlogiston theory, it was recognized that antimony is an element forming sulfides, oxides, and other compounds, as do other metals.<ref name="mellor"/>

The first discovery of naturally occurring pure antimony in the Earth's crust was described by the Swedish scientist and local mine district engineer {{ill|Anton von Swab|sv}} in 1783; the type-sample was collected from the Sala Silver Mine in the Bergslagen mining district of Sala, Västmanland, Sweden.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.mindat.org/min-262.html |title=Native antimony |publisher=Mindat.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/14786440308676406 |title=XL. Extracts from the third volume of the analyses |date=1803 |last1=Klaproth |first1=M. |journal=Philosophical Magazine |series=Series 1 |volume=17 |issue=67 |page=230 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qxtRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA230 |url-access=subscription}}</ref>

Coins of antimony were issued in China's Guizhou in 1931; durability was poor, and minting was soon discontinued because of its softness and toxicity.<ref>{{cite web |title=Metals Used in Coins and Medals |publisher=ukcoinpics.co.uk |url=http://www.ukcoinpics.co.uk/metal.html |access-date=16 October 2009 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101226044427/http://www.ukcoinpics.co.uk/metal.html |archive-date=26 December 2010}}</ref>

===Etymology=== The medieval Latin form, from which the modern languages and late Byzantine Greek take their names for antimony, is ''{{Lang|la|antimonium}}''.<ref>{{cite web |date=May 22, 2024 |orig-date=July 20, 1998 |title=antimony |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/antimony |access-date=June 10, 2024 |website=Britannica.com}}</ref> The origin of that is uncertain, and all suggestions have some difficulty either of form or interpretation. The popular etymology, from ἀντίμοναχός ''anti-monachos'' or French {{Lang|fr|antimoine}}, would mean "monk-killer", which is explained by the fact that many early alchemists were monks, and some antimony compounds were poisonous.<ref>{{cite book |author=Fernando, Diana |isbn=9780713726688 |title=Alchemy: an illustrated A to Z |date=1998 |publisher=Blandford}} Fernando connects the proposed etymology to the story of "Basil Valentine", although ''antimonium'' is found two centuries before Valentine's time.</ref>

Another popular etymology is the hypothetical Greek word ἀντίμόνος ''antimonos'', "against aloneness", explained as "not found as metal", or "not found unalloyed".<ref name="kirk">"Antimony" in ''Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology'', 5th ed. 2004. {{ISBN|978-0-471-48494-3}}</ref> However, ancient Greek would more naturally express the pure negative as ''α-'' ("not").<ref>{{cite OED |Antimony}}, which considers the derivation a "popular etymology".</ref> Edmund Oscar von Lippmann conjectured a hypothetical Greek word ανθήμόνιον ''anthemonion'', which would mean "floret", and cites several examples of related Greek words (but not that one) which describe chemical or biological efflorescence.<ref name="Lippmann">von Lippmann, Edmund Oscar (1919) Entstehung und Ausbreitung der Alchemie, teil 1. Berlin: Julius Springer (in German). pp. 642–5</ref>

The early uses of ''antimonium'' include the translations, in 1050–1100, by Constantine the African of Arabic medical treatises.<ref name="Lippmann"/> Several authorities believe ''antimonium'' is a scribal corruption of some Arabic form; Meyerhof derives it from ''ithmid'';<ref>Meyerhof as quoted in {{harvnb|Sarton|1935}}, asserts that ''ithmid'' or ''athmoud'' became corrupted in the medieval "traductions barbaro-latines". The ''OED'' asserts some Arabic form is the origin, and if ''ithmid'' is the root, posits ''athimodium, atimodium, atimonium'' as intermediates.</ref> other possibilities include ''athimar'', the Arabic name of the metalloid, and a hypothetical ''as-stimmi'', derived from or parallel to the Greek.<ref name="e28">{{cite journal |author=Endlich, F. M. |title=On Some Interesting Derivations of Mineral Names |journal=The American Naturalist |volume=22 |issue=253 |date=1888 |jstor=2451020 |pages=21–32 |doi=10.1086/274630 |doi-access=free |bibcode=1888ANat...22...21E}}</ref>{{rp|28}}

The standard chemical symbol for antimony (Sb) is credited to Jöns Jakob Berzelius, who derived the abbreviation from ''stibium''.<ref>Jöns Jacob Berzelius, "Essay on the cause of chemical proportions, and on some circumstances relating to them: together with a short and easy method of expressing them," ''Annals of Philosophy'', vol. 2, pages 443–454 (1813) and vol. 3, pages 51–62, 93–106, 244–255, 353–364 (1814). On [{{GBUrl|E8M4AAAAMAAJ|PA52}} p. 52], Berzelius lists the symbol for antimony as "St"; however, starting from [{{GBUrl|E8M4AAAAMAAJ|PA248}} p. 248], Berzelius consistently uses the symbol "Sb" instead.</ref>

