{{Short description|Seasonal moving of livestock}}
[[File:Die Alpen um Tierfehd.JPG|thumb|upright=1.1|Five alps around Tierfehd, between 1280 (far left) and 1830 (foreground left) meters, highlighted by the afternoon sun.]] [[File:CH cow 2.jpg|thumb|Braunvieh cow on high pasture in the Engadin (2007)]] '''Alpine transhumance''' is transhumance as practiced in the Alps, that is, a seasonal droving of grazing livestock between the valleys in winter and the high mountain pastures in summer (German ''{{lang|de|Alpwirtschaft, Almwirtschaft}}'' from the term for "seasonal mountain pasture", ''{{lang|de|Alp, Alm}}''). Transhumance is a traditional practice that has shaped much of the landscape in the Alps, as without it, most areas below {{convert|2000|m|abbr=on}} would be forests. While tourism and industry contribute today much to Alpine economy, seasonal migration to high pastures is still practiced in Bavaria, Austria, Slovenia, Italy, France and Switzerland, except in their most frequented tourist centers. In some places, cattle are taken care of by local farmer families who move to higher places. In others, this job is for herdsmen who are employees of the cooperative owning the pastures.<ref>Lauber S., Herzog F., Seidl I., Böni R., Bürgi M., Gmür P., Hofer G., Mann S., Raaflaub M., Schick M., Schneider M., Wunderli R. (eds.) (2013) Zukunft der Schweizer Alpwirtschaft. Fakten, Analysen und Denkanstösse aus dem Forschungsprogramm AlpFUTUR. Birmensdorf, Eidg. Forschungsanstalt WSL; Zürich-Reckenholz, Forschungsanstalt Agroscope. 200 S. (in German, French and Italian, see www.alpfutur.ch)</ref>
Most Alpine pastures are below {{convert|2400|m|abbr=on}}; all are below {{convert|2800|m|abbr=on}}.<ref>The alp of Bréona (Evolène, Valais) is among the highest, with buildings at 2,435 m (''Remointse de Bréona'') and pastures reaching as high as 2,800 m.[https://books.google.com/books?id=qGxf2Ng8w90C&dq=Breona+Valais&pg=PA229]</ref> The higher regions not suitable for transhumance are known as the High Alps.
== Etymology == [[File:Kufstein Almabtrieb 2005.jpg|thumb|''Almabtrieb'', Kufstein (2005)]] The German word '''''Alp''''' or '''''Alm''''' (meaning "seasonal mountain pasture", from Old High German ''alpa, alba'') is originally identical to the name of the ''Alps'' (German ''Alpen'') itself, probably a pre-Roman (and possibly pre-Indo-European) term for "mountain".<ref>''Alp'', ''Alb'', ''Alm'' (feminine); see Wolfgang Pfeifer (ed.) ''Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Deutschen'' (1995, 7th ed. 2004, s.v. "Alp") and ''Schweizerisches Idiotikon'' [http://digital.idiotikon.ch/idtkn/id1.htm#page/10193/mode/1up I.193]. The word was etymologized as meaning "white" (PIE ''*albh-'', Latin ''albus'') from an early time (at least since the Roman era), and it is impossible to say for certain whether this is the true etymology, or whether the word has an unrelated pre-Roman or even pre-Celtic origin. Friedrich von Tschudi, ''Landwirthschaftliches Lesebuch für die Schweizerische Jugend'' (1863, cited in ''Idiotikon'') states explicitly that ''Alpen'' in dialectal usage does not refer to the mountain ranges as a whole, but exclusively to the high pastures, while "people are completely indifferent towards the barren parts of the high mountains ([which they refer to as] the 'wild' [as opposed to 'tame', ''zam''] mountain)" (''[das Volk] ist gegen die unwirtlichen Teile des Hochgebirges (den 'wilden' Berg) vollkommen gleichgültig''). The variant form ''Alm'' develops in the late 15th century out of the oblique cases ''alben''. Duden now treats ''Alm'' as the unmarked Standard German form, while the more conservative ''Alp'' is marked as "rural, especially Swiss and West-Austrian". Variant forms of the word, such as ''alpe'', ''arpe'', ''arpette'', ''aulp'', etc. are found in toponymy.</ref> In French, the corresponding word for "alpine pasture" is ''alpage''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.valdherens-tourisme.ch/tourism/temporary-residences-mayen-alpage-remointse.html |title="Temporary Residences (mayen, alpage, remointse and mazot)" (valdherens-tourisme.ch) |access-date=2014-02-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140305063251/http://www.valdherens-tourisme.ch/tourism/temporary-residences-mayen-alpage-remointse.html |archive-date=2014-03-05 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
