Anito

{{Short description|Spirits and deities in indigenous Philippine folk religions}} {{italic title}} {{about|the various uses of the specific religious term "Anito"|the ethnic religions of the Philippines in general|Indigenous religious beliefs of the Philippines}} {{Use mdy dates|date=October 2022}} {{Use Philippine English|date=October 2022}} [[File:Anitos of Northern tribes (c. 1900, Philippines).jpg|thumb|Various Igorot ''bulul'' depicting ancestor spirits (c. 1900)]] {{Philippine mythology 2}} [[File:Siquijor Anito. (5077313419).jpg|thumb|''Taotao'' carvings sold in a souvenir shop in Siquijor Island]] '''''Anito''''', also spelled '''''anitu''''', refers to ancestor spirits, nature spirits, and deities in the Indigenous Philippine folk religions from the precolonial age to the present, although the term itself may have other meanings and associations depending on the Filipino ethnic group. It can also refer to carved humanoid figures, the '''''taotao''''', made of wood, stone, or ivory, that represent these spirits.<ref name="Scott1994"/><ref name="hislop"/> ''Anito'' (a term predominantly used in Luzon) is also sometimes known as '''''diwata''''' in certain ethnic groups (especially among Visayans).<ref name="Guillermo">{{cite book |last1=Guillermo |first1=Artemio R. |title=Historical Dictionary of the Philippines |date=2012 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=9780810872462 |page=140 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wmgX9M_yETIC}}</ref>

'''''Pag-anito''''' refers to a séance, often accompanied by other rituals or celebrations, in which a shaman (Visayan: ''babaylan'', Tagalog: ''katalonan'') acts as a medium to communicate directly with the dead ancestors and spirits.<ref name="Scott1994" /> When a nature spirit or deity is specifically involved, the ritual is called '''''pagdiwata'''''. The act of worship or a religious sacrifice to a spirit and deities.<ref name="Scott1994">{{cite book|author=William Henry Scott | author-link = William Henry Scott (historian) | url = https://archive.org/details/BarangaySixteenthCenturyPhilippineCultureAndSociety | title = Barangay: Sixteenth Century Philippine Culture and Society | publisher = Ateneo de Manila University Press | date = 1994 | location = Quezon City | isbn = 978-9715501354 }}</ref><ref name="SoulBook1991">{{cite book |title=The Soul Book: Introduction to Philippine Pagan Religion | last1 = Demetrio | first1 = Francisco R. | last2 = Cordero-Fernando | first2 = Gilda | last3 = Nakpil-Zialcita | first4 = Fernando| last4 = Feleo | first3 = Roberto B. |date= 1991 |publisher= GCF Books, Quezon City |author-link2= Gilda Cordero-Fernando| asin=B007FR4S8G}}</ref><ref name="rosa">{{cite book|author=Antonio Sánchez de la Rosa|title =Diccionario Hispano-Bisaya para las provincias de Samar y Leyte, Volumes 1–2|publisher =Tipo-Litografia de Chofre y Comp.|year =1895|page=414|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=7EwHAQAAIAAJ}}</ref>

The belief in ''anito'' are sometimes referred to as '''Anitism''' in scholarly literature (Spanish: ''anitismo'' or ''anitería'').<ref name="hislop">{{cite journal|author=Stephen K. Hislop|year=1971|title=Anitism: a survey of religious beliefs native to the Philippines|journal=Asian Studies|volume=9|issue=2|pages=144–156|url=http://www.asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-09-02-1971/hislop-anitism-survey-religious%20beliefs-native-philippines.pdf|access-date=May 10, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180707172324/http://www.asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-09-02-1971/hislop-anitism-survey-religious%20beliefs-native-philippines.pdf|archive-date=July 7, 2018}}</ref>

==Spirits== Pre-colonial Filipinos were animistic. They believed that everything has a spirit, from rocks and trees to animals and humans to natural phenomena.<ref name="hislop"/><ref name="apostol">{{cite book|author=Virgil Mayor Apostol|title =Way of the Ancient Healer: Sacred Teachings from the Philippine Ancestral Traditions|publisher =North Atlantic Books|year =2010|isbn =9781583945971|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=hMzzcDB0OTIC&pg=PA13}}</ref><ref name="potet">{{cite book|author=Jean-Paul G. Potet|title =Ancient Beliefs and Customs of the Tagalogs|publisher =Lulu Press Inc.|year =2017|page=235|isbn =9780244348731|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=Ca5XDwAAQBAJ}}</ref> These spirits are collectively known as ''anito'', derived from Proto-Malayo-Polynesian ''*qanitu'' and Proto-Austronesian ''*qaNiCu'' ("spirit of the dead"). Cognates in other Austronesian cultures include the Micronesian ''aniti'', Malaysian and Indonesian ''hantu'' or ''antu'', Nage ''nitu'', and Polynesian ''atua'' and ''aitu''. As well as Tao ''anito'', Taivoan ''alid'', Seediq and Atayal ''utux'', Bunun ''hanitu'' or ''hanidu'', and Tsou ''hicu'' among Taiwanese aborigines.<ref name="apostol"/><ref name="baldick">{{cite book|editor =Julian Baldick|title =Ancient Religions of the Austronesian World: From Australasia to Taiwan|publisher =I.B.Tauris|year =2013|page=3|isbn =9780857733573|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=7U6oBAAAQBAJ}}</ref><ref name="funk">{{cite book|author=Leberecht Funk|editor = Y. Musharbash & G.H. Presterudstuen |title =Monster Anthropology in Australasia and Beyond|chapter =Entanglements between Tao People and Anito on Lanyu Island, Taiwan|publisher =Palgrave Macmillan|year =2014|pages=143–159|isbn =9781137448651|doi = 10.1057/9781137448651_9 }}</ref> ''Anito'' can be divided into two main categories: the ancestor spirits (''ninunò''), and deities and nature spirits (''diwata'').<ref name="Scott1994"/><ref name="hislop"/><ref name="halili"/>

===Ancestor spirits=== [[File:Manunggul Jar.jpg|thumb|The Neolithic Manunggul burial jar from the Tabon Caves, Palawan, depicts a soul and a psychopomp journeying to the spirit world in a boat (c. 890–710 BCE)]] The ''ninunò'' (lit. "ancestor") can be the spirits of actual ancestors, cultural heroes, or generalized guardian spirits of a family. Pre-colonial Filipinos believed that upon death, the "free" soul (Visayan: ''kalag''; Tagalog: ''kaluluwa'')<ref group="note">Among most Filipino ethnic groups, a person is believed to be composed of at least two souls – the breath of life, will, or awareness (''ginhawa'' or ''hininga'', which stays with the living body) and the astral soul (''kalag'' or ''kaluluwa'', which can travel to the spirit world). The concept of soul dualism is sometimes referred to as "twin souls" or "double souls" and is a common belief in Austronesian cultures and other shamanistic cultures. Other names for the life soul include {{lang|tsg|nyawa}} or {{lang|tsg|nyawalihan}} (Tausug), {{lang|mrw|niyawa}} (Maranao), {{lang|sjm|niyawa-lihan}} (Jama Mapun), {{lang|ifb|lennawa}} (Batad Ifugao), and {{lang|tbl|nawa}} (T'boli). Other names for the astral soul include ''kaluha'', ''dungan'' (Visayan); ''kalag'' (Bicol); ''kaduwa'' (Isneg), ''ab-abiik'' (Kankanaey), ''karurua'' (Ilocano), ''ikaruruwa'' (Ibanag), ''karaduwa'' (Mangyan), ''kiyaraluwa'' (Tagbanwa), ''makatu'' (Bukidnon), and ''kadengan-dengan'' or ''gimokud'' (Manobo). (Scott, 1994; Tan, 2008; Mercado, 1991; Talavera, 2014) Most of the terms for the astral soul literally translate to "twin" or "double", from PAN *duSa, "two". (Yu, 2000; Blust, 2010)</ref> of a person travels to a spirit world, usually by voyaging across an ocean on a boat (a ''bangka'' or ''baloto'').<ref name="Scott1994"/><ref name="under"/><ref name="soul">{{cite web|url=https://www.aswangproject.com/soul-according-ethnolinguistic-groups-philippines/|title=The Soul According to the Ethnolinguistic Groups of the Philippines|date=April 15, 2017 |publisher=The Aswang Project|access-date=May 11, 2018}}</ref><ref name="mercado1991">{{cite journal|author=Leonardo N. Mercado|year=1991|title=Soul and Spirit in Filipino Thought |journal=Philippine Studies|volume=39|issue=3|pages=287–302|jstor=42633258 }}</ref><ref name="yu2000">{{cite book|author=Jose Vidamor B. Yu|title =Inculturation of Filipino-Chinese Culture Mentality|volume=3|publisher =Editrice Pontifica Universita Gregoriana|series =Interreligious and Intercultural Investigations|year =2000|pages=148, 149|isbn =9788876528484|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=c4WqAOKb5c8C}}</ref><ref name="duSa">{{cite web |author=Robert Blust & Stephen Trussel|title=Austronesian Comparative Dictionary: *du |url=http://www.trussel2.com/acd/acd-s_d.htm#30339 |website=Austronesian Comparative Dictionary |access-date=July 7, 2018}}</ref><ref name="Talavera">{{cite book |last1=Talavera |first1=Maria Jezia |title=Tears of the Soul: A Reconstruction of Proto-Philippine forms on death and afterlife |date=2014 |publisher=University of the Philippines |url=https://www.academia.edu/4831999}}</ref>

[[File:Manang wooden idols of the Mandaya people.jpg|thumb|left|''Manang'' carved images of household guardian spirits from the Mandaya people]] There can be multiple locations in the spirit world, varying in different ethnic groups.<ref group="note">Compare with the Greek underworld</ref> Which place souls end up in depends on how they died, the age at death, or the conduct of the person when they were alive. There was no concept of heaven or hell prior to the introduction of Christianity and Islam;<ref group="note">After Spanish contact, various spirit worlds were syncretized into the Christian concept of heaven and hell in dictionaries and Bible translations. They struggled in determining which terminology to use because of the absence of the heaven and hell dichotomy in the Filipino concept of the spirit world. Spanish missionaries and European authors usually equated heaven with ''maca'' and ''calualhatian''; and hell with ''casan'' (also ''casanaan'', ''casauaan'', or ''catanaan''; sometimes misread as ''kasamaan''). However, in the Boxer Codex ''maca'' and ''casan'' were synonyms for the Visayan and Tagalog underworlds. The 1754 version of ''Vocabulario de la lengua tagala'' used ''casanaan'' for both heaven and hell; with ''casanaan nang hirap'' as hell, and ''casanaan nang tova'' as heaven. ''Calualhatian'' (modern spelling: ''kaluwalhatian'') was simply a region in the Tagalog spirit world that souls can enter by crossing a torrential river on a narrow plank. (Rath, 2013)</ref> rather, the spirit world is usually depicted as an otherworld that exists alongside the material world. Souls reunite with deceased relatives in the spirit world and lead normal lives in the spirit world as they did in the material world. In some cases, the souls of evil people undergo penance and cleansing before they are granted entrance into a particular spirit realm. Souls would eventually reincarnate after a period of time in the spirit world.<ref name="Scott1994"/><ref name="under">{{cite web|url=https://www.aswangproject.com/how-to-travel-the-underworld-of-philippine-mythology/|title=How to Travel the Underworld of Philippine Mythology|date=April 14, 2018 |publisher=The Aswang Project|access-date=May 11, 2018}}</ref><ref name="hislop"/><ref name="rath">{{cite book|author=Imke Rath|editor =Astrid Windus & Eberhard Crailsheim|title =Image – Object – Performance: Mediality and Communication in Cultural Contact Zones of Colonial Latin America and the Philippines|chapter =Depicting Netherworlds, or the Treatment of the Afterlife in a Colonial Contact Zone: The Paete Case|publisher =Waxmann Verlag|year =2013|isbn =9783830979296|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=qWVfAgAAQBAJ}}</ref>