The ancient words for antimony mostly have, as their chief meaning, ''kohl'', the sulfide of antimony.<ref>{{cite web |last=Helmenstine |first=Anne |date=2024-07-09 |title=Antimony Facts - Symbol, Definition, Uses |url=https://sciencenotes.org/antimony-facts-symbol-definition-uses/ |access-date=2024-10-30 |website=Science Notes and Projects |language=en-US}}</ref>

The Egyptians called antimony ''mśdmt''<ref>{{cite journal |last=Albright |first=W. F. |title=Notes on Egypto-Semitic Etymology. II |journal=The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures |volume=34 |issue=4 |date=1918 |jstor=528157 |pages=215–255 |doi=10.1086/369866}}</ref>{{rp|230}}<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sarton |first=George |date=1935 |title=Review of ''Al-morchid fi'l-kohhl, ou Le guide d'oculistique'' (Translated by Max Meyerhof) |journal=Isis |volume=22 |issue=2 |language=fr |jstor=225136 |pages=539–542 |doi=10.1086/346926}}</ref>{{rp|541}} or ''stm''.<ref name="etym">{{OEtymD|antimony}}</ref>

The Arabic word for the substance, as opposed to the cosmetic, can appear as {{Lang|ar|إثمد}} ''ithmid, athmoud, othmod'', or ''uthmod''. Littré suggests the first form, which is the earliest, derives from ''stimmida'', an accusative for ''stimmi''.<ref name="e28"/><ref>{{multiref|LSJ, ''s.v.'', vocalisation, spelling, and declension vary|Celsus, 6.6.6 ff|Pliny ''Natural History'' 33.33|Lewis and Short: ''Latin Dictionary''|''OED'', s. "antimony"}}</ref> The Greek word στίμμι (stimmi) is used by Attic tragic poets of the 5th century BC, and is possibly a loan word from Arabic or from Egyptian ''stm''.<ref name="etym"/>

==Production== ===Process=== The extraction of antimony from ores depends on the quality and composition of the ore. Most antimony is mined as the sulfide; lower-grade ores are concentrated by froth flotation, while higher-grade ores are heated to 500–600 °C, the temperature at which stibnite melts and separates from the gangue minerals. Antimony can be isolated from the crude antimony sulfide by reduction with scrap iron:<ref name="usgs2"/> {{bi|{{chem2|Sb2S3 + 3 Fe -> 2 Sb + 3 FeS}}}}

The sulfide is converted to an oxide by roasting. The product is further purified by vaporizing the volatile antimony(III) oxide, which is recovered.<ref name="Ullmann"/> This sublimate is often used directly for the main applications, impurities being arsenic and sulfide.<ref name="Norm">{{harvnb|Norman|1998}}, [{{GBUrl|vVhpurkfeN4C|PA45}} p. 45]</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2003.10.014 |title=Antimony distribution and environmental mobility at an historic antimony smelter site, New Zealand |date=2004 |last1=Wilson |first1=N. J. |last2=Craw |first2=D. |last3=Hunter |first3=K. |journal=Environmental Pollution |volume=129 |issue=2 |pages=257–66 |pmid=14987811 |bibcode=2004EPoll.129..257W}}</ref> Antimony is isolated from the oxide by a carbothermal reduction:<ref name="usgs2"/><ref name="Norm"/> {{bi|{{chem2|2 Sb2O3 + 3 C -> 4 Sb + 3 CO2}}}}

The lower-grade ores are reduced in blast furnaces while the higher-grade ores are reduced in reverberatory furnaces.<ref name="usgs2"/>

thumb|upright=1.6|World antimony output in 2010<ref name="usgs"/> thumb|upright=1.3|World production trend of antimony

===Top producers and production volumes=== In 2022, according to the US Geological Survey, China accounted for 54.5% of total antimony production, followed in second place by Russia with 18.2% and Tajikistan with 15.5%.<ref name="usgs">{{cite web |url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2023/mcs2023-antimony.pdf |title=Antimony Statistics and Information |website=National Minerals Information Center |publisher=USGS}}</ref>

{|class="wikitable" |+Antimony mining in 2022<ref name="usgs"/> ! Country !! Tonnes !! % of total |- |{{flag|China}} |60,000 |54.5 |- |{{flag|Russia}} |20,000 |18.2 |- |{{flag|Tajikistan}} |17,000 |15.5 |- |{{flag|Myanmar}} |4,000 |3.6 |- |{{flag|Australia}} |4,000 |3.6 |- |''Top 5'' |105,000 |95.5 |- !Total world !110,000 !100.0 |}

Chinese production of antimony is expected to decline in the future as mines and smelters are closed down by the government as part of pollution control and stricter environmental rules.<ref name="DG">{{cite web |last=S |first=Saptakee |date=2025-03-06 |title=The Future of Antimony: Rising Prices, Supply Chain Risks, and Demand Growth |url=https://carboncredits.com/the-future-of-antimony-rising-prices-supply-chain-risks-and-demand-growth/ |access-date=2025-07-28 |website=Carbon Credits |language=en-US}}</ref> Especially due to an environmental protection law having gone into effect in January 2015<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.chinadialogue.net/Environmental-Protection-Law-2014-eversion.pdf |title=Environmental Protection Law of the People's Republic of China |date=24 April 2014 |access-date=14 October 2016 |archive-date=2 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140602113948/https://www.chinadialogue.net/Environmental-Protection-Law-2014-eversion.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref> and revised "Emission Standards of Pollutants for Stanum, Antimony, and Mercury" having gone into effect, hurdles for economic production are higher.

