Allium

{{Short description|Genus of flowering plants}} {{Automatic taxobox | image = Ursa ajlo 1.jpg | image_caption = ''Allium ursinum'' in habitat | taxon = Allium | authority = L. | type_species = ''Allium sativum'' | type_species_authority = L.<ref name=Linnaeus/> | synonyms_ref = <ref>[http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/synonomy.do?name_id=294888 Kew World Checklist of Selected Plant Families]</ref> | synonyms = {{collapsible list|bullets = true |title=Synonymy |''Cepa'' Mill. |''Moly'' Mill. |''Porrum'' Mill. |''Saturnia'' Maratti |''Moenchia'' Medik. 1790, illegitimate homonym not Ehrh. 1783 nor Roth 1788 nor Wender. ex Steud. 1841 |''Ascalonicum'' P.Renault |''Schoenoprasum'' Kunth |''Ophioscorodon'' Wallr. |''Geboscon'' Raf. |''Codonoprasum'' Rchb. |''Molium'' (G.Don) Haw. |''Nectaroscordum'' Lindl. |''Aglitheis'' Raf. |''Endotis'' Raf. |''Getuonis'' Raf. |''Gynodon'' Raf. |''Kalabotis'' Raf. |''Kepa'' Tourn. ex Raf. |''Kromon'' Raf. |''Loncostemon'' Raf. |''Maligia'' Raf. |''Panstenum''Raf. |''Plexistena'' Raf. |''Stelmesus'' Raf. |''Stemodoxis'' Raf. |''Praskoinon'' Raf. |''Trigonea'' Parl. |''Caloscordum'' Herb. |''Berenice'' Salisb. 1866, illegitimate homonym not Tul. 1857 |''Briseis'' Salisb. |''Butomissa'' Salisb. |''Calliprena'' Salisb. |''Camarilla'' Salisb. |''Canidia'' Salisb. |''Hexonychia'' Salisb. |''Hylogeton'' Salisb. |''Iulus'' Salisb. |''Molyza'' Salisb. |''Phyllodolon'' Salisb. |''Raphione'' Salisb. |''Schoenissa'' Salisb. |''Xylorhiza'' Salisb. 1866, illegitimate homonym not Nutt. 1840 |''Anguinum'' Fourr. |''Rhizirideum'' Fourr. |''Scorodon'' Fourr. |''Milula'' Prain |''Validallium'' Small }} }} [[File:Alliumspecies.jpg|thumb|''Allium flavum'' (yellow) and ''Allium carinatum'' (purple)]] alt=Allium sp.|thumb|''Allium'' sp.

'''''Allium''''' is a large genus of monocotyledonous flowering plants with 1112 accepted species,<ref name="POWO">{{Cite web |title=''Allium'' L. |url=https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:30000901-2 |access-date=2024-07-25 |website=Plants of the World Online |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=WFO Plant List World Flora Online |url=https://wfoplantlist.org/taxon/wfo-4000001260-2024-06?page=1 |access-date=2024-11-23 |website=wfoplantlist.org}}</ref> making ''Allium'' the largest genus in the family Amaryllidaceae and among the largest plant genera in the world.<ref name="frodin2004">{{cite journal |last1=Frodin |first1=David G. |year=2004 |title=History and concepts of big plant genera |journal=Taxon |volume=53 |issue=3 |pages=753–776 |doi=10.2307/4135449 |jstor=4135449|bibcode=2004Taxon..53..753F }}</ref> Many of the species are edible, and some have a long history of cultivation and human consumption such as the onion, garlic, scallions, shallots, leeks, and chives.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Edible alliums: botany, production and uses |date=2022 |publisher=CAB International |isbn=978-1-78924-997-2 |editor-last=Rabinowitch |editor-first=Haim |location=Boston |editor-last2=Thomas |editor-first2=Brian}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ray |first=Ramesh C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sWH8EAAAQBAJ&dq=global+onion+cultivation&pg=PA283 |title=Roots, Tubers, and Bulb Crop Wastes: Management by Biorefinery Approaches |date=2024 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-981-99-8266-0}}</ref>

''Allium'' species occur in temperate climates of the Northern Hemisphere, except for a few species occurring in Chile (such as ''A. juncifolium''), Brazil (''A. sellovianum''), and tropical Africa (''A. spathaceum''). They vary in height between {{Convert|5 - 150|cm|frac=2}}. The flowers form an umbel at the top of a leafless stalk. The bulbs vary in size between species, from small (around 2–3 mm in diameter) to rather large (8–10 cm). Some species (such as Welsh onion ''A. fistulosum'' and leeks (''A. ampeloprasum'')) develop thickened leaf-bases rather than forming bulbs as such.