In some cultures (like among the Kalinga people), the acceptance of a soul by ancestors into a certain realm in the spirit world requires tattoos (''batok''), by which they can gauge the worthiness of a soul. In other cultures, tattoos illuminate and guide the spirits during the journey to the afterlife.<ref name="Salvador-Amores2011">{{cite journal |last1=Salvador-Amores |first1=Analyn |title=Batok (Traditional Tattoos) in Diaspora: The Reinvention of a Globally Mediated Kalinga Identity |journal=South East Asia Research |date=June 2011 |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=293–318 |doi=10.5367/sear.2011.0045|s2cid=146925862 }}</ref><ref name="Ragragio">{{cite journal |last1=Ragragio |first1=Andrea Malaya M. |last2=Paluga |first2=Myfel D. |title=An Ethnography of Pantaron Manobo Tattooing (Pangotoeb): Towards a Heuristic Schema in Understanding Manobo Indigenous Tattoos |journal=Southeast Asian Studies |date=August 22, 2019 |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=259–294 |doi=10.20495/seas.8.2_259 |s2cid=202261104 |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/seas/8/2/8_259/_pdf}}</ref><ref name="Alvina">{{cite book |last1=Alvina |first1=C.S. |editor1-last=Oshima |editor1-first=Neal M. |editor2-last=Paterno |editor2-first=Maria Elena |title=Dreamweavers |date=2001 |publisher=Makati City, Philippines: Bookmark |chapter=Colors and patterns of dreams |isbn=9715694071 |pages=46–58}}</ref><ref name="dp">{{cite web |title=The Preconquest Filipino Tattoos |url=https://datupress.com/2018/01/10/the-preconquest-filipino-tattoos/ |website=Datu Press |access-date=August 10, 2021|date=January 10, 2018}}</ref>

Souls in the spirit world still retain a degree of influence in the material world, and vice versa. ''Pag-anito'' may be used to invoke good ancestor spirits for protection, intercession (''kalara'' or ''kalda''), or advice. Ancestor spirits that become intercessors with deities are known as ''pintakasi'' or ''pitulon''. Vengeful spirits of the dead can manifest as apparitions or ghosts (''mantiw'')<ref group="note">Also ''mua'', ''mamaw'', ''mamanhig'', ''pamahoy'', ''mamamahoy'' (McCoy, 1982); later ''multo''. from Spanish ''muerto'', "dead person" (Tan, 2008)</ref> and cause harm to living people. ''Pag-anito'' can be used to appease or banish them.<ref name="Scott1994"/><ref name="hislop"/><ref name="potet"/><ref name="halili">{{cite book|author=Maria Christine N. Halili|title =Philippine History|publisher =Rex Bookstore, Inc.|year =2004|pages=58–59|isbn =9789712339349|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=gUt5v8ET4QYC}}</ref> Ancestor spirits also figured prominently during illness or death, as they were believed to be the ones who call the soul to the spirit world, guide the soul (a psychopomp), or meet the soul upon arrival.<ref name="Scott1994"/>

Ancestor spirits are also known as ''kalading'' among the Igorot;<ref name="cole">{{cite journal|author=Fay-Cooper Cole & Albert Gale|year=1922|title=The Tinguian; Social, Religious, and Economic life of a Philippine tribe|journal=Field Museum of Natural History: Anthropological Series|volume=14|issue=2|pages=235–493|url=https://archive.org/details/tinguiansocialre142cole}}</ref> ''tonong'' among the Maguindanao and Maranao;<ref name="tonong">{{cite web|url=http://www.seasite.niu.edu/tagalog/Mindanao_Culture/mindanao_customs.htm|title=Mindanao Customs and Beliefs|publisher=SEAsite, Northern Illinois University|access-date=May 11, 2018|archive-date=October 24, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201024122440/http://www.seasite.niu.edu/tagalog/Mindanao_Culture/mindanao_customs.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> ''umboh'' among the Sama-Bajau;<ref name="jubilado">{{cite journal|author1=Rodney C. Jubilado|author2=Hanafi Hussin|author3=Maria Khristina Manueli|name-list-style=amp|year=2011|title=The Sama-Bajaus of Sulu-Sulawesi Seas: perspectives from linguistics and culture|journal=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies|volume=15|issue=1|pages=83–95}}</ref> ''nunò'' or ''umalagad'' among Tagalogs and Visayans; ''nonò'' among Bicolanos;<ref name="cannell"/> ''umagad'' or ''umayad'' among the Manobo;<ref name="buen"/> and ''tiladmanin'' among the Tagbanwa.<ref name="tagbanwa">{{cite book|author =Robert B. Fox|editor =Jesus T. Peralta|title =Pinagmulan: Enumeration from the Philippine Inventory of Intangible Cultural Heritage|chapter =Pagdiwata Ritual|publisher =National Commission for Culture and the Arts (NCCA), Republic of the Philippines & International Information and Networking Centre for Intangible Cultural Heritage in the Asia-Pacific Region under the auspices of UNESCO|year =2013|pages =167–171|chapter-url =http://www.ichcap.org/eng/ek/sub3/pdf_file/domain3/074_Pagdiwata_Ritual.pdf|access-date =July 5, 2018|archive-date =July 10, 2015|archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20150710170311/http://ichcap.org/eng/ek/sub3/pdf_file/domain3/074_Pagdiwata_Ritual.pdf|url-status =dead}}</ref>

===Nature spirits and deities === {{See also|Deities of Philippine mythology|Philippine mythical creatures}} [[File:Anito de Oro, procedente de las minas de Súyok, de los igorrotes (1909).png|thumb|A golden ''anito'' figurine of the Igorot people, from the mines of Suyoc, Mankayan, Benguet (1909)<ref name="reyes">{{cite book|author= Isabelo de los Reyes y Florentino|title =La Religión Antigua de los Filipinos|publisher =El Renacimiento|year =1909|url =https://archive.org/details/ajf5020.0001.001.umich.edu}}</ref>]] Spirits that have never been human are differentiated in some ethnic groups as ''diwata''. These spirits can range from simple spirits like the ''diwata'' of a particular inanimate object, plant, animal, or place,<ref group="note">e.g. ''Nuno sa punso'', a dwarf-like ''anito'' that lives in anthills; and Dayang Masalanta, the Tagalog ''diwata'' of Mount Makiling</ref> to deities who personify abstract concepts and natural phenomena,<ref group="note">e.g. Mayari, the Tagalog goddess of the moon; Barangaw, the Visayan god of rainbows; and Makapatag, the Visayan god of vengeance</ref> to deities who are part of an actual pantheon.<ref group="note">e.g. Bathala, the chief deity of the Tagalogs; Magbabaya, the supreme creator of the Lumad people; and Pilandok, trickster spirit of the Maranao</ref> They are also known as ''dewatu'', ''divata'', ''duwata'', ''ruwata'', ''dewa'', ''dwata'', ''diya'', etc., in various Philippine languages (including Tagalog ''diwa'', "spirit" or "essence"); all of which are derived from Sanskrit ''devata'' (देवता) or ''devá'' (देव), meaning "deity". These names are the result of syncretization with Hindu-Buddhist beliefs due to the indirect cultural exchange (via Srivijaya and Majapahit) between the Philippines and South Asia.<ref name="Scott1994"/><ref name="hislop"/>

However, what entities are considered ''diwata'' varies by ethnic group. In some ethnic groups like the B'laan, Cuyonon Visayans, and the Tagalog, ''Diwata'' refers to the supreme being in their pantheon,<ref group="note">Tagalogs differentiated between Diwata, the universal supreme being, and life creator Bathala, the supreme deity exclusive to them (Hislop, 1971)</ref> in which case there are different terms for non-human spirits.<ref name="Scott1994"/><ref name="hislop"/><ref group="note">The most widespread names for these spirits in various Philippine ethnic groups are ''diwata'' or ''anito''. Other names of ''diwata'' or specific types of ''diwata'' include ''fieu awas'', ''kahoynon'' (B'laan); ''mahomanay'', ''tahamaling'' (Bagobo); ''panya'en'' (Batak); ''tawong lipod'', ''magindara'' (Bikol); ''magtitima'', ''tawo sa talonan'' (Bukidnon); ''aled'' (Gaddang); ''annani'' (Ibanag); ''bakayauwan'', ''monduntug'', ''palasekan'', ''pili'', ''pinading'' (Ifugao); ''mangmangkit'', ''katataoan''/''katawtaw-an'', ''kibaan'', ''litao'' (Ilocano); ''apdel'', ''sasailo'' (Itneg); ''tumungaw'' (Kankana-ey); ''laman labuad'', ''manglilili'' (Kapampangan); ''kama-kama''/''kamakaon'' (Karay-a); ''tuglinsau'', ''tagbusau'', ''mandangum'' (Mandaya); ''andagaw'' (Mangyan); ''tawagenen'', ''manaog'' (Manobo); ''karibang'' (Maranao); ''kaybaan'' (Pangasinan); ''kamanan-daplak'' (Sambal); ''dayamdam'', ''piritay'' (Tagalog); ''tawo sa talonan'' (Tagbanwa); ''lewenri'', ''bawa'', ''katao''/''kataw'', ''tumawo''/''tamawo'', ''tawong lupa'' (Visayan); and ''guban-on'', ''digkusanon'', ''dalaketnon'' (Waray).</ref> Like in ancestor spirits, ''diwata'' are referred to in polite kinship titles when addressed directly, like ''apo'' ("elder") or ''nuno'' ("grandparent").<ref name="hislop"/><ref name="kroeber"/>