==History== [[File:Schwägalp.jpg|thumb|Bringing livestock to summer pasture, Schwägalp (Jun 2004)]] Evidence survives of a transhumance economy in the Alps dating to the later Neolithic period (c. 3000 BC),<ref>{{cite book | last = Barker | first = Graeme | title = Prehistoric Farming in Europe | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge | year = 1985 | isbn = 0-521-22810-7 | url = https://archive.org/details/prehistoricfarmi0000bark | url-access = registration | page = [https://archive.org/details/prehistoricfarmi0000bark/page/120 120]}} discussed "...mixed farming, ''mobile stock keeping'', and dairying" (emphasis added) around 3500–2500 BCE</ref> with evidence for pastures above the treeline reported for the Bronze Age (17th to 11th centuries BCE) in the Northern Limestone Alps.<ref> Franz Mandl, [http://www.anisa.at/Alm%20Bronzezeit%20Dachstein%201%202007%20pdf.pdf Almen und Salz, Hallstatts bronzezeitliche Dachsteinalmen (Zwischenbericht)], 1 February 2007. Calibrated C-14 dates (between 1030 BCE and 1685 BCE) for remnants of wooden shelters in the Dachsteingebirge at elevations between 1,600 m and 2,070 m.</ref>
The transhumance system in the Alps has remained virtually unchanged since at least the High Middle Ages, with a document referring to a summer pasture from 1204.<ref name="Barker">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UVA7AAAAIAAJ|title=Prehistoric Farming in Europe|first=Graeme|last=Barker|date=July 11, 1985|publisher=CUP Archive|isbn=9780521269698 |via=Google Books}}</ref> Along the edge of the Alps, starting around 1300 in west and central Switzerland and a little later in eastern Switzerland, cattle production became the primary agricultural activity. A number of specialized cattle markets grew up in Arona, Bellinzona, Como and Varese in the south and Villeneuve in the west.<ref name="HDS Middle Ages">{{HDS|8569<!--Section 1-3-->|The Alps-Agriculture in the Middle Ages}}</ref> In these communities on the edge of the Alps, transhumance included both the vertical movement of cattle to the alpine pastures as well as horizontal movement to the cattle markets. In the communities located in the central Alps, the herds were more diverse. Generally there were large herds of sheep with much smaller cattle herds and other animals such as pigs and goats.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UVA7AAAAIAAJ|title=Prehistoric Farming in Europe|first=Graeme|last=Barker|date=July 11, 1985|publisher=CUP Archive|isbn=9780521269698 |via=Google Books}}</ref>
While the inhabitants of the Alps had practised transhumance for thousands of years, during the Late Middle Ages it became increasingly important as the population decreased following the Black Death and the wars of this era.<ref name="HDS Middle Ages"/> Cattle production was much less manpower-intensive than farming, which was ideal with the reduced population. However, cattle production is much more capital- and especially land-intensive. Cattle production became an investment opportunity for monasteries and citizens of nearby cities. The investors would purchase the cattle and then rent the beasts out to small farmers or to herders for the summer. The smaller alpine communities generally did not want "foreign" cattle pastured in their alpine pastures, which led to conflicts between the alpine farming communities and the neighboring cities and monasteries.<ref name="HDS Middle Ages"/> Conflicts over grazing rights and ownership of the alpine meadows led to several wars within what is now Switzerland,<ref name="HDS Middle Ages"/> including the pivotal Battle of Morgarten (1315), which started due to a long-simmering feud between Schwyz and Einsiedeln Abbey.<ref>{{HDS|25760|Marchenstreit}}</ref>
=== Late 20th century === Since the late 20th century, Alpine regions face economical difficulties. Since 1980, around 64% of farms in the Alps have gone out of business.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Staffler |first=Landwirtschaft-20 03 2024 Serena Arduino und Jutta |title=Herausforderungen für die alpine Landwirtschaft |url=https://www.cipra.org/de/news/herausforderungen-fuer-die-alpine-landwirtschaft |access-date=2026-02-27 |website=CIPRA |language=de}}</ref> The structural change in agriculture is noticeable not only but especially in the Alpine region. Conflicts with the tourism and energy sectors as well as changed production conditions due to the climate crisis and demographic tendencies (depopulation, the ageing of the farming population, migration, lack of qualified alpine staff) are exacerbating the situation.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zieliński |first=Marek |last2=Łopatka |first2=Artur |last3=Koza |first3=Piotr |last4=Sobierajewska |first4=Jolanta |last5=Juszczyk |first5=Sławomir |last6=Józwiak |first6=Wojciech |date=2026-01-03 |title=Development of Agriculture in Mountain Areas in Europe: Organisational and Economic Versus Environmental Aspects |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0472/16/1/127 |journal=Agriculture |language=en |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=127 |doi=10.3390/agriculture16010127 |doi-access=free |issn=2077-0472 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260105000922/https://www.mdpi.com/2077-0472/16/1/127 |archive-date=2026-01-05 |access-date=2026-02-27 |url-status=live }}</ref>