Reported production of antimony in China has fallen and is unlikely to increase in the coming years, according to the Roskill report. No significant antimony deposits in China have been developed for about ten years, and the remaining economic reserves are being rapidly depleted.<ref name="Roskill">{{cite web |url=http://www.ancoa.com.au/RoskillCRT.pdf |title=Study of the antimony market by Roskill Consulting Group |access-date=9 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121018034957/http://www.ancoa.com.au/RoskillCRT.pdf |archive-date=18 October 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Myanmar is also facing supply disruptions due to political unrest.<ref name="DG"/>

===Reserves=== {|class="wikitable" |+World antimony reserves in 2022<ref name="usgs"/> ! Country !! Reserves (tonnes) |- |{{flag|China}} |670,000 |- |{{flag|Russia}} |350,000 |- |{{flag|Bolivia}} |310,000 |- |{{flag|Kyrgyzstan}} |260,000 |- |{{flag|Myanmar}} |140,000 |- |{{flag|Australia}} |120,000 |- |{{flag|Turkey}} |100,000 |- |{{flag|Canada}} |78,000 |- |{{flag|United States}} |60,000 |- |{{flag|Slovakia}} |60,000 |- |{{flag|Tajikistan}} |50,000 |- !scope="row"|Total world |>2,470,000 |}

===Supply risk=== For antimony-importing regions, such as Europe and the U.S., antimony is considered to be a critical mineral for industrial manufacturing that is at risk of supply chain disruption. With global production (in 2019) coming mainly from China (74%), Tajikistan (8%), and Russia (4%), these sources are critical to supply.<ref name="EU Raw 2020"/><ref name="Nassar SciAdv 2020">{{cite journal |last=Nassar |first=Nedal T. |display-authors=etal |title=Evaluating the mineral commodity supply risk of the U.S. manufacturing sector |journal=Sci. Adv. |volume=6 |issue=8 |article-number=eaay8647 |date=2020-02-21 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.aay8647 |pmid=32128413 |pmc=7035000 |bibcode=2020SciA....6.8647N}}</ref> ;European Union: Antimony is considered a critical raw material for defense, automotive, construction, and textiles. In 2019, the E.U. sources were 100% imported, coming mainly from Turkey (62%), Bolivia (20%), and Guatemala (7%).<ref name="EU Raw 2020">{{cite web |title=Critical Raw Materials Resilience: Charting a Path towards greater Security and Sustainability |url=https://ec.europa.eu/docsroom/documents/42849 |publisher=European Commission |date=2020 |access-date=2 February 2022}}</ref> ;United Kingdom: The British Geological Survey's 2015 risk list ranked antimony second highest (after rare-earth elements) on the relative supply risk index.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bgs.ac.uk/mineralsuk/statistics/risklist.html |title=MineralsUK Risk List 2015 |publisher=BGS}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=British Geological Survey Risk list 2015 |url=https://www2.bgs.ac.uk/mineralsuk/download/statistics/risk_list_2015.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www2.bgs.ac.uk/mineralsuk/download/statistics/risk_list_2015.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |website=Minerals UK |publisher=BGS |access-date=2 February 2022}}</ref> ;United States: Antimony is a mineral commodity considered critical to the economic and national security.<ref name='"USGS May 2018 News"'>{{cite web |title=Interior Releases 2018's Final List of Critical Minerals |url=https://www.usgs.gov/news/national-news-release/interior-releases-2018s-final-list-35-minerals-deemed-critical-us |publisher=United States Geological Survey |access-date=1 February 2022}}</ref><ref name="Nassar SciAdv 2020"/> In 2021, no antimony was mined in the U.S.<ref name='"USGS 2022'>{{cite book |title=U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2022 |chapter=Antimony |url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2022/mcs2022-antimony.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2022/mcs2022-antimony.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |access-date=1 February 2022}}</ref> In December 2024, the PR China has banned export of critical minerals.<ref>reuters.com 3 Dec 2025: [https://www.reuters.com/markets/commodities/china-bans-exports-gallium-germanium-antimony-us-2024-12-03/ ''China bans export of critical minerals to US as trade tensions escalate'']</ref><ref>reuters.com 9 July 2025: [https://www.reuters.com/business/autos-transportation/how-us-buyers-critical-minerals-bypass-chinas-export-ban-2025-07-09/ ''How US buyers of critical minerals bypass China's export ban'']</ref>

==Applications== In 2017, approximately 48% of antimony was consumed in flame retardants, 33% in lead–acid batteries, and 8% in plastics.<ref name="usgs2"/>