There are three general types of non-human spirits. The first are the environmental or nature spirits "bound" to a particular location or natural phenomenon (similar to genii loci). They "own" places and concepts like agricultural fields, forests, cliffs, seas, winds, lightning, or realms in the spirit world. Some were also "keepers" or totems of various animals and plants. They have inhuman and abstract qualities, reflecting their particular dominions. They do not normally appear in human form and are usually gender-less or androgynous. They rarely concern themselves with human affairs. Rituals involving these spirits are almost always conducted outdoors.<ref name="buen"/><ref name="novellino">{{cite book|author=Dario Novellino|editor =David G. Anderson & Eeva Berglund|title = Ethnographies of Conservation: Environmentalism and the Distribution of Privilege|chapter =Contrasting Landscapes, Conflicting Ontologies: Assessing Environmental Conservation on Palawan Island (The Philippines)|publisher =Berghahn Books|year =2003|pages=171–188|isbn =9780857456748|chapter-url =https://books.google.com/books?id=R1WwBWFEljQC}}</ref>

The second type of spirits are the "unbound" spirits which have independent existence. They appear in animal (usually as birds) or human-like forms, have gender differentiation, and have personal names. They are most similar to the elves and fairies of European folklore.<ref group="note">With strong parallels to human-like beings like elves and ''aos sí'', as well as diminutive human-like beings like brownies and pixies. (Buenconsejo, 2002)</ref> These are the most common types of spirits to become ''abyan'' (spirit guides of ''babaylan''), as they are the most "sociable" and can take interest in human activities. These spirits are usually referred to as ''engkanto'' (from Spanish ''encanto'') in modern Filipino folklore. Unlike the "bound" spirits, these spirits can be invited into human households, and their rituals can take place both outdoors and indoors.<ref name="buen" /> [[File:A fertility god of the Bontoc Tribe in an Ato.jpg|left|thumb|A fertility god of the Bontoc people in an ato (communal meeting circle)]] The last is a class of malevolent spirits or demons, as well as supernatural beings, generally collectively known as ''aswang'', ''yawa'', or ''mangalos'' (also ''mangalok'', ''mangangalek'', or ''magalos'') among Tagalogs and Visayans. There are numerous kinds of ''aswang'' with specific abilities, behavior, or appearance. Examples include ''sigbin'', ''wakwak'', ''tiyanak'', and ''manananggal''. The first two categories of ''diwata'' can also be malevolent, what sets the third category apart is that they can not be appealed to with offerings and they are utterly pitiless. Most practices associated with them is to ward them off, banish them, or destroy them. They are never addressed nor worshiped in religious rituals.<ref name="Scott1994"/><ref name="hislop"/><ref name="buen"/><ref name="kroeber"/><ref name="rodell"/><ref name="ap"/>

''Diwata'' are rarely spoken about openly for fear of attracting their attention. Instead they are referred to with euphemisms like "those unlike us" (Visayan: ''dili ingon nato'') or various names, like ''banwaanon'' or ''taga-banwa'',<ref group="note">Not to be confused with the Tagbanwa and Mamanwa ethnic groups, all derived from PAN ''*banua'', "home" or "homeland". In modern Filipino languages, ''banwa'' has been supplanted by Spanish ''lugar'', thus ''taglugar'' is used in place of ''tagabanwa'' (Hislop, 1971; Tan, 2008).</ref> that translate literally to "dweller of a place".<ref name="bis">{{cite web|url=http://www.binisaya.com/cebuano/dili-ingon-nato|title=Dili-ingon-nato|publisher=Binisaya.com|access-date=May 12, 2018}}</ref><ref name="gat">{{cite thesis |type=PhD |author=Augusto Jose B. Gatmaytan |date=2013 |title=Indigenous Autonomy Amid Counter-Insurgency: Cultural Citizenship in a Philippine Frontier |publisher=Department of Anthropology, London School of Economics and Political Science|url=http://etheses.lse.ac.uk/3246/1/Gatmaytan_Indigenous_Autonomy.pdf}}</ref><ref name="paman">{{cite book|author=Alex G. Paman|title =Filipino Ghost Stories: Spine-Tingling Tales of Supernatural Encounters and Hauntings|publisher =Tuttle Publishing|year =2010|isbn =9781462900916|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=EIvTAgAAQBAJ}}</ref> Among Tagalogs, non-human nature spirits are also euphemistically referred to as ''lamanglupa'' ("[dwellers of] the bowels of the earth") or ''lamangdagat'' ("[dwellers of] the depths of the sea"), depending on their domain.<ref name="tan"/>

''Diwata'' exist in both the material world and the spirit world. They can be formless or have a material body. They can also take over a body through spirit possession (Visayan: ''hola'', ''hulak'', ''tagdug'', or ''saob''; Tagalog: ''sanib''), an ability essential for the séances in ''pag-anito''. They are believed to be capable of shapeshifting (''baliw'' or ''baylo''), becoming invisible, or creating visions or illusions (''anino'' or ''landung'', lit. "shadow"). Their powers, however, are limited to their particular domain. A ''diwata'' of a forest, for instance, has no dominion over the sea. Most are generally benevolent or capriciously neutral, although they can cause misfortunes and illnesses if angered, disrespected, or mistakenly encountered.<ref name="hislop"/><ref name="kroeber">{{cite journal|author=A. L. Kroeber|year=1918|title=The History of Philippine Civilization as Reflected in Religious Nomenclature|journal=Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History|volume=XXI|issue=Part II|pages=35–37|url=http://digitallibrary.amnh.org/bitstream/handle/2246/286/A019a02.pdf;jsessionid=EB1447C19043A20F8A2BCE9726E4A3D1?sequence=1}}</ref><ref name="rodell">{{cite book|author=Paul A. Rodell|title =Culture and Customs of the Philippines|publisher =Greenwood Publishing Group|series =Culture and Customs of Asia|year =2002|pages=30–32|isbn = 9780313304156|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=y1CVR74_KHQC}}</ref><ref name="ap">{{cite web|url=https://www.aswangproject.com/creatures-mythical-beings-philippine-folklore-mythology/|title=A Compendium of Creatures & Mythical Beings from Philippine Folklore & Mythology|date=February 22, 2016 |publisher=The Aswang Project|access-date=May 11, 2018}}</ref> Other common characteristics of ''diwata'' are that they are perceived as an invisible "cold" presence (in contrast to "warm" human spirits); that they leave no footprints (unlike human spirits); and that they sense the world and "eat" by means of smelling.<ref name="buen"/><ref group="note">''Diwata'' can cause harm by "eating" (smelling) the "vital force" or "breath" (''ginhawa'') of human beings. They are also said to be annoyed by perfume, as well as salt and spices. (Buenconsejo, 2002)</ref> ''Diwata'' who take human form are said to be pale-skinned and could be distinguished from humans by the absence of a philtrum on the upper lip.<ref name="mccoy"/><ref name="buen"/> [[File:Banaue Rice Terraces and its statue friend.JPG|thumb|Ifugao ''hogang'' in the Banaue Rice Terraces, guardian spirits carved from tree fern trunks usually placed along pathways and in village outskirts]] ''Diwata'' are often depicted as appearing to unsuspecting people in human or animal form, sometimes causing unintentional harm. They can also deliberately play tricks on mortals, like seducing or abducting beautiful men and women into the spirit world.<ref name="Scott1994"/><ref name="buen"/> Certain places are believed to be owned by ''diwata'' or are borders to the spirit world. These are normally avoided or only entered with precautions, especially during twilight when ''diwata'' are believed to cross over from the spirit world into the material world. Harm or illness caused by ''diwata'' are known as ''buyag'' in Visayan and ''usog'' in Tagalog.<ref name="Scott1994"/><ref name="buen">{{cite book|author=Jose S. Buenconsejo|editor =Jennifer C. Post|title =Songs and Gifts at the Frontier|publisher =Routledge|series =Current Research in Ethnomusicology: Outstanding Dissertations Volume 4|year =2013|pages=98–99|isbn =9781136719806|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=tJsuAgAAQBAJ}}</ref> People who were harmed by interactions with ''diwata'' are euphemistically described as having been "greeted" (Visayan: ''gibati'', Tagalog: ''nabati'') or "played with" (Visayan ''gidulaan'', Tagalog: ''napaglaruan'' or ''nakatuwaan'') by ''diwata''.<ref name="tan"/>

To avoid inadvertently angering a ''diwata'', Filipinos perform a customary ''pasintabi sa nuno'' ("respectfully apologizing or asking permission from ancestors for passing").<ref group="note">From ''sintabi'', "to respectfully ask permission" or "to give due respect", cf. "excuse me"</ref> This is done by saying the phrase "''tabi po''" or "''tabi apo''" ("by your permission, elder")<ref group="note">In Ilocano, the traditional phrase is "''bari bari, apo''", with the same meaning (Tan, 2008)</ref> when passing by a place believed to be inhabited by a ''diwata''.<ref name="potet"/><ref name="tan"/>

Conversely, it was customary to call out "''tao po ako''" ("I am a human") before asking for permission to enter someone's household, to reassure the homeowner of your humanity. This was due to the belief that shapeshifting supernatural beings will trick people into letting them enter their homes, but are incapable of declaring themselves as humans. Over time, this has shortened to the modern form "''tao po''," which is now used as a simple greeting to alert someone of your presence.<ref name="Limos2020">{{cite web |date=11 February 2020|last1=Limos |first1=Mario Alvaro |title=Puwera Usog, Tao Po, and Tabi Po: The Curious History of Three Filipino Phrases |url=https://www.esquiremag.ph/long-reads/features/puwera-usog-meaning-and-history-a00293-20200211 |website=Esquire |access-date=14 January 2026}}</ref>

''Diwata'' are also believed to be able to mate with humans. People born with congenital disorders (like albinism or syndactyly) or display unusual beauty or behavior are commonly believed by local superstition to be the children of ''diwata'' who seduced (or sometimes raped) their mothers.<ref name="albino">{{cite news |title=Magkakapatid na albino, anak ng engkanto? |url=https://news.abs-cbn.com/life/06/19/17/magkakapatid-na-albino-anak-ng-engkanto |access-date=November 23, 2018 |work=Patrol.ph |agency=ABS-CBN News |date=June 19, 2017}}</ref><ref name="rapalbino">{{cite news |last1=Santisteban |first1=Bong |title=What it's like to live with albinism |url=https://www.rappler.com/voices/rappler-blogs/204807-living-with-albinism-story/ |access-date=November 23, 2018 |work=Rappler |date=June 13, 2018}}</ref>