Thus, many regions turn to the expansion of their economic fields such as agritourism. In many regions, the extinction of businesses among subsistence farmers could be stopped through ecological compensation payments for comprehensive cultural landscape management and the production and marketing of high-quality food.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hochalpine Allgäuer Alpwirtschaftskultur in Bad Hindelang |url=https://www.unesco.de/staette/ |access-date=2026-02-27 |website=Deutsche UNESCO-Kommission |language=de}}</ref> An entry in UNESCO's intangible cultural heritage helps the alpine season to gain increased visibility and opens up new opportunities to support the continuation of this tradition.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Projekte zur Alpsaison als immaterielles Kulturerbe der UNESCO – Agripedia |url=https://themes.agripedia.ch/alpsaison-als-immaterielles-kulturerbe-der-unesco/ |access-date=2026-02-27 |language=de-DE}}</ref>
An example for this is the declaration of Alpine transhumance in the Bregenz Forest as intangible cultural heritage in 2011<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://unesco.scharf.net/cgi-bin/unesco/element.pl?eid=48&lang=de|title=Österreichische UNESCO-Kommission - Nationalagentur für das Immaterielle Kulturerbe - Österreichisches Verzeichnis|author=scharf.net internetdienstleistungen GmbH|website=unesco.scharf.net|access-date=2018-08-16|archive-date=2018-08-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180816230511/http://unesco.scharf.net/cgi-bin/unesco/element.pl?eid=48&lang=de|url-status=dead}}</ref> or the appointment of Bad Hindelang in the Allgäu Alps as "good practice example" for the preservation of alpine farming culture.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hochalpine Allgäuer Alpwirtschaftskultur in Bad Hindelang |url=https://www.unesco.de/staette/ |access-date=2026-02-27 |website=Deutsche UNESCO-Kommission |language=de}}</ref>
==Agriculture near the Alps== [[File:Transumanza nel Parc National des Ecrins.jpg|thumb|Transhumance in the Dauphiné Alps, France (2020)]] In the valleys along the edge of the Alps, cattle production with associated transhumance was generally the rule. However, in the inner alpine valleys the climate was drier which allowed farming even at higher elevations.<ref name="HDS Middle Ages"/> These areas tended to be mixed between farming and animal husbandry, with the animals being kept mainly for fertilizer and plowing rather than food.
However, in both regions the yearly movement was generally similar. Throughout the year, most of the population of the village remained on the valley floor and farmed the surrounding land for grains and hay. In the spring the herdsmen took the animals up to the middle pastures on the mountain slopes.<ref name="Barker"/> In the summer, pigs were left in the middle pastures while the rest of the animals were moved to the high alpine pasture. At the end of September the animals were moved back to the lower pastures and cattle were stabled in the following month.<ref name="Barker"/> Sheep and goats were stabled in December, unless the winter was mild, then they remained at the middle pastures with the pigs.
In the regions where breeding dominated, the farms were relatively large and isolated from each other. Where both breeding and farming were mixed, the plots were generally smaller and common fields were shared between the community. During the Middle Ages many fields were converted into meadows, because of the prevalence of the breeding. In the north the fields were rotated without a fallow period. They were cultivated for 2 to 5 years, then used as a meadow (and fertilized by the animals) for 3 to 10 years before going back under cultivation. However, in the mountain valleys, the fields near the communities were cultivated every year (sometimes producing two crops a year in Ticino) while the outer fields and alpine pastures were more often allowed to lie fallow or used as a meadow.<ref name="HDS Middle Ages"/>
== Cheese production == thumb|Bergkäse Alpine transhumance has a strong impact on the production of cheese in the Alps. It ensures that cows, sheep and goats produce high-quality aromatic milk, the so-called ''Heumilch'' ("hay milk"), based on their special diet of natural meadow grasses. The use of hay milk in cheese production contributes to the distinctive flavour that determines more than 30 Alpine cheeses, including Alpkäse, Bergkäse, Sura Kees<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.austria.info/uk/service-facts/handcrafts-and-traditions/high-on-the-alpine-pasture|title=High on the Alpine Pasture, Austria|access-date=2018-08-16|language=en}}</ref> and Allgäuer Sennalpkäse.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Die Allgäuer Alpwirtschaft |url=https://www.allgaeu.de/genuss-gesundheit/kulinarisches-erbe/allgaeuer-alpwirtschaft |access-date=2026-02-27 |website=www.allgaeu.de |language=de-DE}}</ref> The chief shepherd in charge of the ''Alp'' and responsible for the cheese production is known as the ''Senn''.