Carl Linnaeus first described the genus ''Allium'' in 1753. The generic name ''Allium'' is the Latin word for garlic,{{sfn|Quattrocchi|1999|loc=vol. 1 p. 91}}<ref name="gledhill">Gledhill, David (2008). "The Names of Plants". Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|9780521866453}} (hardback), {{ISBN|9780521685535}} (paperback). pp 43</ref> and the type species for the genus is ''Allium sativum'' which means "cultivated garlic".<ref name="ingallium">''Allium'' In: Index Nominum Genericorum. In: Regnum Vegetabile {{see below|''{{slink||External links}}'' below}}.</ref> The decision to include a species in the genus ''Allium'' is taxonomically difficult, and species boundaries are unclear. Estimates of the number of species are as low as 260,<ref name="rahn1998">Knud Rahn. 1998. "Alliaceae" pages 70-78. In: Klaus Kubitzki (editor). ''The Families and Genera of Vascular Plants'' volume III. Springer-Verlag: Berlin;Heidelberg, Germany. {{ISBN|978-3-540-64060-8}}</ref> and as high as 979.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20210616150912/http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl/search?q=Allium The Plant List, for genus ''Allium'']</ref> In the APG III classification system, ''Allium'' is placed in the family Amaryllidaceae, subfamily Allioideae (formerly the family Alliaceae).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chase |first1=M.W. |last2=Reveal |first2=J.L. |last3=Fay |first3=M.F. |name-list-style=amp |year=2009 |title=A subfamilial classification for the expanded asparagalean families Amaryllidaceae, Asparagaceae and Xanthorrhoeaceae |journal=Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society |volume=161 |issue=2 |pages=132–136 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.00999.x |doi-access=free}}</ref> In some of the older classification systems, ''Allium'' was placed in Liliaceae.<ref name="Block2010">{{cite book |author=Eric Block |title=Garlic and Other Alliums: The Lore and the Science |publisher=Royal Society of Chemistry |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-85404-190-9}}</ref><ref name="Davies" /><ref>James L. Brewster, "Onions and Other Alliums" (Wallingford: CABI Publishing, 2008)</ref><ref>Haim D. Rabinowitch, Leslie Currah, "Allium Crop Sciences: Recent Advances" (Wallingford: CABI Publishing, 2002)</ref><ref>Penny Woodward, "Garlic and Friends: The History, Growth and Use of Edible Alliums" (South Melbourne: Hyland House, 1996)</ref> Molecular phylogenetic studies have shown this circumscription of Liliaceae is not monophyletic.

Various ''Allium'' species have been cultivated from the earliest times. About a dozen species are economically important as crops, or garden vegetables, and an increasing number of species are important as ornamental plants.<ref name="Block2010" /><ref name="Davies">{{cite book | author=Dilys Davies | title=Alliums: The Ornamental Onions | publisher=Timber Press | year=1992 | isbn=978-0-88192-241-7 | url=https://archive.org/details/alliums00dily }}</ref> Plants belonging to this genus produce cysteine-derived organosulfur compounds, which impart a distinctive onion or garlic flavor and scent.<ref name="Block2010" /> Many are used as food plants, though not all members of the genus are equally flavorful. In most cases, both bulb and leaves are edible. The characteristic ''Allium'' flavor depends on the sulfate content of the soil the plant grows in.<ref name="Block2010" /> In the rare occurrence of sulfur-depleted growth conditions, all ''Allium'' species completely lose their usual odors and flavors.{{TOC limit|3}}

==Description== [[File:Allium oreophilum ÖBG 2014-05-25 (04).jpg|thumb|Capsule of ''Allium oreophilum''.]] The genus ''Allium'' (alliums) is characterised by herbaceous geophyte perennials with true bulbs, some of which are borne on rhizomes, and an onion or garlic odor and flavor.{{sfn|Wheeler et al|2013}}

The bulbs are solitary or clustered and tunicate and the plants are perennialized by the bulbs reforming annually from the base of the old bulbs, or are produced on the ends of rhizomes or, in a few species, at the ends of stolons.<ref name="efloras.org"/> A small number of species have tuberous roots. The bulbs' outer coats are commonly brown or grey, with a smooth texture, and are fibrous, or with cellular reticulation. The inner coats of the bulbs are membranous.

Many alliums have basal leaves that commonly wither away from the tips downward before or while the plants flower, but some species have persistent foliage. Plants produce from one to 12 leaves, most species having linear, channeled or flat leaf blades. The leaf blades are straight or variously coiled, but some species have broad leaves, including ''A. victorialis'' and ''A. tricoccum''. The leaves are sessile, and very rarely narrowed into a petiole.