During the Spanish period, ''diwata'' were syncretized with elves and fairies in European mythology and folklore, and were given names like ''duende'' (goblin or dwarf), ''encantador'' or ''encanto'' ("spell [caster]"), ''hechicero'' ("sorcerer"), ''sirena'' ("mermaid"), or ''maligno'' ("evil [spirit]").<ref name="Scott1994"/><ref name="tan">{{cite book|author=Michael L. Tan|title =Revisiting Usog, Pasma, Kulam|publisher =University of the Philippines Press|year =2008|isbn =9789715425704|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=EktzHrfup1UC}}</ref><ref name="strong">{{cite book|author=Cynthia A. Strong & David K. Strong|editor =Gailyn Van Rheenen|title =Contextualization and Syncretism: Navigating Cultural Currents|chapter =Dwarves, Elves, and Vampires: An Exploration of Syncretism in Metro Manila|publisher =William Carey Library|series =Evangelical Missiological Society No. 13|year =2006|isbn =9780878083879|chapter-url =https://books.google.com/books?id=E84GB2f2a9QC}}</ref> In Islamized ethnic groups of the Philippines, these nature spirits are usually called ''jinn'' or ''saitan'', due to the influence of Islamic mythology.<ref name="tan"/><ref name="sather">{{cite book|author=Clifford Sather|editor1=Peter Bellwood |editor2=James J. Fox |editor3=Darrell Tryon |title =The Austronesians: Historical and Comparative Perspectives|chapter =Sea Nomads and Rainforest Hunter-Gatherers: Foraging Adaptations in the Indo-Malaysian Archipelago – The Sama-Bajau|publisher =ANU E Press|year =2006|pages=257–264|isbn = 9781920942854|chapter-url =http://press.anu.edu.au/austronesians/austronesians/mobile_devices/ch13s04.html}}</ref><ref name="oceans">{{cite book|author=Hanafi Hussin|editor1=Birgit Abels |editor2=Morag Josephine Grant |editor3=Andreas Waczkat |title =Oceans of Sound: Sama Dilaut Performing Arts|chapter =Balancing the Spiritual and Physical Worlds: Memory, Responsibility, and Survival in the Rituals of the Sama Dilaut (Bajau laut) in Sitangkai, Tawi-Tawi, Southern Philippines and Semporna, Sabah, Malaysia|series =Göttinger Studien zur Musikwissenschaft Volume 3|year =2010|chapter-url =http://eprints.um.edu.my/11446/1/balancing_th_the_spiritual.pdf}}</ref>

==Religious objects and places== ===''Taotao'' figures=== [[File:Ifugao sculpture Louvre 70-1999-4-1.jpg|thumb|15th century ''bulul'' with a ''pamahan'' (ceremonial bowl) in the Louvre Museum]] Ancestor spirits were usually represented by carved figures. These were known as ''taotao'' ("little human", also ''taotaohan'', ''latawo'', ''tinatao'', or ''tatao''),<ref group="note">From Proto-Malayo-Polynesian ''*tau'', ultimately from Proto-Austronesian ''*Cau'', "human" or "person"; compare with Toraja ''tau tau'' statues</ref> ''bata-bata'' ("little child"), ''ladaw'' ("image" or "likeness"; also ''laraw'', ''ladawang'', ''lagdong'', or ''larawan''), or ''likha'' ("creation"; also ''likhak'') in most of the Philippines. Other names include ''bulul'' (also ''bulol'' or ''bul-ul'') among the Ifugao; ''tinagtaggu'' (also ''tinattaggu'') among the Kankanaey and Tuwali Ifugao;<ref group="note">''Tinagtaggu'' is a cognate of ''taotao'' in the Tuwali language; from ''tagu'', "human"</ref> ''lablabbon'' among the Itneg;<ref name="Villanueva">{{cite book |last1=Villanueva |first1=Cristina B. |title=Classification and Indexing of Philippine Indigenous Materials with Emphasis on the Cordillera |date=2016 |publisher=University of the Philippines Baguio |url=http://library.ifla.org/1335/1/151-villanueva-en.pdf|archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20170224133445/http://library.ifla.org/1335/1/151-villanueva-en.pdf|archive-date=2017-02-24}}</ref> ''manaug'' among the Lumad; and ''tagno'' among Bicolanos.<ref name="Scott1994"/><ref name="hislop"/><ref name="potet"/><ref name="kroeber"/><ref name="zaide"/><ref name="blumetritt">{{cite book|author=Ferdinand Blumentritt |title =Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes|chapter =Alphabetisches Verzeichnis der bei den philippinischen Eingeborenen üblichen Eigennamen, welche auf Religion, Opfer und priesterliche Titel und Amtsverrichtungen sich beziehen. (Fortsetzung.)|publisher =Orientalisches Institut, Universität Wien|volume=8|year =1894|page=147|chapter-url =https://books.google.com/books?id=LLVBAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA147}}</ref> Among Tagalogs, ''taotao'' were also sometimes referred to as ''lambana'' ("altar" or "sacred place"),<ref group="note">The term ''lambana'' was later syncretized with fairies, commonly depicted as tiny winged beings in modern illustrations. homonym for the alternate term ''dambana'' has come to mean "shrine" or "chapel" in modern Tagalog</ref> after the location in which they are usually kept.<ref name="potet"/><ref name="blumetritt"/> [[File:Anitos of the Igorotes (c. 1900, Philippines).jpg|thumb|left|Igorot ''hipag'' depicting war deities ({{circa}} &nbsp;1900)]] ''Taotao'' were usually austere roughly-carved figures made from wood, stone, or ivory. Some ''taoatao'' encountered by the Spanish were made from precious metals or ornamented with gold and jewelry, but these were very rare.<ref name="Scott1994"/><ref name="agon">{{cite book|author=Teodoro A. Agoncillo|title =Introduction to Filipino History|publisher =Radiant Star Pub.|year =1974|page=21}}</ref> ''Taotao'' were almost always depicted in the squatting position with the arms crossed over the knees, which is reminiscent of the fetal position, the everyday conversing posture, and the position bodies are arranged during death among Ancient Filipinos. Some figures, however, are depicted standing or doing everyday activities like dancing, pounding rice, or nursing infants.<ref name="roxas-lim">{{cite journal|author=Aurora Roxas-Lim|year=1973|title=Art in Ifugao Society|journal=Asian Studies|volume=11|issue=2|pages=47–74|url=http://www.asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-11-02-1973/roxas-limart%20ifugao%20society.pdf}}</ref><ref name="cm"/> [[File:Balaua, the largest spirit house for anito among the Itneg people (1922, Philippines).jpg|thumb|A ''balaua'', a large spirit house used for community rituals to ''anito'' among the Itneg people (1922)<ref name="cole"/>]] Most ''taotao'' represent an actual deceased person, usually carved by the community upon their funeral. As such, there can be hundreds of ''taotao'' in a single village, some of them centuries old.<ref name="cm"/><ref name="storch">{{cite book|author=Gregorio F. Zaide|editor = Tanya Storch|title =Religions and Missionaries around the Pacific, 1500–1900|chapter =Filipinos Before the Spanish Conquest Possessed a Well-Ordered and Well-Thought-Out Religion|publisher =Routledge|series =The Pacific World: Lands, Peoples and History of the Pacific, 1500–1900, Volume 17|year =2017|isbn = 9781351904780|chapter-url =https://books.google.com/books?id=5gokDwAAQBAJ}}</ref> [[File:Salako and palaan, ceremonial altars among the Itneg people (1922, Philippines).jpg|thumb|''Salako'' (left) and ''palaan'' (right) ceremonial altars among the Itneg people (1922)<ref name="cole"/>]] In very rare cases, ''diwata'' can be depicted as ''taotao'' in anthropomorphic form, as chimeras or legendary creatures, or as animals.<ref name="potet"/><ref name="cm">{{cite web|url=https://cordilleranmuseum.weebly.com/gallery-of-exhibits.html|title=Gallery of Exhibits|publisher=Museum of Cordilleran Sculpture|access-date=May 11, 2018}}</ref> These include a special class of figures called ''hipag'' among the Igorot which depict war deities, as well as ''kinabigat'' (carved houseposts) and ''hogang'' (carved tree fern posts used as boundary markers and as wards against harm).<ref name="cm"/> As a rule, however, ''diwata'' are not usually depicted as ''taotao'' or by any man-made representations.<ref name="hislop"/>

''Taotao'' were not intrinsically sacred. They were representations of the spirits, not the actual spirits themselves. They only became sacred during their use in a ''pag-anito'' ritual. Without the spirit they represent, they are treated as mundane carved pieces of wood or sculpted stone. The anonymous author of the 1572 ''Relación de la conquista de la isla de Luzón'' describes ''pag-anito'' rituals of the Tagalog people as such:<ref name="B&R3Anonymous1572">{{Cite book|title=Relation of the Conquest of the Island of Luzon|work=The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898|publisher=Arthur H. Clark Company|year=1903|editor-last=Blair|editor-first=Emma Helen|editor-link=Emma Helen Blair|volume=3|location=Ohio, Cleveland|pages=145|editor2-last=Robertson|editor2-first=James Alexander|editor-link2=James Alexander Robertson}}</ref>

<blockquote>When any chief is ill, he invites his kindred and orders a great meal to be prepared, consisting of fish, meat, and wine. When the guests are all assembled and the feast set forth in a few plates on the ground inside the house, they seat themselves also on the ground to eat. In the midst of the feast (called manganito or baylán in their tongue), they put the idol called Batala and certain aged women who are considered as priestesses, and some aged Indians—neither more nor less. They offer the idol some of the food which they are eating, and call upon him in their tongue, praying to him for the health of the sick man for whom the feast is held. The natives of these islands have no altars nor temples whatsoever. This manganito, or drunken revel, to give it a better name, usually lasts seven or eight days; and when it is finished they take the idols and put them in the corners of the house, and keep them there without showing them any reverence.</blockquote>

Regardless, very old ''taotao'' handed down through generations are prized as family heirlooms. Among the Igorot, pieces of ''taotao'' may also be chipped off and boiled into a medicinal tea.<ref name="cm"/>

''Taotao'' were commonly kept in corners or small shelves inside houses or granaries. Spanish missionaries recorded that ''taotao'' were present in every Filipino household, no matter how poor.<ref name="Scott1994"/><ref name="hislop"/><ref name="zaide">{{cite book|author=Gregorio F. Zaide|title =Philippine Political and Cultural History|volume= 1|publisher =Philippine Education Company|year =1975|page=68}}</ref><ref name="blumetritt"/>

When Spanish missionaries arrived in the Philippines, the word "''anito''" came to be associated with these physical representations of spirits that featured prominently in ''pag-anito'' rituals. During the American rule of the Philippines (1898–1946), the meaning of the Spanish word ''idolo'' ("a thing worshiped") was further conflated with the English word "idol". Thus in the modern Filipino language, ''anito'' has come to refer almost exclusively to the carved ''taotao'' figures, instead of the actual spirits themselves.<ref name="Scott1994"/><ref name="sawyer">{{cite book|author=Frederic H. Sawyer|title =The Inhabitants of the Philippines|publisher =Charles Scribner's Sons|year =1900|url =https://archive.org/details/inhabitantsofphi00sawy}}</ref>