===Flame retardants=== Antimony is mainly used as the trioxide for flame-proofing compounds, always in combination with halogenated flame retardants except in halogen-containing polymers. The flame retarding effect of antimony trioxide is produced by the formation of halogenated antimony compounds,<ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZG9VFSBnIPAC&pg=PA61 |chapter=Antimony trioxide and Related Compounds |title=Flame retardants for plastics and textiles: Practical applications |isbn=978-3-446-41652-9 |last1=Weil |first1=Edward D. |last2=Levchik |first2=Sergei V. |date=4 June 2009 |publisher=Hanser}}</ref> which react with hydrogen atoms, and probably also with oxygen atoms and OH radicals, thus inhibiting fire.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/0010-2180(73)90006-0 |title=Mass spectrometric studies of flame inhibition: Analysis of antimony trihalides in flames |date=1973 |last1=Hastie |first1=John W. |journal=Combustion and Flame |volume=21 |issue=1 |page=49 |bibcode=1973CoFl...21...49H}}</ref> Markets for these flame-retardants include children's clothing, toys, aircraft, and automobile seat covers. They are also added to polyester resins in fiberglass composites for such items as light aircraft engine covers. The resin will burn in the presence of an externally generated flame, but will extinguish when the external flame is removed.<ref name="Ullmann">Grund, Sabina C.; Hanusch, Kunibert; Breunig, Hans J.; Wolf, Hans Uwe (2006) "Antimony and Antimony Compounds" in ''Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry'', Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. {{doi|10.1002/14356007.a03_055.pub2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZG9VFSBnIPAC&pg=PA15 |pages=15–16 |title=Flame retardants for plastics and textiles: Practical applications |isbn=978-3-446-41652-9 |last1=Weil |first1=Edward D. |last2=Levchik |first2=Sergei V. |date=4 June 2009 |publisher=Hanser}}</ref> Antimony trioxide is also used as a synergist with brominated flame retardants in housings and plastic parts for electrical and electronic equipment (e.g., HIPS/ABS enclosures) to meet flammability standards such as UL 94.<ref>{{cite web |title=Decabromodiphenyl ether (decaBDE) substitution in TV enclosures |url=https://www.uml.edu/docs/Decabromodiphenylether%20An%20Investigation_tcm18-229890.pdf |website=University of Massachusetts Lowell |date=15 April 2005 |access-date=17 September 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Decabromodiphenyl Ether (PEC 41) |url=https://www.industrialchemicals.gov.au/sites/default/files/PEC41-Decabromodiphenyl-Ether.pdf |publisher=Australian Industrial Chemicals Introduction Scheme |access-date=17 September 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Hidden Uses of Antimony in Modern Technology |url=https://minetometal.com/antimony-uses/ |website=MineToMetal.com |date=20 May 2025 |access-date=17 September 2025}}</ref>

===Alloys=== Antimony forms a highly useful alloy with lead, increasing its hardness and mechanical strength. When casting it increases fluidity of the melt and reduces shrinkage during cooling.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Butterman |first1=W.C. |last2=Carlin, Jr. |first2=J.F. |year=2004 |title=Mineral Commodity Profiles - Antimony |url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2003/of03-019/of03-019.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240324185146/https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2003/of03-019/of03-019.pdf |archive-date=24 March 2024 |access-date=18 July 2024 |website=U.S. Geological Survey}}</ref> For most applications involving lead, varying amounts of antimony are used as alloying metal. In lead–acid batteries, this addition improves plate strength and charging characteristics.<ref name="Ullmann"/><ref>{{cite book |chapter=Types of Alloys |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1HSsx9fPAKkC&pg=PA60 |title=Battery Technology Handbook |first=Heinz Albert |last=Kiehne |publisher=CRC Press |date=2003 |pages=60–61 |isbn=978-0-8247-4249-2}}</ref> For sailboats, lead keels are used to provide righting moment, ranging from 600 lbs to over 200 tons for the largest sailing superyachts; to improve hardness and tensile strength of the lead keel, antimony is mixed with lead between 2% and 5% by volume. Antimony is used in antifriction alloys (such as Babbitt metal),<ref>{{cite book |pages=46–47 |isbn=978-1-4067-4671-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KR82QRlAgUwC&pg=PA46 |title=Principles of Metallography |last=Williams |first=Robert S. |publisher=Read books |date=2007}}</ref> in bullets and lead shot, electrical cable sheathing, type metal (for example, for Linotype machines<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IYZezyEvZ78C&pg=PA399 |title=Inorganic Chemistry – A Textbook for Colleges and Schools |first=E. J. |last=Holmyard |date=2008 |isbn=978-1-4437-2253-7 |pages=399–400 |publisher=Read Books}}</ref>), solder (some "lead-free" solders contain 5% Sb),<ref>{{cite journal |first1=H. |last1=Ipser |first2=H. |last2=Flandorfer |first3=Ch. |last3=Luef |first4=C. |last4=Schmetterer |first5=U. |last5=Saeed |title=Thermodynamics and phase diagrams of lead-free solder materials |journal=Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Electronics |volume=18 |date=2007 |doi=10.1007/s10854-006-9009-3 |pages=3–17 |issue=1–3}}</ref> in pewter,<ref>{{cite book |last=Hull |first=Charles |title=Pewter |publisher=Osprey Publishing |date=1992 |isbn=978-0-7478-0152-8 |pages=1–5}}</ref> and in hardening alloys with low tin content in the manufacturing of organ pipes.