The flowers, which are produced on scapes are erect or in some species pendent, having six petal-like tepals produced in two whorls. The flowers have one style and six epipetalous stamens; the anthers and pollen can vary in color depending on the species. The ovaries are superior, and three-lobed with three locules.

The fruits are capsules that open longitudinally along the capsule wall between the partitions of the locule.<ref name="efloras.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=101086 |title=Allium in Flora of China @ |publisher=Efloras.org |access-date=2012-12-11}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=101086 |title=Allium in Flora of North America @ |publisher=Efloras.org |access-date=2012-12-11}}</ref> The seeds are black, and have a rounded shape.

The terete or flattened flowering scapes are normally persistent. The inflorescences are umbels, in which the outside flowers bloom first and flowering progresses to the inside. Some species produce bulbils within the umbels, and in some species, such as ''Allium paradoxum'', the bulbils replace some or all the flowers. The umbels are subtended by noticeable spathe bracts, which are commonly fused and normally have around three veins.

Some bulbous alliums increase by forming little bulbs or "offsets" around the old one, as well as by seed. Several species can form many bulbils in the flowerhead; in the so-called "tree onion" or Egyptian onion (''A.'' × ''proliferum'') the bulbils are few, but large enough to be pickled.

Many of the species of ''Allium'' have been used as food items throughout their ranges. There are several unrelated species that are somewhat similar in appearance to alliums but are poisonous (e.g. in North America, death camas, ''Toxicoscordion venenosum''), but none of these has the distinctive scent of onions or garlic.<ref>Peterson, R.P. 1982. A Field Guide to Edible Wild Plants: Eastern and central North America. Houghton Mifflin, Boston.</ref><ref>Gibbons, E. 1962. Stalking the wild asparagus. David McKay, New York.</ref>

==Taxonomy== {{main|Taxonomy of Allium}} With over 850 to 1,000 species{{sfn|Deniz et al|2015}} ''Allium'' is the sole genus in the Allieae, one of four tribes of subfamily Allioideae (Amaryllidaceae). New species continue to be described{{sfn|Deniz et al|2015}} and ''Allium'' is one of the largest monocotyledonous genera,{{sfn|Li et al.|2010}} but the precise taxonomy of ''Allium'' is poorly understood,{{sfn|Li et al.|2010}}{{sfn|Deniz et al|2015}} with incorrect descriptions being widespread. The difficulties arise from the fact that the genus displays considerable polymorphism and has adapted to a wide variety of habitats. Furthermore, traditional classifications had been based on homoplasious characteristics (the independent evolution of similar features in species of different lineages). However, the genus has been shown to be monophyletic, containing three major clades, although some proposed subgenera are not.{{sfn|Li et al.|2010}} Some progress is being made using molecular phylogenetic methods, and the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region, including the 5.8S rDNA and the two spacers ITS1 and ITS2, is one of the more commonly used markers in the study of the differentiation of the ''Allium'' species.{{sfn|Deniz et al|2015}}

''Allium'' includes a number of taxonomic groupings previously considered separate genera (''Caloscordum'' Herb., ''Milula'' Prain and ''Nectaroscordum'' Lindl.) ''Allium spicatum'' had been treated by many authors as ''Milula spicata'', the only species in the monospecific genus ''Milula''. In 2000, it was shown to be embedded in ''Allium''.{{sfn|Friesen et al|2000}}

=== Phylogeny ===

{{Clade | style= font-size:90%; line-height:100% | label1 = Amaryllidaceae: Subfamily Allioideae |1= {{Clade | 1= {{clade | 1= {{clade | 1= Tribe Allieae (monogeneric, ''Allium'') | 2= {{clade | 1= Tribe Tulbaghieae | 2= Tribes Gilliesieae, Leucocoryneae }}}}}}}} }}

=== History ===

When Linnaeus<ref name=Linnaeus/> formerly described the genus ''Allium'' in his ''Species Plantarum'' (1753), there were thirty species with this name. He placed ''Allium'' in a grouping he referred to as ''Hexandria monogynia'' (i.e. six stamens and one pistil){{sfn|Linnaeus Sexual System|2015}} containing 51 genera in all.{{sfn|Linnaeus|1753|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/13829#page/297/mode/1up Hexandria monogynia I pp. 285–332]}}