===Shrines, altars, and sacred areas=== {{main|Dambana}} [[File:Enchanted Balete Tree in Lazi.JPG|thumb|''Diwata'' are believed to inhabit this 400-year old ''balete'' tree in Lazi, Siquijor with a natural spring between its roots]] Ancient Filipinos and Filipinos who continue to adhere to the Indigenous Philippine folk religions generally do not have so-called "temples" of worship under the context known to foreign cultures.<ref name="Scott1994"/><ref>Stephen K. Hislop (1971). "Anitism: a survey of religious beliefs native to the Philippines" (PDF). Asian Studies. 9 (2): 144–156</ref><ref>Ferdinand Blumentritt (1894). "Alphabetisches Verzeichnis der bei den philippinischen Eingeborenen üblichen Eigennamen, welche auf Religion, Opfer und priesterliche Titel und Amtsverrichtungen sich beziehen. (Fortsetzung.)". Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes. 8. Orientalisches Institut, Universität Wien. p. 147.</ref> However, they do have sacred shrines, which are also called as spirit houses.<ref name="Scott1994"/> They can range in size from small roofed platforms, to structures similar to a small house (but with no walls), to shrines that look similar to pagodas, especially in the south where early mosques were also modeled in the same way.<ref>Madale, N. T. (2003). In Focus: A Look at Philippine Mosques. National Commission for Culture and the Arts.</ref> These shrines were known in various indigenous terms, which depend on the ethnic group association.<ref group="note">Known as ''magdantang'' in Visayan and ''ulango'' or ''simbahan'' in Tagalog. Among the Itneg, shrines are known ''tangpap'', ''pangkew'', or ''alalot'' (for various small roofed altars); and ''balaua'' or ''kalangan'' (for larger structures). In Mindanao, shrines are known among the Subanen as ''maligai''; among the Teduray as ''tenin'' (only entered by shamans); and among the Bagobo as ''buis'' (for those built near roads and villages) and ''parabunnian'' (for those built near rice fields).(Kroeber, 1918)</ref> They can also be used as places to store ''taotao'' and caskets of ancestors. Among Bicolanos, ''taotao'' were also kept inside sacred caves called ''moog''.<ref name="Scott1994"/><ref>A. L. Kroeber (1918). "The History of Philippine Civilization as Reflected in Religious Nomenclature". Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History. XXI (Part II): 35–37.</ref><ref>Cole, Fay-Cooper; Gale, Albert (1922). "The Tinguian; Social, Religious, and Economic life of a Philippine tribe". Field Museum of Natural History: Anthropological Series. 14 (2): 235–493</ref><ref>Gregorio F. Zaide (2017). "Filipinos Before the Spanish Conquest Possessed a Well-Ordered and Well-Thought-Out Religion". In Tanya Storch (ed.). Religions and Missionaries around the Pacific, 1500–1900. The Pacific World: Lands, Peoples and History of the Pacific, 1500–1900, Volume 17. Routledge. {{ISBN|9781351904780}}.</ref>

During certain ceremonies, ''anito'' are venerated through temporary altars near sacred places. These were called ''latangan'' or ''lantayan'' in Visayan and ''dambana'' or ''lambana'' in Tagalog.<ref group="note">Also ''saloko'' or ''palaan'' (Itneg); ''sakolong'' (Bontoc); ''salagnat'' (Bicolano); ''sirayangsang'' (Tagbanwa); ''ranga'' (Teduray); and ''tambara'', ''tigyama'', or ''balekat'' (Bagobo)</ref> These bamboo or rattan altars are identical in basic construction throughout most of the Philippines. They were either small roof-less platforms or standing poles split at the tip (similar to a tiki torch). They held halved coconut shells, metal plates, or ''martaban'' jars as receptacles for offerings. ''Taotao'' may sometimes also be placed on these platforms.<ref name="Scott1994"/><ref name="kroeber"/>

Other types of sacred places or objects of worship of ''diwata'' include the material manifestation of their realms. The most widely venerated were ''balete'' trees (also called ''nonok'', ''nunuk'', ''nonoc'', etc.) and anthills or termite mounds (''punso''). Other examples include mountains, waterfalls, tree groves, reefs, and caves.<ref name="Scott1994"/><ref name="hislop"/><ref name="potet"/><ref name="agon2"/><ref name="demetrio73">{{cite journal|author=Francisco R. Demetrio|year=1973|title=Philippine Shamanism and Southeast Asian Parallels|journal=Asian Studies|volume=11|issue=2|pages=128–154|url=http://www.asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-11-02-1973/demetrio-philippine%20shamanism%20southeast%20asian%20parallels%20.pdf}}</ref>

===Spirit animals and plants=== [[File:Visayan tenegre horn hilt closeup.JPG|thumb|''Bakunawa'' pommel from a Visayan ''tenegre'' sword]] Some animals like crocodiles, snakes, monitor lizards, tokay geckos, and various birds were also venerated as servants or manifestations of ''diwata'', or as powerful spirits themselves. These include legendary creatures like the dragon or serpent Bakunawa, the giant bird Minokawa of the Bagobo, and the colorful Sarimanok of the Maranao.<ref name="Scott1994"/><ref name="hislop"/><ref name="potet"/><ref name="agon2">{{cite book|author=Teodoro A. Agoncillo & Oscar M. Alfonso|title =History of the Filipino People|publisher =Malaya Books|year =1969|page=42}}</ref><ref name="mccoy"/>

Omen birds were particularly important. The most common omen birds were doves with green or blue iridescent feathers called ''limokon'' (usually the common emerald dove, imperial pigeons, or brown doves).<ref group="note">''Limokon'' in most of Visayas and among the Lumad; also ''almúgan'' (Blaan), ''alimúkun'' (Cebuano), ''alimúkeng'' (Ilocano); ''limoken'' (Maranao); ''muhen'' (T'boli); ''lemuguen'' (Teduray); and ''limukun'' (Subanen)</ref> Other omen birds include fairy-bluebirds (''tigmamanukan'', ''balan tikis'', ''balatiti'', or ''bathala'' among Tagalogs; and ''batala'' among Kapampangans); kingfishers (''salaksak'' among the Ilocano, Igorot, and Sambal); and flowerpeckers (''pitpit'', ''ichaw'', ''ido'', or ''labeg'' among the Igorot).<ref name="potet"/><ref name="kroeber"/><ref name="forth">{{cite book|author=Gregory Forth|editor =Sonia Tidemann & Andrew Gosler|title =Ethno-ornithology: Birds, Indigenous Peoples, Culture and Society|chapter =What's in a Bird's Name: Relationships among Ethno-ornithological Terms in Nage and Other Malayo-Polynesian Languages|publisher =Earthscan|year =2012|isbn =9781849774758|chapter-url =https://books.google.com/books?id=8u2nUWLYx18C}}</ref>

Certain animals (in addition to omen birds) are also believed to be manifestations of spirits, and there were taboos when interacting with them or speaking about them as their connections to the spirit world make them innately dangerous. This belief was universal among early Austronesian animism, existing not only in the Philippines, but also among the Taiwanese indigenous peoples, other Islander Southeast Asians, and Pacific Islanders. When spoken of, these spirit creatures are marked with a prefix, reconstructed as proto-Austronesian *qali- or *kali-,<ref group="note">With numerous variants in proto-Malayo-Polynesian including *buli-, *dali-, *kala-, *kali-, *kalu-, *kula-, *kuli-, *kuliN-, *kulu-, *pali-, *qali-, *qaNi-, *qari-, *quNi-, *sali-, *tali-, etc. (Blust, 2001)</ref> which still survive fossilized in modern languages in Austronesian cultures, though the beliefs may have long been forgotten. Only very specific creatures were regarded in this way, the most prominent being butterflies which are still widely associated with ghosts. The animals in this category include the following:<ref name="Blust2001">{{cite book|first1=Robert|last1=Blust|editor1-first=Joel |editor1-last=Bradshaw|editor2-first=Kenneth|editor2-last=Rehg|title =Issues in Austronesian morphology: a focusschrift for Byron W. Bender|chapter =Historical morphology and the spirit world: the *qali/kali- prefixes in Austronesian languages|publisher =The Australian National University|location=Canberra|series =Pacific Linguistics|year =2001|pages=15–73|isbn =0858834855|url =https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/254098/1/PL-519.15.pdf}}</ref><ref name="ACD">{{cite web |last1=Blust |first1=Robert |last2=Trussel |first2=Stephen |title=*qali-, prefix for words with a sensitive reference to the spirit world (cf. *kali-) |url=https://www.trussel2.com/ACD/acd-s_q.htm#31867 |website=Austronesian Comparative Dictionary |access-date=15 March 2024}}</ref>