===Other applications=== [[File:InSb IR detector.jpg|thumb|upright|InSb infrared detector manufactured by Mullard in the 1960s]] Three other applications consume nearly all the rest of the world's supply.<ref name="usgs2">{{cite web |last1=Klochko |first1=Kateryna |date=2021 |title=2017 Minerals Yearbook: Antimony |url=https://d9-wret.s3.us-west-2.amazonaws.com/assets/palladium/production/atoms/files/myb1-2017-antim.pdf |publisher=United States Geological Survey}}</ref> One application is as a stabilizer and catalyst for the production of polyethylene terephthalate.<ref name="usgs2"/> Another is as a fining agent to remove microscopic bubbles in glass, mostly for TV screens;<ref>{{cite book |last1=De Jong |first1=Bernard H. W. S. |title=Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry |last2=Beerkens |first2=Ruud G. C. |last3=Van Nijnatten |first3=Peter A. |date=2000 |isbn=978-3-527-30673-2 |chapter=Glass |doi=10.1002/14356007.a12_365}}</ref> antimony ions interact with oxygen, suppressing the tendency of the latter to form bubbles.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yamashita |first1=H. |last2=Yamaguchi |first2=S. |last3=Nishimura |first3=R. |last4=Maekawa |first4=T. |date=2001 |title=Voltammetric Studies of Antimony Ions in Soda-lime-silica Glass Melts up to 1873 K |journal=Analytical Sciences |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=45–50 |doi=10.2116/analsci.17.45 |pmid=11993676 |doi-access=free}}</ref> This also prevents discolouration. The third application is pigments.<ref name="usgs2"/> Antimony also helps to maintain color stability and surface smoothness when it is used with certain types of ceramics and enamels.{{Citation needed|date=March 2026}}

In the 1990s antimony was increasingly being used in semiconductors as a dopant in n-type silicon wafers<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=COcVgAtqeKkC&pg=PA473 |page=473 |title=Handbook of semiconductor silicon technology |first1=William C. |last1=O'Mara |first2=Robert B. |last2=Herring |first3=Lee Philip |last3=Hunt |publisher=William Andrew |date=1990 |isbn=978-0-8155-1237-0}}</ref> for diodes, infrared detectors, and Hall-effect devices. In the 1950s, the emitters and collectors of n–p–n alloy-junction transistors were doped with tiny beads of a lead-antimony alloy.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_7fOlKRDcCkC&pg=PA101 |page=101 |title=Selected Works of Professor Herbert Kroemer |last=Maiti |first=C. K. |publisher=World Scientific, 2008 |isbn=978-981-270-901-1 |date=2008}}</ref> Indium antimonide (InSb) is used as a material for mid-infrared detectors.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X-qeJG1k2jwC&pg=PA68 |page=68 |title=Expanding the vision of sensor materials |isbn=978-0-309-05175-0 |last1=Committee on New Sensor Technologies: Materials and Applications |first1=National Research Council (U.S.) |date=1995 |publisher=National Academies Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wBQCKN_GKhAC&pg=PA35 |page=35 |title=Fundamentals of infrared detector materials |isbn=978-0-8194-6731-7 |author=Kinch, Michael A |date=2007 |publisher=SPIE Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WR4_GzaAQM0C&pg=PA15 |page=15 |title=Infrared detectors |isbn=978-0-12-752105-3 |author=Willardson, Robert K |author2=Beer, Albert C |name-list-style=amp |date=1970 |publisher=Academic Press}}</ref>

The material {{chem2|Ge2Sb2Te5|link=GeSbTe}} is used for phase-change memory, a type of computer memory.

Biology and medicine have few uses for antimony. Treatments containing antimony, known as antimonials, are used as emetics.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Antimony's Curious History |first=Colin A. |last=Russell |jstor=532063 |pages=115–116 |volume=54 |issue=1 |journal=Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London |date=2000 |doi=10.1098/rsnr.2000.0101 |pmc=1064207}}</ref> Antimony compounds are used as antiprotozoan drugs. Potassium antimonyl tartrate, or tartar emetic, was once used as an anti-schistosomal drug from 1919 on. It was subsequently replaced by praziquantel.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Harder |first1=A |title=Chemotherapeutic approaches to schistosomes: current knowledge and outlook |journal=Parasitology Research |date=May 2002 |volume=88 |issue=5 |pages=395–397 |doi=10.1007/s00436-001-0588-x |pmid=12049454}}</ref> Antimony and its compounds are used in several veterinary preparations, such as anthiomaline and lithium antimony thiomalate, as a skin conditioner for ruminants.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JAkOtJsGqiQC&pg=PA262 |pages=262–265 |title=Diseases of Warm Lands: A Clinical Manual |isbn=978-1-4102-0789-0 |last1=Kassirsky |first1=I. A. |last2=Plotnikov |first2=N. N. |date=1 August 2003 |publisher=The Minerva Group}}</ref> Antimony has a nourishing or conditioning effect on keratinized tissues in animals.