=== Subdivision === Linnaeus originally grouped his 30 species into three alliances, e.g. ''Foliis caulinis planis''. Since then, many attempts have been made to divide the growing number of recognised species into infrageneric subgroupings, initially as sections, and then as subgenera further divided into sections. For a brief history, see Li et al. (2010).{{sfn|Li et al.|2010}} The modern era of phylogenetic analysis dates to 1996.{{sfn|von Berg et al|1996}} In 2006 Friesen, Fritsch, and Blattner{{sfn|Friesen|Fritsch|Blattner|2006}} described a new classification with 15 subgenera, 56 sections, and about 780 species based on the nuclear ribosomal gene internal transcribed spacers. Some of the subgenera correspond to the once separate genera (''Caloscordum'', ''Milula'', ''Nectaroscordum'') included in the Gilliesieae.{{sfn|Li et al.|2010}}{{sfn|Sykorova|2006}} The terminology has varied with some authors subdividing subgenera into Sections and others Alliances. The term Alliance has also been used for subgroupings within species, e.g. ''Allium nigrum'', and for subsections.{{sfn|Fritsch et al|2010}}

Subsequent molecular phylogenetic studies have shown the 2006 classification is a considerable improvement over previous classifications, but some of its subgenera and sections are probably not monophyletic. Meanwhile, the number of new species continued to increase, reaching 800 by 2009, and the pace of discovery has not decreased. Detailed studies have focused on a number of subgenera, including ''Amerallium''. ''Amerallium'' is strongly supported as monophyletic.{{sfn|Nguyen et al|2008}} Subgenus ''Melanocrommyum'' has also been the subject of considerable study {{see below|below}}, while work on subgenus ''Allium'' has focussed on section ''Allium'', including ''Allium ampeloprasum'', although sampling was not sufficient to test the monophyly of the section.{{sfn|Hirschegger et al|2010}}

The major evolutionary lineages or lines correspond to the three major clades. Line one (the oldest) with three subgenera is predominantly bulbous, the second, with five subgenera and the third with seven subgenera contain both bulbous and rhizomatous taxa.{{sfn|Li et al.|2010}}

=== Evolutionary lines and subgenera === {{See also|List of Allium species}} The three evolutionary lineages and 15 subgenera here represent the classification schemes of Friesen et al. (2006){{sfn|Friesen|Fritsch|Blattner|2006}} and Li (2010),{{sfn|Li et al.|2010}} and subsequent additional species{{sfn|Brullo et al.|2003}}{{sfn|Nguyen et al.|2008}}{{sfn|Tzanoudakis|Trigas|2015}}{{sfn|Koçyiğıt et al.|2016}} and revisions.

{{cladogram | title=Cladogram of evolutionary lines in ''Allium''{{sfn|Friesen|Fritsch|Blattner|2006}} | align=''center'' | cladogram={{clade|style="text-align:left; padding:2.5px; background:#eef"; width:800px; | label1=''Allium'' | 1={{clade | 1=First evolutionary line | 2={{clade | 1=Second evolutionary line | 2=Third evolutionary line }} }} }} }}

;Evolutionary lines and subgenera (number of sections/number of species){{sfn|GRIN Taxonomy|2023}} * First evolutionary line (3 subgenera) ** ''Nectaroscordum'' (Lindl.) Asch. et Graebn Type: ''Allium siculum'' (1/3) Mediterranean bells, Sicilian honey garlic ** ''Microscordum'' (Maxim.) N. Friesen Type: ''Allium monanthum'' (1/1) ** ''Amerallium'' Traub Type: ''Allium canadense'' (12/135) * Second evolutionary line (5 subgenera) ** ''Caloscordum'' (Herb.) R. M. Fritsch Type: ''Allium neriniflorum'' (1/3) ** ''Anguinum'' (G. Don ex Koch) N. Friesen Type: ''Allium victorialis'' (1/12) ** ''Porphyroprason'' (Ekberg) R. M. Fritsch Type: ''Allium oreophilum'' (1/1) ** ''Vvedenskya'' (Kamelin) R. M. Fritsch Type: ''Allium kujukense'' (1/1) ** ''Melanocrommyum'' (Webb et Berthel.) Rouy Type: ''Allium nigrum'' (20/160) * Third evolutionary line (7 subgenera) ** ''Butomissa'' (Salisb.) N. Friesen Type: ''Allium ramosum'' (2/4) fragrant garlic ** ''Cyathophora'' R. M. Fritsch Type: ''Allium cyathophorum'' (3/5) ** ''Rhizirideum'' (G. Don ex Koch) Wendelbo s.s Type: ''Allium senescens'' (5/37) ** ''Allium'' L. Type: ''Allium sativum'' (15/300) garlic ** ''Reticulatobulbosa'' (Kamelin) N. Friesen Type: ''Allium lineare'' (5/80) ** ''Polyprason'' Radic Type: ''Allium moschatum'' (4/50) ** ''Cepa'' (Mill.) Radic ́ Type: ''Allium cepa'' (5/30) onion, garden onion, bulb onion, common onion