*Ants, winged ants, or winged termites, e.g. Cebuano {{lang|ceb|'''ali'''busbus}}, Pinatubo Aeta {{lang|blx|'''ali'''dakdak}}, and Maranao {{lang|mrw|'''kala'''lapa}} *Aphid, e.g. Bikol {{lang|bik|'''alu'''siwsiw}} *Bats, e.g. Teduray {{lang|tiy|'''keli'''mbungan}}, Bikol {{lang|bik|'''kula'''pnit}}, and Kapampangan {{lang|pam|'''tali'''batab}} *Beetles, e.g. Hanunóo {{lang|hnn|'''alu'''tatip}} and Teduray {{lang|tiy|'''kele'''futey}} *Birds (various), examples: :*Doves, e.g. Cebuano {{lang|ceb|'''ali'''mukun}}, Tagalog {{lang|tl|'''kala'''pati}}, ahd Maranao {{lang|mrw|'''li'''moken}} :*Hanging parrots, e.g. Hanunóo {{lang|hnn|'''kalu'''sisi}} and Tagalog {{lang|tl|'''kula'''sisi}} :*Hornbills, e.g. Teduray {{lang|tiy|'''keli'''metan}} :*Coucals, e.g. Hanunóo {{lang|hnn|'''bali'''kaku}} :*Owls, e.g. Ilocano {{lang|ilo|'''kola'''labang}} :*Roosters (especially colorful fighting cocks), e.g. Tagalog {{lang|tl|'''ali'''mbuyugin}} and Cebuano {{lang|ceb|'''bala'''kiki}} :*Swiftlets, e.g. Ilocano {{lang|ilo|'''kala'''pini}}, Tausug {{lang|tsg|'''kala'''siyaw}} and Ivatan {{lang|ivv|'''al'''pasayaw}} :*Woodpeckers, e.g. Cebuano {{lang|ceb|'''bala'''latuk}} and Isneg {{lang|isd|'''kali'''ttaxa}} *Bumblebees, e.g. Hanunóo {{lang|hnn|'''ali'''búyug}}, Ilocano {{lang|ilo|'''ali'''mbubúyog}}, and Itawis {{lang|itv|'''ara'''biyóngen}} *Butterflies and large moths, e.g. Cebuano {{lang|ceb|'''ali'''bangbáng}}, Ilocano {{lang|ilo|'''kuli'''bangbang}}, Ivatan {{lang|ivv|'''kuli'''vaavang}}, and Tagalog {{lang|tl|'''ali'''paró}} *Caterpillars, e.g. Ilocano {{lang|ilo|'''ali'''mbobódo}}, Bikol {{lang|bik|'''ala'''láso}} *Centipedes, e.g. Cebuano {{lang|ceb|'''alu'''hipan}} and Ivatan {{lang|ivv|'''ali'''puan}} *Crabs, e.g. Tagalog {{lang|tl|'''ali'''mango}}, Cebuano {{lang|ceb|'''ali'''masag}}, and Ilocano {{lang|ilo|'''ari'''mbukéng}} *Dragonflies, e.g. Kankanaey {{lang|kne|'''ala'''llaóngan}}, Cebuano {{lang|ceb|'''ali'''ndanaw}}, and Ilocano {{lang|ilo|'''ali'''mbubungáw}} *Earthworms, e.g. Bikol {{lang|bik|'''alu'''luntí}}, Hanunóo {{lang|hnn|'''alu'''káti}}, and Pangasinan {{lang|pag|'''alo'''mbáyar}} *Fireflies, e.g. Cebuano {{lang|ceb|'''ani'''níput}}, Tagalog {{lang|tl|'''ali'''táptap}}, and Ilocano {{lang|ilo|'''kula'''lantí}} *Fish (various), examples: :*Spadefish, e.g. Casiguran Dumagat Agta {{lang|dgc|'''kali'''bongbong}} :*Sailfin catfish, e.g. Cebuano {{lang|ceb|'''ali'''musan}} :*Sillago, e.g. Cebuano {{lang|ceb|'''ala'''suus}} *Fleas, e.g. Ibanag {{lang|ibg|'''ali'''ffúngo}} and Kankanaey {{lang|kne|'''ati'''lalagá}} *Gecko, e.g. Ilocano {{lang|ilo|'''alu'''tíit}} and Kapampangan {{lang|pam|'''lu'''písak}} *Grasshoppers, e.g. Cebuano {{lang|ceb|'''ali'''siwsiw}}, Sangir {{lang|sxn|'''kali'''mbotong}}, and Maranao {{lang|mrw|'''kara'''keban}} *Stingless bees, e.g. Cebuano {{lang|ceb|'''li'''gwán}}, Hanunóo {{lang|hnn|'''ali'''búbug}}, and Kapampangan {{lang|pam|'''anig'''-guan}} *Leeches :*Land leech, e.g. Cebuano {{lang|ceb|'''ali'''mátuk}}, Tagalog {{lang|tl|'''li'''mátik}}, and Ilocano {{lang|ilo|'''ali'''mátek}} :*Paddy (aquatic) leeches, e.g. Ilocano {{lang|ilo|'''ali'''ntá}}, Tagalog {{lang|tl|'''li'''ntá}}, and Isneg {{lang|isd|'''ali'''mtá}} *Snakes, e.g. Tagalog {{lang|tl|'''ali'''muranin}}, Bikol {{lang|bik|'''ali'''busógon}}, Ilocano {{lang|ilo|'''ali'''ndáyag}}, and Isneg {{lang|isd|'''ari'''marán}} *Mollusks :*Limpets, e.g. Cebuano {{lang|ceb|'''ali'''padnu}} :*Windowpane oyster, e.g. Ilocano {{lang|ilo|'''kuli'''ntipay}} *Spiders, e.g. Aklanon {{lang|akl|'''tali'''mbabága}}, Isinai {{lang|inn|'''ali'''ngakáwa}}, Sangir {{lang|sxn|'''kali'''bangkang}}, and Sarangani Blaan {{lang|bps|'''kal'''mamo}} *Wasps, e.g. Ilocano {{lang|ilo|'''alu'''mpinig}} and Cebuano {{lang|ceb|'''la'''mpining}}

The category also includes numerous plants, many of which are or were used in shamanic or medicinal applications, including ''Lepisanthes rubiginosa'' (Tagalog {{lang|tl|'''kali'''mayo}}), ''Ticanto crista'' (Tagalog {{lang|tl|'''kalu'''mbibit}}), ''Tabernaemontana pandacaqui'' (Aklanon {{lang|akl|'''ali'''butbut}}), ''Excoecaria agallocha'' (Aklanon {{lang|akl|'''ali'''pata}}), ''Musa acuminata'' (Tagalog {{lang|tl|'''ali'''nsanay}}), ''Diospyros pilosanthera'' (Tagalog {{lang|tl|'''ali'''ntataw}}), ''Basella rubra'' (Tagalog {{lang|tl|'''alu'''gbati}}), and nettles (Hanunóo {{lang|hnn|'''ali'''ngatngat}} and Isneg {{lang|isd|'''ala'''latang}}), among many others.<ref name="Blust2001"/>

The prefix also extended to terms for actual spirits, like Tagalog {{lang|tl|'''kalu'''luwa}} ("soul"), Isneg {{lang|isd|'''Kala'''pataw}} (a totemic spirit of birds), Kankanaey {{lang|kne|'''ala'''dunáxan}} (a spirit who makes babies cry at night to disturb their parents' sleep), and Maranao {{lang|mrw|'''ali'''mekat}} (a water spirit); as well as natural phenomena and other concepts believed to have direct ties to the spirit world, like echoes (e.g. Tagalog {{lang|tl|'''ali'''ngawngaw}}), whirlpools or tornadoes (e.g. Tagalog {{lang|tl|'''ali'''mpuyó}} and Bikol {{lang|bik|'''ali'''púros}}), storms (e.g. Kankanaey {{lang|kne|'''ali'''mbudádbud}}), shadows (e.g. Kankanaey {{lang|kne|'''ala'''langaw}}), [clouds of] dust (e.g. Tagalog {{lang|tl|'''ali'''kabok}} and Western Bukidnon Manobo {{lang|mbb|'''eli'''yavuk}}), sun or moon halos (e.g. Isneg {{lang|isd|'''ali'''bongbóng}}), unease or restlessness (e.g. Tagalog {{lang|tl|'''ali'''suwag}}), rustling of the grass or wind (e.g. Ilocano {{lang|ilo|'''ari'''nggunay}} and Kankanaey {{lang|kne|'''ali'''kadong}}), hair whorls (e.g. Cebuano {{lang|ceb|'''ali'''mpulu}} and Hanunóo {{lang|hnn|'''ari'''pudwan}}), mountain summits (e.g. Bikol {{lang|bik|'''ali'''tuktok}} and Aklanon {{lang|akl|'''ali'''pungto}}), dizziness or fainting (e.g. Cebuano {{lang|ceb|'''ali'''pulung}}, Pangasinan {{lang|pag|'''ali'''moreng}}, and Kankanaey {{lang|kne|'''ali'''tengteng}}), confusion or forgetting (e.g. Kapampangan {{lang|pam|'''kali'''ngwan}} and Bikol {{lang|bik|'''ali'''walas}}), thick smoke or steam (e.g. Ilocano {{lang|ilo|'''ali'''ngasaw}} and Tagalog {{lang|tl|'''ali'''muóm}}), loud [annoying] noises (e.g. Cebuano {{lang|ceb|'''ali'''ngasaw}} and Ifugao {{lang|ifb|'''ali'''dogdog}}), the pupil of the eye (e.g. Tagalog {{lang|tl|'''ali'''kmata}} and Hiligaynon {{lang|hil|'''kali'''mutaw}}), and so on.<ref name="Blust2001"/>

==Rituals and shamans== {{Main|Philippine shamans}} [[File:A Tinguian making an offering to the guardian stones. Wellcome M0005692.jpg|thumb|A 1922 photograph of an Itneg shaman making an offering to an ''apdel'', a guardian ''anito'' of her village. ''Apdel'' are believed to reside in the water-worn stones known as ''pinaing''.<ref name="cole"/>]] Anitism was not a religion about worship. Aside from good ancestor spirits and the few benevolent ''diwata'', most ''anito'' were feared, not venerated. To an ordinary person, ''diwata'' were regarded as dangerous beings to be avoided or appeased. When interaction was necessary, they performed a ritual known as ''pag-anito'' (also ''mag-anito'' or ''anitohan''). These are usually directed at ancestor spirits. When the ''pag-anito'' ceremony is for a ''diwata'', the ritual is known as ''pagdiwata'' (also ''magdiwata'' or ''diwatahan'').<ref name="Scott1994"/><ref name="hislop"/>

Minor ''pag-anito'' rituals like praying for better weather or banishing minor ill luck can be performed by any householder. However, major ''pag-anito'' rituals required the services of the community shaman (Visayan ''babaylan'' or ''baylan''; Tagalog ''katalonan'' or ''manganito'').<ref name="Scott1994"/><ref group="note">Other terms include ''balyana'', ''paraanito'', or ''paradiwata'' (Bicolano); ''balian'', ''balyan'', or ''mabalian'' (Lumad); ''balian'' or ''tanguilin'' (Subanen); ''bawalyan'' or ''babaylan'' (Tagbanwa); ''beljan'' (Palaw'an); ''baglan'', ''mangoodan'', or ''manilao'' (Ilocano);''bahasa'' (Yakan); ''dukun'', ''kalamat'', or ''papagan'' (Sama-Bajau); ''mandadawak'', ''dawak'', ''insupak'', ''mon-lapu'', ''tumunoh'', ''alpogan'', or ''mumbaki'' (Igorot); ''anitu'' (Aeta); and ''ma-aram'' (Karay-a)</ref>