Antimony-based drugs, such as meglumine antimoniate, are also considered the drugs of choice for treatment of leishmaniasis. Early treatments used antimony(III) species (trivalent antimonials), but in 1922 Upendranath Brahmachari invented a much safer antimony(V) drug and, since then, so-called pentavalent antimonials have been the standard first-line treatment. However, ''Leishmania'' strains in Bihar and neighboring regions have developed resistance to antimony.<ref>{{cite book |title=Control of the leishmaniases: report of a meeting of the WHO Expert Committee on the Control of Leishmaniases, Geneva, 22-26 March 2010 |date=2010 |publisher=World Health Organization |isbn=978-92-4-120949-6 |pages=1–2, 55, 67–68}}</ref> Elemental antimony in the form of an antimony pill was once used as a medicine. It could be reused by others after ingestion and elimination.<ref>{{cite book |isbn=978-1-85821-642-3 |title=Antimony in medical history: an account of the medical uses of antimony and its compounds since early times to the present |author=McCallum, R. I. |publisher=Pentland Press |date=1999}}</ref>

Antimony(III) sulfide is used in the heads of some safety matches.<ref name="Trends">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TyQrAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA50 |publisher=National Academies |date=1970 |author=National Research Council |title=Trends in usage of antimony: report |page=50}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nDhpLa1rl44C&pg=PT109 |page=109 |title=Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health and Safety: Chemical, industries and occupations |isbn=978-92-2-109816-4 |author=Stellman, Jeanne Mager |date=1998 |publisher=International Labour Organization}}</ref> Antimony sulfides help to stabilize the friction coefficient in automotive brake pad materials.<ref>{{cite journal |journal=Journal of Wear |volume=239 |issue=2 |pages=229 |date=2000 |author=Jang, H |author2=Kim, S. |name-list-style=amp |title=The effects of antimony trisulfide (Sb2S3) and zirconium silicate (ZrSiO4) in the automotive brake friction material on friction |doi=10.1016/s0043-1648(00)00314-8}}</ref> Antimony is used in bullets, bullet tracers,<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/S0379-0738(02)00118-4 |title=A metallurgical review of the interpretation of bullet lead compositional analysis |date=2002 |last1=Randich |first1=Erik |last2=Duerfeldt |first2=Wayne |last3=McLendon |first3=Wade |last4=Tobin |first4=William |journal=Forensic Science International |volume=127 |issue=3 |pages=174–91 |pmid=12175947}}</ref> paint, glass art, and as an opacifier in enamel.

The powder derived from crushed antimony sulfide (''kohl'') has been used for millennia as an eye cosmetic. Historically it was applied to the eyes with a metal rod and with one's spittle, and was thought by the ancients to aid in curing eye infections.<ref>{{cite book |contribution=Rabbeinu Hananel's Commentary on Tractate Shabbat |title=Perushe Rabenu Ḥananʼel Bar Ḥushiʼel la-Talmud |last=Rabbeinu Hananel |author-link=Chananel ben Chushiel |publisher=Mekhon 'Lev Sameaḥ' |editor-last=Metzger |editor-first=David |place=Jerusalem |page=215 (Shabbat 109a) |year=1995 |language=he |oclc=319767989}}</ref> The practice is still seen in Yemen and in other Muslim countries.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sunan an-Nasa'i 5113 – The Book of Adornment – كتاب الزينة من السنن – Sunnah.com – Sayings and Teachings of Prophet Muhammad (صلى الله عليه و سلم) |url=https://sunnah.com/nasai:5113 |access-date=2021-02-18 |website=sunnah.com}}</ref>

Antimony-124 is used together with beryllium in neutron sources; the gamma rays emitted by antimony-124 initiate the photodisintegration of beryllium.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/0022-3107(70)90058-4 |title=The energy distribution of antimonyberyllium photoneutrons |date=1970 |last1=Lalovic |first1=M. |journal=Journal of Nuclear Energy |volume=24 |issue=3 |page=123 |bibcode=1970JNuE...24..123L |last2=Werle |first2=H.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3KdmdcGbBywC&pg=PA51 |page=51 |title=Physics and engineering of radiation detection |isbn=978-0-12-045581-2 |author=Ahmed, Syed Naeem |date=2007 |publisher=Academic Press |bibcode=2007perd.book.....A}}</ref> The emitted neutrons have an average energy of 24 keV.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/0029-5582(60)90171-1 |title=Determination of the energy of antimony-beryllium photoneutrons |date=1960 |author=Schmitt, H |journal=Nuclear Physics |volume=20 |page=220 |bibcode=1960NucPh..20..220S}}</ref> Natural antimony is used in startup neutron sources.