==== First evolutionary line ==== Although this lineage consists of three subgenera, nearly all the species are attributed to subgenus ''Amerallium'', the third largest subgenus of ''Allium''. The lineage is considered to represent the most ancient line within ''Allium'', and to be the only lineage that is purely bulbous, the other two having both bulbous and rhizomatous taxa. Within the lineage ''Amerallium'' is a sister group to the other two subgenera (''Microscordum''+''Nectaroscordum'').{{sfn|Li et al.|2010}}

==== Second evolutionary line ==== Nearly all the species in this lineage of five subgenera are accounted for by subgenus ''Melanocrommyum'', which is most closely associated with subgenera ''Vvedenskya'' and ''Porphyroprason'', phylogenetically. These three genera are late-branching whereas the remaining two subgenera, ''Caloscordum'' and ''Anguinum'', are early branching.{{sfn|Li et al.|2010}}

==== Third evolutionary line ====

The third evolutionary line contains the greatest number of sections (seven), and also the largest subgenus of the genus ''Allium'': subgenus ''Allium'', which includes the type species of the genus, ''Allium sativum''. This subgenus also contains the majority of the species in its lineage. Within the lineage, the phylogeny is complex. Two small subgenera, ''Butomissa'' and ''Cyathophora'' form a sister clade to the remaining five subgenera, with ''Butomissa'' as the first branching group. Amongst the remaining five subgenera, ''Rhizirideum'' forms a medium-sized subgenus that is the sister to the other four, larger, subgenera. This line may not be monophyletic.{{sfn|Li et al.|2010}}

==== Proposed infrageneric groups==== Names from<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.tropicos.org/name/Search?name=Allium | title=Tropicos }}</ref> * ''Allium sect. Acanthoprason'' Wendelbo * ''Allium subsect. Acuminatae'' Ownbey ex Traub * ''Allium sect. Amerallium'' Traub * ''Allium sect. Anguinum'' G. Don * ''Allium sect. Brevispatha'' Vals. * ''Allium sect. Briseis'' Stearn * ''Allium sect. Bromatorrhiza'' Ekberg * ''Allium sect. Caloscordum'' Baker * ''Allium subsect. Campanulatae'' Ownbey ex Traub * ''Allium sect. Caulorhizideum'' Traub * ''Allium subsect. Cepa'' Stearn * ''Allium subsect. Cernuae'' Rchb. * ''Allium sect. Codonoprasum'' Ekberg * ''Allium sect. Falcatifolia'' N. Friesen * ''Allium subsect. Falcifoliae'' Ownbey ex Traub * ''Allium sect. Halpostemon'' Boiss. * ''Allium sect. Haneltia'' F.O. Khass. * ''Allium sect. Lophioprason'' Traub. * ''Allium subg. Melanocrommyon'' (Webb & Berthel.) Rouy * ''Allium subsect. Mexicana'' Traub * ''Allium sect. Molium'' G. Don ex W.D.J. Koch * ''Allium sect. Multicaulea'' F.O. Khass. & Yengal. * ''Allium sect. Oreiprason'' F. Herm. * ''Allium sect. Petroprason'' F. Herm. * ''Allium subg. Polyprason'' Radic * ''Allium sect. Porrum'' G. Don * ''Allium sect. Rhiziridium'' G. Don ex W.D.J. Koch * ''Allium sect. Rhophetoprason'' Traub * ''Allium subsect. Sanbornae'' Ownbey ex Traub * ''Allium sect. Schoenoprasum'' Dumort. * ''Allium sect. Scorodon'' * ''Allium sect. Unicaulea'' F.O. Khass.

==Distribution and habitat== [[File:Wild Allium in Behbahan, Iran.jpg|alt=Wild Allium in Behbahan, Iran|thumb|Wild ''Allium'' in Behbahan, Iran]] The majority of ''Allium'' species are native to the Northern Hemisphere, being spread throughout the holarctic region, from dry subtropics to the boreal zone,{{sfn|Li et al.|2010}} predominantly in Asia. Of the latter, 138 species occur in China, about a sixth of all ''Allium'' species, representing five subgenera.{{sfn|Li et al.|2010}} A few species are native to Africa and Central and South America.<ref name="efloras.org"/> A single known exception, ''Allium dregeanum'' occurs in the Southern Hemisphere (South Africa). There are two centres of diversity, a major one from the Mediterranean Basin to Central Asia and Pakistan, while a minor one is found in western North America.{{sfn|Li et al.|2010}} The genus is especially diverse in the eastern Mediterranean.{{sfn|Tzanoudakis|Trigas|2015}}

==Ecology== Species grow in various conditions from dry, well-drained mineral-based soils to moist, organic soils; most grow in sunny locations, but a number also grow in forests (e.g., ''A. ursinum''),<ref name=Block2010/> or even in swamps or water.{{citation needed|date=July 2013}}