These shamans were believed to have been "chosen" by a specific ''diwata'' who become their spirit guides.<ref group="note">Terms for spirit guides of shamans include ''bantay'', ''abyan'' (Visayan); ''alagad'', ''gabay'' (Tagalog); ''abyan'', ''umli'', ''sugujen'', or ''inajew'' (Lumad); ''saro'' (Bicolano); and ''jinn'' (Sama-Bajau)</ref> This was presumed to happen after they pass the initiation rites of an older shaman they were apprenticed to (usually a relative). In some cases, some shamans acquire their status after they recover from a serious illness or a bout of insanity.<ref name="Scott1994"/><ref name="cannell">{{cite book|author=Fenella Cannell|title =Power and Intimacy in the Christian Philippines|publisher =Cambridge University Press|series =Cambridge Studies in Social and Cultural Anthropology, Volume 109|year =1999|isbn =9780521646222|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=ngmnrkfySdUC}}</ref><ref name="gat"/><ref name="buen"/><ref name="oceans"/><ref name="sh"/> In most Filipino ethnic groups, shamans were almost always female. The few males who gain shaman status were usually ''asog'' or ''bayok'',<ref group="note">''Asog'' is the term used for transvestite male shamans in most of the Visayas and in the Bicol Region. In the rest of Luzon, they are known as ''bayok'' (''bayoc''), ''bayog'', or ''bayogin'' (''bayoguin'' or ''bayoquin''). Notably among the Sambal, the highest-ranking shaman was a ''bayok''. They are also known as ''labia'' among the Subanen, though they were not necessarily shamans (Kroeber, 1918). There are also similar trans women shamans among the Dayak people of Borneo (Baldick, 2013). Also see ''Bakla''</ref> feminized men.<ref name="Scott1994"/><ref name="kroeber"/><ref name="buen"/><ref name="sh">{{cite web|url=https://www.aswangproject.com/filipino-shaman/|title=6 Guidelines for Becoming a Filipino Shaman|date=December 4, 2016 |publisher=The Aswang Project|access-date=May 12, 2018}}</ref> thumb|left|Itneg people launching spirit boats (''taltalabong'') bearing offerings for ''anito'' (1922) Major ''pag-anito'' rituals are centered around a séance. Because of their special relationship with their companion spirits, shamans can act as mediums for other ''anito'', allowing spirits to temporarily possess their bodies. This possession happens after the shaman goes into a trance-like state. This allows the spirit to communicate verbally with the participants as well as physically act out events in the spirit world. At the moment of possession, shamans display a change in behavior and voice. They can sometimes go into seizures and become violent enough that restraints are required. The ritual ends when the spirit leaves and the shaman is awakened.<ref name="Scott1994"/>

Spirits were invited into the ritual through offerings and sacrifices during and after the ceremonies. These depended on what spirit was being summoned, but offerings are usually a small portion of the harvests, cooked food, wine, gold ornaments, and betel nut. Blood from an animal was also usually part of the offerings, poured directly on the ''taotao'' or in a bowl before them. These commonly come from chickens or pigs, but can also be from carabaos or dogs.<ref name="Scott1994"/><ref name="hislop"/> Salt and spices are usually avoided, as they are believed to be distasteful to ''anito''.<ref name="buen"/>

Colonial records of human sacrifice indicate that it was also widely practiced on special occasions (like prior to battle, sowing time, illness, or building houses).<ref name="human"/> These practices largely died out during the colonial era,<ref name="Scott1994"/><ref name="zaide"/><ref name="mccoy">{{cite journal|author=Alfred W. McCoy|year=1982|title=Baylan: animist religion and Philippine peasant ideology|journal=Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society|volume=10|issue=3|pages=141–194|jstor=29791761}}</ref> but it persisted among the Bagobo people in southern Mindanao where it was prevalent until the early 20th century.<ref name="human">{{cite book|author=Joachim Schliesinger|title =Traditional Human Sacrifices in Southeast Asia and Beyond|publisher =White Elephant Press|year =2017|page=75|isbn =9781946765710|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=-YIoDwAAQBAJ}}</ref><ref name="Benedict">{{cite journal|author=Laura Watson Benedict|year=1916|title=A Study of Bagobo Ceremonial, Magic and Myth|journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences|volume=25|issue=1|pages=1–308|doi=10.1111/j.1749-6632.1916.tb55170.x|bibcode=1916NYASA..25....1B |hdl=2027/miun.afy4779.0001.001|s2cid=222087174|url=http://name.umdl.umich.edu/AFY4779.0001.001 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Some anthropologists consider the headhunting traditions of the Igorot as a form of human sacrifice. In the funeral rites for celebrated warriors or nobles among Visayans and Tagalogs, favorite slaves may also sometimes be executed and buried (''hogot'') to accompany the deceased into the spirit world.<ref name="Scott1994"/><ref name="human"/><ref name="Benedict"/>

Another common ''pag-anito'' ritual throughout most of the Philippine ethnic groups involves the use of spirit boats. These were usually miniature boats laden with offerings set adrift from riverbanks and shorelines.<ref name="hislop"/><ref name="apostol"/><ref name="cole"/>

''Pag-anito'' can be conducted on its own or in conjunction with other rituals and celebrations. They can be personal or family rituals or seasonal community events. They can vary considerably between different ethnic groups. The most common ''pag-anito'' were entreaties for bountiful harvests, cures for illnesses, victory in battle, prayers for the dead, or blessings.<ref name="Scott1994"/><ref name="kroeber"/>

Different ethnic groups had different ''diwata'' pantheons and rituals associated with them, though sometimes deities are shared in neighboring ethnic groups. Moreover, different communities also each have their own local patron ''diwata.''<ref name="hislop"/><ref group="note">In modern Christianized Filipinos, this practice was transferred unto community patron saints and religious icons, which are often celebrated and worshiped in a very similar way (Hislop, 1971), cf. Ati-Atihan, Obando Fertility Rites</ref>

==Historical accounts== Historical accounts of anito in Spanish records include the following: [[File:Igorot sculpture of Lumawig (1909).png|thumb|A figurine of Lumawig, a cultural hero and the supreme being in the pantheon of the Bontoc people]] *''"Most of the Indians are heathens...They believe in their ancestors, and when about to embark upon some enterprise commend themselves to these, asking them for aid."'' – Francisco de Sande, ''Relacion de las Yslas Filipinas'' (1576) *''"Which treats of the rites and ceremonies observed by the Moros in the vicinity of Manilla, and of their social conditions. The god Batala. According to the religion formerly observed by these Moros, they worshiped a deity called among them Batala, which properly means “God.” They said that they adored this Batala because he was the Lord of all, and had created human beings and villages. They said that this Batala had many agents under him, whom he sent to this world to produce, in behalf of men, what is yielded here. These beings were called anitos, and each anito had a special office. Some of them were for the fields, and some for those who journey by sea; some for those who went to war, and some for diseases. Each anito was therefore named for his office; there was, for instance, the anito of the fields, and the anito of the rain. To these anitos the people offered sacrifices, when they desired anything—to each one according to his office. The mode of sacrifice was like that of the Pintados. They summoned a catalonan, which is the same as the vaylan among the Pintados, that is, a priest. He offered the sacrifice, requesting from the anito whatever the people desired him to ask, and heaping up great quantities of rice, meat, and fish. His invocations lasted until the demon entered his body, when the catalonan fell into a swoon, foaming at the mouth. The Indians sang, drank, and feasted until the catalonan came to himself, and told them the answer that the anito had given to him. If the sacrifice was in behalf of a sick person, they offered many golden chains and ornaments, saying that they were paying a ransom for the sick person's health. This invocation of the anito continued as long as the sickness lasted."''

:''"When the natives were asked why the sacrifices were offered to the anito, and not to the Batala, they answered that the Batala was a great lord, and no one could speak to him. He lived in the sky; but the anito, who was of such a nature that he came down here to talk with men, was to the Batala as a minister, and interceded for them. In some places and especially in the mountain districts, when the father, mother, or other relative dies, the people unite in making a small wooden idol, and preserve it. Accordingly there is a house which contains one hundred or two hundred of these idols. These images also are called anitos; for they say that when people die, they go to serve the Batala. Therefore they make sacrifices to these anitos, offering them food, wine, and gold ornaments; and request them to be intercessors for them before the Batala, whom they regard as God."'' – Miguel de Loarca, ''Relacion de las Yslas Filipinas'' (1582) [[File:Pottery houses for rice anito (spirits) among the Itneg people (1922, Philippines).jpg|thumb|Small ornate pottery houses used as offerings for rice anito among the Itneg people]] *''"They held the cayman in the utmost veneration; and, whenever they made any statement about it, when they descried it in the water, they called it Nono, which means "grandfather." They softly and tenderly besought it not to harm them; and to this end offered it a part of what they carried in their boats, casting the offering into the water. There was no old tree to which they did not attribute divinity; and it was a sacrilege to cut such a tree for any purpose. What more did they adore? the very stones, cliffs, and reefs, and the headlands of the shores of the sea or the rivers; and they made some offering when they passed by these, going to the stone or rock, and placing the offering upon it. I saw many times in the river of Manila a rock which for many years was an idol of that wretched people... While sailing along the island of Panai I beheld on the promontory called Nasso, near Potol, plates and other pieces of earthenware, laid upon a rock, the offering of voyagers. In the island of Mindanao between La Canela and the river [i.e., Rio Grande], a great promontory projects from a rugged and steep coast; always at these points there is a heavy sea, making it both difficult and dangerous to double them. When passing by this headland, the natives, as it was so steep, offered their arrows, discharging them with such force that they penetrated the rock itself. This they did as a sacrifice, that a safe passage might be accorded them."'' – Fr. Pedro Chirino, ''Relacion de las Islas Filipinas'' (1604) *''"They also adored private idols, which each one inherited from his ancestors. The Visayans called them divata, and the Tagálogs anito. Of those idols some had jurisdiction over the mountains and open country, and permission was asked from them to go thither. Others had jurisdiction over the sowed fields, and the fields were commended to them so that they might prove fruitful; and besides the sacrifices they placed articles of food in the fields for the anitos to eat, in order to place them under greater obligations. There was an anito of the sea, to whom they commended their fisheries and navigations; an anito of the house, whose favor they implored whenever an infant was born, and when it was suckled and the breast offered to it. They placed their ancestors, the invocation of whom was the first thing in all their work and dangers, among these anitos. In memory of their ancestors they kept certain very small and very badly made idols of stone, wood, gold, or ivory, called licha or laravan. Among their gods they reckoned also all those who perished by the sword, or who were devoured by crocodiles, as well as those killed by lightning. They thought that the souls of such immediately ascended to the blest abode by means of the rainbow, called by them balañgao. Generally, whoever could succeed in it attributed divinity to his aged father at his death. The aged themselves died in that presumptuous delusion, and during their sickness and at their death guided all their actions with what they imagined a divine gravity and manner. Consequently, they chose as the place for their grave some assigned spot, like one old man who lived on the seacoast between Dulac and Abuyog, which is in the island of Leyte. He ordered himself placed there in his coffin (as was done) in a house standing alone and distant from the settlement, in order that he might be recognized as a god of navigators, who were to commend themselves to him. Another had himself buried in certain lands in the mountains of Antipolo, and through reverence to him no one dared to cultivate those lands (for they feared that he who should do so would die), until an evangelical minister removed that fear from them, and now they cultivate them without harm or fear."'' – Fr. Francisco Colin, ''Labor Evangelica'' (1663)