==Precautions== {{Chembox | container_only = yes |Section7={{Chembox Hazards | Hazards_ref = <ref name="Hazards">{{cite web |title=Safety Data Sheet, Antimony, metal |website=Fisher Scientific |url=https://www.fishersci.com/store/msds?partNumber=S25182&productDescription=ANTIMONY+25G+LUMP+METAL&vendorId=VN00115888&countryCode=US&language=en |access-date=2026-04-06}}</ref> | ExternalSDS = | GHSPictograms = {{GHS06}} {{GHS07}} {{GHS08}} {{GHS09}} | GHSSignalWord = Danger | HPhrases = {{H-phrases|301|332|351|373|411}} | PPhrases = {{P-phrases|203|260|264|270|273|280|301+316|304+340|318|321|330|391|405}} | NFPA-H = 2 | NFPA-F = 1 | NFPA-R = 0 | NFPA-S = | NFPA_ref = }} }} Antimony and many of its compounds are toxic, and the effects of antimony poisoning are similar to arsenic poisoning. The toxicity of antimony is far lower than that of arsenic; this might be caused by the significant differences of uptake, metabolism, and excretion between arsenic and antimony. The uptake of antimony(III) or antimony(V) in the gastrointestinal tract is at most 20%. Antimony(V) is not quantitatively reduced to antimony(III) in the cell (in fact antimony(III) is oxidised to antimony(V) instead).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Foster |first1=S. |last2=Maher |first2=W. |last3=Krikowa |first3=F. |last4=Telford |first4=K. |last5=Ellwood |first5=M. |title=Observations on the measurement of total antimony and antimony species in algae, plant and animal tissues |doi=10.1039/b509202g |journal=Journal of Environmental Monitoring |volume=7 |issue=12 |pages=1214–1219 |year=2005 |pmid=16307074}}</ref>

Since biomethylation of antimony does not occur, the excretion of antimony(V) in urine is the main way of elimination.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/S0009-2797(97)00087-2 |title=Arsenic and antimony: Comparative approach on mechanistic toxicology |year=1997 |last1=Gebel |first1=T |journal=Chemico-Biological Interactions |volume=107 |issue=3 |pages=131–44 |pmid=9448748 |bibcode=1997CBI...107..131G}}</ref> Like arsenic, the most serious effect of acute antimony poisoning is cardiotoxicity and the resulting myocarditis; however, it can also manifest as Adams–Stokes syndrome, which arsenic does not. Reported cases of intoxication by antimony equivalent to 90 mg antimony potassium tartrate dissolved from enamel has been reported to show only short-term effects. An intoxication with 6 g of antimony potassium tartrate was reported to result in death after three days.<ref>{{cite journal |pmc=1543508 |title=President's address. Observations upon antimony |year=1977 |volume=70 |issue=11 |pmid=341167 |last1=McCallum |first1=RI |pages=756–63 |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine |doi=10.1177/003591577707001103}}</ref>

Inhalation of antimony dust is harmful and in certain cases may be fatal; in small doses, antimony causes headaches, dizziness, and depression. Larger doses such as prolonged skin contact may cause dermatitis, or damage the kidneys and the liver, causing violent and frequent vomiting, leading to death in a few days.<ref name=Sundar2010>{{cite journal |last1=Sundar |first1=S. |last2=Chakravarty |first2=J. |doi=10.3390/ijerph7124267 |title=Antimony Toxicity |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |volume=7 |issue=12 |pages=4267–4277 |year=2010 |pmid=21318007 |pmc=3037053 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Antimony is incompatible with strong oxidizing agents, strong acids, halogen acids, chlorine, or fluorine. It should be kept away from heat.<ref>[http://www.mallbaker.com/americas/msds/english/a7152_msds_us_default.pdf Antimony MSDS]{{dead link|date=March 2013}}. Baker</ref>