Various ''Allium'' species are used as food plants by the larvae of the leek moth and onion fly<ref name=Block2010/> as well as other Lepidoptera including cabbage moth, common swift moth (recorded on garlic), garden dart moth, large yellow underwing moth, nutmeg moth, setaceous Hebrew character moth, turnip moth and ''Schinia rosea'', a moth that feeds exclusively on ''Allium'' species.{{citation needed|date=July 2013}}

==Genetics== The genus ''Allium'' has very large variation between species in their genome size that is not accompanied by changes in ploidy level.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Ricroch|first1=A.|last2=Yockteng|first2=R.|last3=Brown|first3=S C|last4=Nadot|first4=S|s2cid=14787301|date=2005|title=Evolution of genome size across some cultivated Allium species|journal=Genome|language=en|volume=48|issue=3|pages=511–520|doi=10.1139/g05-017|issn=0831-2796|pmid=16121247}}</ref> This remarkable variation was noted in the discussion of the evolution of junk DNA and resulted in the Onion Test, a "reality check for anyone who thinks they have come up with a universal function for junk DNA".<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Freeling|first1=Michael|last2=Xu|first2=Jie|last3=Woodhouse|first3=Margaret|last4=Lisch|first4=Damon|date=2015|title=A Solution to the C-Value Paradox and the Function of Junk DNA: The Genome Balance Hypothesis|journal=Molecular Plant|language=en|volume=8|issue=6|pages=899–910|doi=10.1016/j.molp.2015.02.009|pmid=25743198|doi-access=free|bibcode=2015MPlan...8..899F }}</ref> Genome sizes vary between 7.5 Gb in ''A. schoenoprasum'' and 30.9 Gb in ''A. ursinum'', both of which are diploid.<ref name=":0" />

==Telomere== The unusual telomeric sequence of ''Allium cepa'' was discovered and cytologically validated to be CTCGGTTATGGG <ref>{{cite journal | url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/tpj.13115 | title = Allium telomeres unmasked | journal = The Plant Journal |publisher=Petr Fajkus et al, The Plant Journal |date=December 2015| volume = 85 | issue = 3 | pages = 337–347 | doi = 10.1111/tpj.13115 | last1 = Fajkus | first1 = Petr | last2 = Peška | first2 = Vratislav | last3 = Sitová | first3 = Zdeňka | last4 = Fulnečková | first4 = Jana | last5 = Dvořáčková | first5 = Martina | last6 = Gogela | first6 = Roman | last7 = Sýkorová | first7 = Eva | last8 = Hapala | first8 = Jan | last9 = Fajkus | first9 = Jiří |display-authors=3| pmid = 26716914 }}</ref> A bioinformatics method for detecting this unique telomere sequence was demonstrated using SERF de novo Genome Analysis <ref>{{cite web |url=https://bioserf.org#serfalliumcepa |title=Allium cepa Telomere |publisher=SERF de novo Genome Analysis, BioSerf |date=July 2018}}</ref>

==Cultivation== [[File:Selection of cultivated Alliums.jpg|thumb|right|Selection of cultivated alliums displayed at the ''BBC Gardeners' World Live'' show]]Many ''Allium'' species have been harvested through human history, but only about a dozen are still economically important today as crops or garden vegetables.<ref name=Block2010/><ref name="S&S">{{cite book |title=Simon & Schuster's Guide to Herbs and Spices |editor=Stanley Schuler |isbn=978-0-671-73489-3 |author=Simonetti, Gualtiero |year=1990 |publisher=Simon & Schuster, Inc |url=https://archive.org/details/simonschustersgu0000simo }}</ref>

===Ornamental=== Many ''Allium'' species and hybrids are cultivated as ornamentals.<ref name="rhs">Anthony Huxley, Mark Griffiths, and Margot Levy (1992). ''The New Royal Horticultural Society Dictionary of Gardening''. The Macmillan Press, Limited: London. The Stockton Press: New York. {{ISBN|978-0-333-47494-5}} (set).</ref> These include ''A. cristophii'' and ''A. giganteum'', which are used as border plants for their ornamental flowers, and their "architectural" qualities.<ref name=Davies/><ref name="RHS A-Z">Brickell, Christopher (Editor-in-chief), ''The Royal Horticultural Society A–Z Encyclopedia of Garden Plants'', p. 95, Dorling Kindersley, London, 1996, {{ISBN|0-7513-0303-8}}</ref> Several hybrids have been bred, or selected, with rich purple flowers. ''A. hollandicum'' 'Purple Sensation' is one of the most popular and has been given an Award of Garden Merit (H4).<ref name=PlantFinder>''RHS Plant Finder 2009–2010'', p. 68, Dorling Kindersley, London, 2009, {{ISBN|978-1-4053-4176-9}}</ref> These ornamental onions produce spherical umbels on single stalks in spring and summer, in a wide variety of sizes and colours, ranging from white (''Allium'' 'Mont Blanc'), blue (''A. caeruleum''), to yellow (''A. flavum'') and purple (''A. giganteum''). By contrast, other species (such as invasive ''A. triquetrum'' and ''A. ursinum'') can become troublesome garden weeds.<ref name="RHS A-Z"/><ref name=Lloyd&Rice>Lloyd, Christopher & Rice, Graham, (1991). ''Garden Flowers From Seed'', p. 45, Viking, {{ISBN|0-670-82455-0}}</ref>