== In popular culture == ===Arts=== ====Film and television==== *''Amaya'', a historical television series about the precolonial Philippines. It depicts ''diwata'' as goddesses.<ref>{{cite web |title=Amaya |url=https://www.gmanetwork.com/entertainment/tv/amaya/about/ |website=GMA Entertainment |access-date=February 9, 2020}}</ref> *Sugo, is a Philippine television drama action fantasy series features anitos as evil ancestors and demi gods<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sugo: Full Episode 119 (Stream Together) |url=https://www.gmanetwork.com/entertainment/tv/sugo/177156/sugo-full-episode-119-stream-together/video |access-date=2025-01-03 |website=www.gmanetwork.com |language=en}}</ref> *'''''Super Ma'am''''' (international title: ''My Teacher, My Hero'') is a Philippine television drama action fantasy series features a diwata once a goddess demoted as a fairy and as a spirit guide for the lead hero *Juan dela Cruz (TV series) depicts the anito as an evil deity and the diwatas as good fairies [https://www.abs-cbn.com/videos/juan-dela-cruz-juan-nahawakan-ang-pekeng-anito-ng-saragnayan-episode-136-346575] *''Diwata'' (1987), a movie directed by Tata Esteban and written by Rei Nicandro showed the mythical life of the deities. Actress Olga Miranda played the main role, together with the other cast Lala Montelibano, Dick Israel and George Estregan.<ref>{{cite web |title=Diwata (1987)|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0467176/fullcredits?ref_=tt_ov_st_sm |website=IMDb |access-date=February 9, 2020}}</ref> *Halimaw sa Banga (1986), a horror movie based from comic book series of the same name features a shaman killed in a ritual and placed in a jar that later turned into an evil anito that kills people [https://www.iwanttfc.com/#!/open/halimawsabanga]<ref>{{Cite web |title=HALIMAW SA BANGA {{!}} The Bedlam Files |url=https://thebedlamfiles.com/film/halimaw-sa-banga/ |access-date=2025-01-09 |website=thebedlamfiles.com}}</ref> *''Encantadia'' and ''Mulawin'', two television series (with film adaptations) in a shared universe depicts diwatas as a race of fairies and supernatural being living in Encantadia, a dimension beyond the human world.<ref>{{cite web|title='I Juander': Naniniwala pa ba sa diwata si Juan? |publisher=GMA News |date=July 15, 2013 |url=http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/317550/newstv/ijuander/i-juander-naniniwala-pa-ba-sa-diwata-si-juan}}</ref> *''Faraway'' (2014), an independent film focuses on a woman and her quest to find the Diwata tribe.<ref>{{cite web |title=Faraway (2014) |url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt2447338/ |website=IMDb |access-date=February 9, 2020}}</ref> *''Indio'', a television series with a protagonist that is the son of a mortal man and a ''diwata'' woman.<ref>{{cite web |date=January 27, 2013|title=Bong proud to be called 'Indio' |url=https://manilastandardtoday.com/showbitz/75737/bong-proud-to-be-called-indio.html |website=Manila Standard |access-date=February 9, 2020|archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20160410095613/https://manilastandardtoday.com/showbitz/75737/bong-proud-to-be-called-indio.html|archive-date=2016-04-10}}</ref> *''Okay Ka, Fairy Ko!'', a television fantasy situational comedy series (with film adaptations) that revolves around a mortal man married to a fairy princess a ''diwata''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Okay ka, fairy ko! |url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0344696/ |website=IMDb |access-date=February 9, 2020}}</ref> *One day Isang araw, a fantasy anthology series features an episode titled Ang huling diwata (The last Fairy) features a goddess turned fairy who is the guardian of a pond<ref>{{Cite web |title=One Day Isang Araw: Ang Huling Diwata |url=https://www.gmanetwork.com/entertainment/tv/one_day_isang_araw/25780/one-day-isang-araw-ang-huling-diwata/evideo |access-date=2024-12-15 |website=www.gmanetwork.com |language=en-US}}</ref> *Elemento, television docudrama horror anthology series features a diwata of a river cursed for falling in love with a mortal man<ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-07-31 |title='Elemento': new GMA original series, premieres this October |url=https://www.gmanetwork.com/news/publicaffairs/gma7specials/372757/elemento-new-gma-original-series-premieres-this-october/story/ |access-date=2024-12-15 |website=GMA News Online |language=en}}</ref> *Wansapanataym, television fantasy anthology series episode titled Enchanted Trees features diwatas as both fairies and guardian deities of trees<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PvWLi-NoTyc |title=Wansapanataym: Enchanted Trees feat. Angel Aquino (Full Episode 186) {{!}} Jeepney TV |date=2022-07-01 |last=Jeepney TV |access-date=2024-12-15 |via=YouTube}}</ref>

====Literature==== *One of the main characters from the play ''Speech & Debate'' written by Stephen Karam is a woman with Filipino ancestry named Diwata. *Marvel Comics has introduced the "Diwatas" as a pantheon of gods similar to the Asgardians and Olympians. These Diwatas include Aman Sinaya, Amihan, Anitun, Apo Laki, Aswang, Bathala, Mayari and Tala.<ref name="encyclopaediamythologica">{{cite comic | Writer = Anthony Flamini, Greg Pak, Fred Van Lente & Paul Cornell | Penciller = Kevin Sharpe | Inker = Kevin Sharpe | Story = | Title = Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica| Issue = 1 | Date = July 2009| Publisher = Marvel Comics | }}</ref>

====Music==== *"Diwata", a song released by rapper Abra featuring Parokya Ni Edgar vocalist Chito Miranda, from his self-titled debut album.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://myxph.com/features/21497/myxclusive-abra-talks-about-his-hit-music-video-diwata/ |title=MYXclusive: ABRA Talks About His Hit Music Video "Diwata"! – MYX &#124; YOUR CHOICE. YOUR MUSIC |publisher=Myxph.com |access-date=February 22, 2015}}</ref>

====Sculpture==== [[File:The Courtyard with the sculpture "Anito" by Arturo Luz.jpg|thumb|One of the ''Anito'' sculptures and public art installations by Philippine National Artist Arturo Luz at The Courtyard of the Philippine International Convention Center]] *The ''Anito'' series of sculptures and public art installations by Philippine National Artist Arturo Luz was inspired by ''taotao'' carvings of ''anito''<ref name="Chu">{{cite web |last1=Chu |first1=Chloe |title=Obituary: Arturo Luz (1926–2021) |url=https://www.artasiapacific.com/news/obituary-arturo-luz-1926-2021/ |website=ArtAsiaPacific |date=May 27, 2021 |access-date=11 June 2025}}</ref>

===Festivals=== [[File:Babaylan Festival in Bago City.jpg|thumb|A performer depicting a shaman in the 2015 Babaylan Festival of Bago, Negros Occidental]] *The Babaylan Festival of Bago, Negros O is a street dancing festival celebrating the Visayan traditions of ''anito'' and shamans<ref name="bab">{{cite web|url=http://www.choosephilippines.com/do/festivals/1062/babaylan-festival-bago/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150606022559/http://www.choosephilippines.com/do/festivals/1062/babaylan-festival-bago/|url-status=usurped|archive-date=June 6, 2015|title=Babaylan Festival of Bago City|author=Belle Piccio|date=January 30, 2014|publisher=ChoosePhilippines|access-date=May 21, 2018}}</ref> *The Kamarikutan Pagdiwata Arts Festival of Puerto Princesa is inspired by the preserved ritual of ''pagdiwata'' among the Tagbanwa people of Palawan.<ref name="cinco">{{cite news|author=Maricar Cinco|date=December 3, 2009|title=Palawan art gets closer to community|newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer|volume=24|issue=358|url=https://www.pressreader.com/philippines/philippine-daily-inquirer/20091203/282862251980010}}</ref>

===Games=== * ''Anito: Defend a Land Enraged'' is a role-playing game released in 2003 by Anino Entertainment. It was the first video game to be produced and designed entirely by a team of Filipino game developers, and is credited for helping spawn the birth of the game development industry in the Philippines. *One of the abilities of the character Titania (added on August 19, 2016) in Warframe is a sword known as ''diwata''.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Andrivet |first1=Sébastien |title=Titania-class warframe |url=https://www.writeups.org/titania-warframe/ |website=Writeups.org |access-date=February 9, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Woodyatt |first1=Danielle |last2=Langton |first2=Ami |title=Early launch of the Kuva lich, plus Grendel warframe, lays foundation for Empyrean in Waframe's The Old Blood update |url=https://www.gamasutra.com/view/pressreleases/352563/EARLY_LAUNCH_OF_THE_KUVA_LICH_PLUS_GRENDEL_WARFRAME_LAYS_FOUNDATION_FOR_EMPYREAN_IN_WARFRAME_S_THE_OLD_BLOOD_UPDATE.php |website=Gamasutra |access-date=February 9, 2020}}</ref> *''Project Tadhana'', a tabletop role-playing game released in 2017 features Diwata as one of its playable races (or ''lahi'') together with Engkanto, Tikbalang, Aswang, and Tao.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Logarta |first1=Michael |title='Tadhana' is a Filipino tabletop RPG that beautifully encapsulates local myths |url=https://www.gmanetwork.com/news/scitech/technology/632378/tadhana-is-a-filipino-tabletop-rpg-that-beautifully-encapsulates-local-myths/story/ |website=GMA Network |access-date=February 9, 2020|date=November 8, 2017}}</ref> *''Makia:Tales of the Forest'', a visual novel released in 2020

===Science=== *Diwata-1 and Diwata-2, the first Philippine microsatellites launched in 2016 and 2018, respectively, were named after ''diwata.''<ref>{{cite news |title=The Philippines' 50-kg-class microsatellite "DIWATA-1" has been received. DIWATA-1 will be released from Kibo this spring. |url=https://iss.jaxa.jp/en/kiboexp/news/160203_diwata1_sat.html |access-date=November 7, 2020 |work=Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency |date=February 3, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=DIWATA-2: Ready to Launch into Space |url=https://pcieerd.dost.gov.ph/news/latest-news/326-diwata-2-ready-to-launch-into-space |access-date=November 7, 2020 |work=Philippine Council for Industry, Energy, and Emerging Technology Research and Development (DOST-PCIEERD) |date=October 25, 2018}}</ref>

==Notes== {{Reflist|group=note|40em}}

==See also== {{commons category|Anito}} {{Div col}}

*Atua – the Polynesian derivative belief of Anito *fairy *Daemon (classical mythology) *Gabâ *Genius loci *Hantu *Hyang *Kaharingan *Kami *Kodama *Kupua *Menehune *Moai *Nuku-mai-tore *Patupaiarehe *Philippine mythology *Soul dualism *Taotao Mona *Tiki *Toraja *Yōkai *Yorishiro {{div col end}}

== References == {{reflist|30em}}

==External links== *[http://www.ichcap.org/eng/contents/ich.php?mode=view&code=H0000184 Pagdiwata Ritual]{{Dead link|date=August 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} of the Tagbanwa in the [http://www.ichcap.org/eng/contents/arc_main.php ICH Digital Archives] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180601201200/http://www.ichcap.org/eng/contents/arc_main.php |date=June 1, 2018 }}, ICHCAP, UNESCO

{{Philippine mythology}}

Category:Austronesian spirituality Category:Indigenous Philippine folk religions Category:Philippine mythology Category:Domestic and hearth deities Category:Liminal deities Category:Tutelary deities Category:Nature spirits Category:Tree deities Category:Psychopomps