Antimony leaches from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles into liquids.<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=17707454 |title=Antimony leaching from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastic used for bottled drinking water |year=2008 |last1=Westerhoff |first1=P |last2=Prapaipong |first2=P |last3=Shock |first3=E |last4=Hillaireau |first4=A |volume=42 |issue=3 |pages=551–6 |doi=10.1016/j.watres.2007.07.048 |journal=Water Research |bibcode=2008WatRe..42..551W}}</ref> While levels observed for bottled water are below drinking water guidelines,<ref name=shotyk/> fruit juice concentrates (for which no guidelines are established) produced in the UK were found to contain up to 44.7 μg/L of antimony, well above the EU limits for tap water of 5 μg/L.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Elevated antimony concentrations in commercial juices |first7=Helle Rüsz |last7=Hansen |first6=Bente |last6=Gammelgaard |first5=Stefan |last5=Stürup |first4=Spiros A. |last4=Pergantis |first3=Søren Alex |last3=Bak |first2=Alexandra |last1=Hansen |last2=Tsirigotaki |journal=Journal of Environmental Monitoring |first1=Claus |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=822–4 |date=2010 |pmid=20383361 |doi=10.1039/b926551a}}</ref> The guidelines are: * World Health Organization: 20 μg/L<ref name=who/> * Japan: 15 μg/L<ref>Wakayama, Hiroshi (2003) [http://www.nilim.go.jp/lab/bcg/siryou/tnn/tnn0264pdf/ks0264011.pdf "Revision of Drinking Water Standards in Japan"], Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare (Japan); Table 2, p. 84</ref> * United States Environmental Protection Agency, Health Canada, and the Ontario Ministry of Environment: 6 μg/L<ref name=canada>[https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/evaluating-existing-substances/screening-assessment-antimony-containing-substances.html#toc13 Screening assessment antimony-containing substances]. Health Canada. July 2020. {{ISBN|978-0-660-32826-3}}</ref> * EU and German Federal Ministry of Environment: 5 μg/L<ref name="shotyk">{{cite journal |last1=Shotyk |first1=William |last2=Krachler |first2=Michael |last3=Chen |first3=Bin |title=Contamination of Canadian and European bottled waters with antimony from PET containers |journal=Journal of Environmental Monitoring |date=2006 |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=288–292 |doi=10.1039/b517844b |pmid=16470261}}</ref>

The tolerable daily intake (TDI) proposed by WHO is 6 μg antimony per kilogram of body weight.<ref name=who>{{cite book |title=Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality |date=2011 |publisher=World Health Organization |isbn=978-92-4-154815-1 |edition=4th |hdl=10665/44584 |hdl-access=free |page=314}}</ref> The immediately dangerous to life or health (IDLH) value for antimony is 50 mg/m3 (50 μg/L).<ref>{{PGCH|0036}}</ref>

===Toxicity=== Certain compounds of antimony appear to be toxic, particularly antimony trioxide and antimony potassium tartrate.<ref name="atsdr.cdc.gov">{{cite web |url=https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp23.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp23.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=Toxicological Profile for Antimony and Compounds |publisher=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services |access-date=19 May 2022}}</ref> Effects may be similar to arsenic poisoning.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/antimony-poisoning |title=Antimony poisoning |website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> Occupational exposure may cause respiratory irritation, pneumoconiosis, antimony spots on the skin, gastrointestinal symptoms, and cardiac arrhythmias. Antimony trioxide is potentially carcinogenic to humans.<ref name=Sundar2010/>

Adverse health effects have been observed in humans and animals following inhalation, oral, or dermal exposure to antimony and antimony compounds.<ref name="atsdr.cdc.gov"/> Antimony toxicity typically occurs either due to occupational exposure, during therapy, or from accidental ingestion. It is unclear if antimony can enter the body through the skin.<ref name="atsdr.cdc.gov"/> The presence of low levels of antimony in saliva may also be associated with dental decay.<ref name="Davis_et_al_Sci_Rep">{{cite journal |last1=Davis |first1=E. |last2=Bakulski |first2=K. M. |last3=Goodrich |first3=J. M. |title=Low levels of salivary metals, oral microbiome composition and dental decay |journal=Scientific Reports |date=2020 |volume=10 |issue=1 |page=14640 |doi=10.1038/s41598-020-71495-9 |pmid=32887894 |pmc=7474081 |bibcode=2020NatSR..1014640D |doi-access=free}}</ref>

==Notes== {{Notelist}}

==References== {{Reflist|30em}}

==Cited sources== *{{cite book |ref=Greenwood |author1=Greenwood, N. N. |author2=Earnshaw, A. |year=1997 |title=Chemistry of the Elements |edition=2nd |place=Oxford |publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann |isbn=0-7506-3365-4}} *{{cite book |ref=Wiberg |title=Inorganic chemistry |author1=Wiberg, Egon |author2=Wiberg, Nils |author3=Holleman, Arnold Frederick |name-list-style=amp |publisher=Academic Press |date=2001 |isbn=978-0-12-352651-9}}

==External links== {{Commons}} {{Wiktionary|antimony}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090115095847/http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/phs23.html Public Health Statement for Antimony] * [https://www.antimony.com/ International Antimony Association (i2a)] * [http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/podcast/element.asp Chemistry in its element podcast] (MP3) from the Royal Society of Chemistry's Chemistry World: [https://www.rsc.org/images/CIIE_antimony_48kbps_tcm18-128033.mp3 Antimony] * [http://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/051.htm Antimony] at ''The Periodic Table of Videos'' (University of Nottingham) * [https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0036.html CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards – Antimony] * [https://webmineral.com/data/Antimony.shtml Antimony Mineral data and specimen images] * usgs.gov (Mineral Commodity Summaries 2025): [https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2025/mcs2025.pdf#page=34 Antinomy]

Category:Antimony Category:Chemical elements with rhombohedral structure Category:Chemical elements Category:Metalloids Category:Minerals in space group 166 Category:Native element minerals Category:Nuclear materials Category:Pnictogens Category:Trigonal minerals