The following cultivars, of uncertain or mixed parentage, have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit: *'Ambassador'<ref>{{cite web | url= https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/233828/i-Allium-i-Ambassador/Details | title = RHS Plantfinder - Allium 'Ambassador' | publisher=Royal Horticultural Society | date=2016 | access-date=5 January 2018}}</ref> *'Beau Regard'<ref>{{cite web | url= https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/49933/i-Allium-i-Beau-Regard/Details | title = RHS Plantfinder - Allium 'Beau Regard' | publisher=Royal Horticultural Society | date=1995 | access-date=5 January 2018}}</ref> *'Gladiator'<ref>{{cite web | url= https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/58292/i-Allium-i-Gladiator/Details | title = RHS Plantfinder - ''Allium'' 'Gladiator' | publisher=Royal Horticultural Society | date=1995 | access-date=5 January 2018}}</ref> *'Globemaster'<ref>{{cite web | url= https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/53832/i-Allium-i-Globemaster/Details | title = RHS Plantfinder - ''Allium'' 'Globemaster' | publisher=Royal Horticultural Society | date=1995 | access-date=5 January 2018}}</ref> *'Michael H. Hoog' (''A. rosenorum'')<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/243756/Allium-rosenorum-Michael-H-Hoog/Details | title = ''Allium rosenorum'' 'Michael H. Hoog' | publisher = RHS | access-date = 27 February 2020}}</ref> *'Round 'n' Purple'<ref>{{cite web | url= https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/228230/i-Allium-i-Round-and-Purple/Details | title = RHS Plantfinder - ''Allium'' 'Round 'n' Purple' | publisher=Royal Horticultural Society | date=2016 | access-date=5 January 2018}}</ref> *'Universe'<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/175896/Allium-Universe/Details | title = ''Allium'' 'Universe' | publisher = RHS | access-date = 27 February 2020}}</ref>

==Toxicity== Dogs and cats are very susceptible to poisoning after the consumption of certain species.<ref name=Block2010/><ref>{{cite journal |first=R.B. |last=Cope |title=Toxicology Brief: Allium species poisoning in dogs and cats |journal=Veterinary Medicine |date=August 2005 |volume=100 |issue=8 |pages=562–566 |location=Edwardsville, Kansas|eissn=1939-1919 |issn=8750-7943 |url=https://dungenessranchpetresort.com/images/vetm0805_562_566.pdf |trans-quote=Peer-reviewed.}}</ref> Cattle have occasionally suffered onion toxicosis as well.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Helen A. |last=Rae |title=Onion toxicosis in a herd of beef cows |journal=Canadian Veterinary Journal |date=January 1999 |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=55–57 |pmid=9919370 |pmc=1539652 |quote=While humans appear to be relatively resistant to onion toxicity, there is some concern about the susceptibility of certain ethnic groups that have a genetic deficiency of G6PD. / Onion toxicity depends on factors other than variation in species susceptibility. Onions contain varying amounts of disulfide and SMCO toxins, depending on the species of onion, time of year, and growing conditions. Storing onions in large piles also provides a suitable environment for contamination of the crop with other toxins, such as mycotoxins, which could contribute to the disease process.}}</ref> Vegetables of the ''Allium'' genus can cause digestive disorders for human beings.<ref>{{cite book |first=Zoomi |last=Singh |chapter=Potential Side Effects of Chives |title=Chives: Nutritional Value, Health Benefits and Potential Side Effects of Chives |date=October 12, 2022 |location=Singapore|publisher=HealthifyMe |chapter-url=https://www.healthifyme.com/blog/chives-benefits/#Potential_Side_Effects_of_Chives |access-date=March 17, 2023}}</ref>

==Uses== The genus includes many economically important species. These include onions (''A. cepa''), French shallots (''A. oschaninii''), leeks (''A. ampeloprasum''), garlic (''A. sativum''), and herbs such as scallions (various ''Allium'' species) and chives (''A. schoenoprasum''). Some have been used as traditional medicines.{{sfn|Li et al.|2010}}