In Vorarlberg, is an association of farmers called Käsestraße Bregenzerwald has been established to boost the region's economy. This association aims at contributing to the maintenance of small scale agriculture, the diversity of local products in the Bregenz Forest and to strengthen the tourism sector. Members of the association include dairymen who will inform tourists about artisan cheese production.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.austria.info/uk/service-facts/handcrafts-and-traditions/the-taste-of-alpine-pastures|title=The Taste of Alpine Pastures|access-date=2018-08-16|language=en}}</ref>
==Culture and folklore== [[File:Johann Jakob Hauswirth Alpaufzug.png|thumb|Swiss paper cutting depicting Alpine transhumance]] Some people spent the winters isolated in the high pastures. In Johanna Spyri's novel ''Heidi'', the "''Alp-Öhi''" ("high-pasture grandfather") is such a person, despising and despised by the villagers.
Transhumance contributes a great deal to traditional Alpine culture, such as Yodel, Alphorn or Schwingen. Swiss folklore also records many traditional tales about mythological creatures such as dwarves (Barbegazi, etc.) inhabiting the Alpine pastures, either helpful or causing mischief; in particular, this is to punish the cruelty or discourtesy of a bad ''Senn''. In many cases, the stories tell about curses on specific ''Alps'', appearances of the devil or spirits of earlier ''Sennen'', etc.
==Statistics== In 1997, Austria had over 12,000 sites where 70,000 farmers took care of about 500,000 cattle. Alpine pastures amount to a quarter of the farmland.
Bavaria had 1,384 sites hosting 48,000 cattle, about half of them in Upper Bavaria and the other half in the Allgäu.
In Switzerland, about 380,000 cattle including 130,000 milk cows as well as 200,000 sheep are in summer on high pastures. Milk from cows here is usually made into local cheese specialities, handmade using traditional methods and tools. Alpine pastures amount to 35 percent of Swiss farmland and 13 percent of the entire country.<ref>[http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/de/index/themen/02/06/ind13.indicator.130704.html Swiss Federal Statistics Office] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121012080240/http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/de/index/themen/02/06/ind13.indicator.130704.html |date=2012-10-12 }} {{in lang|de}} accessed 2 April 2009</ref> The total population of mountain farmers has decreased to about 43,000 (in 1980) from 160,000 (in 1910).<ref name="HDS Modern">{{HDS|8569<!--Section 1-5-->|The Alps-Agriculture in the 19th & 20th Centuries}}</ref> The farmers that are involved in mountain farming only make up about 15% of the total farming population in Switzerland.<ref name="HDS Modern"/>
==See also== * Animal husbandry * History of the Alps * List of valleys of the Alps * Livestock transportation * Lyoba * Pastoralism * Pre-Christian Alpine traditions * Swiss folklore {{clear}} ==References== {{reflist}}
==External links== * [http://www.anisa.at/ AINSA - Verein für alpine Forschung] {{in lang|de}} * [http://www.alpfutur.ch Research programme on Swiss summer farms (in German, French, Italian)] * [https://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/de/home/statistiken/raum-umwelt/bodennutzung-bedeckung/gesamtspektrum-regionalen-stufen/kartengalerie.html Swiss Federal Statistical Office map of land use] {{in lang|de|fr}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20200427083414/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2020/05/what-you-learn-when-you-follow-the-herd-in-italy-feature/ What you can learn by following the herd in Italy], by Alexis Marie Adams, National Geographic, April 23, 2020. * {{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Alp | volume= 1 |last= Coolidge |first= William Augustus Brevoort |author-link= W. A. B. Coolidge| page = 721 |short= 1}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Alpine transhumance}} Category:Alps Category:History of the Alps Alps Category:Ecology of the Alps Category:Economy of Europe