Members of the genus and plants with similar properties, referred to in this context as 'leeks', had a prominent role in Germanic paganism. This includes writing the word ''laukaz'' ('leek') in runic inscriptions, likely for protection and healing.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Markey |first1=Tom |title='Garlic and Sapphires in the Mud': 'Leeks' in their Early Folk Contexts |journal=Leeds Studies in English |date=2013 |pages=10–42 |url=https://digital.library.leeds.ac.uk/12219/1/LSE2013_pp.10-42_Markey_article.pdf}}</ref>

This genus also includes species that are abundantly gathered from the wild such as wild garlic (''Allium ursinum'') in Europe and ramps (''Allium tricoccum'') in North America.

==References== {{Reflist|30em|refs=

<ref name=Linnaeus>{{harvnb|Linnaeus|1753|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/13829#page/306/mode/1up Allium I pp. 294–301]}} </ref>

}}

==Sources== * {{cite journal|last1=Brullo|first1=Salvatore |last2=Guglielmo|first2=Anna |last3=Pavone|first3=Pietro |last4=Salmeri|first4=Cristina |last5=Terrasi|first5=M. Carmen |title=Three new species of ''Allium'' sect. ''Codonoprasum'' from Greece |journal=Plant Biosystems|date=January 2003|volume=137|issue=2|pages=131–140 |doi=10.1080/11263500312331351391 |bibcode=2003PBios.137..131B |s2cid=86821437 |ref={{harvid|Brullo et al.|2003}}}} * {{cite journal|last1=Koçyiğıt|first1=Mine|last2=Yeşıl|first2=Yeter|last3=Koyuncu|first3=Mehmet |title=''Allium dumanii'' (''A.'' sect. ''Codonoprasum'', Amaryllidaceae), a new species from E Turkey |journal=Willdenowia|date=14 January 2016|volume=46|issue=1|pages=113–119|doi=10.3372/wi.46.46109|s2cid=88440208|ref={{harvid|Koçyiğıt et al.|2016}}|doi-access=free|bibcode=2016Willd..46..113K }} * {{cite journal |last1=Nguyen |first1=Nhu H. |last2=Driscoll |first2=Heather E. |last3=Specht |first3=Chelsea D. |year=2008 |title=A molecular phylogeny of the wild onions (''Allium''; Alliaceae) with a focus on the western North American center of diversity |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |volume=47 |issue=3| pages=1157–1172 |pmid=18226928 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2007.12.006 |bibcode=2008MolPE..47.1157N |url=https://nature.berkeley.edu/brunslab/papers/nguyen2008.pdf |ref={{harvid|Nguyen et al.|2008}}}}

==Bibliography== {{refbegin|30em}}

=== Books ===

* {{cite book|last1=Block|first1=Eric|title=Garlic and other alliums: the lore and the science|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6AB89RHV9ucC|date=2009|publisher=Royal Society of Chemistry|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-85404-190-9}} * {{cite book| last=Brewster| first=J. L.| title=Onions and Other Alliums| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eW_TiZ1jHCkC| publisher=CABI Publishing| year=2008| isbn=978-1-84593-399-9}} * {{cite book | author=Davies, D. | title=Alliums: The Ornamental Onions | publisher=Timber Press | year=1992 | isbn=978-0-88192-241-7 | url=https://archive.org/details/alliums00dily }} * {{cite book|last=Linnaeus|first=C.|author-link=Carl Linnaeus|title=Species Plantarum: exhibentes plantas rite cognitas, ad genera relatas, cum differentiis specificis, nominibus trivialibus, synonymis selectis, locis natalibus, secundum systema sexuale digestas|date=1753|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/669#/summary|publisher=Impensis Laurentii Salvii|location=Stockholm|access-date=27 September 2016}} * {{cite book| last1=Rabinowitch| first1=H. D.| last2=Currah| first2=L.| title=Allium Crop Sciences: Recent Advances| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=grUinwEACAAJ| publisher=CABI Publishing| year=2002| isbn=978-0-85199-510-6}} * {{cite book|last1=Quattrocchi|first1=Umberto|title=CRC world dictionary of plant names: common names, scientific names, eponyms, synonyms, and etymology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8KiMmgEACAAJ|date=1999|publisher=CRC Press|location=Boca Raton, FL|isbn=978-0-8493-2673-8}} * {{cite book| last=Woodward| first=P.| title=Garlic and Friends: The History, Growth and Use of Edible Alliums| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PF4XnwEACAAJ| publisher=Hyland House| year=1996| isbn=978-1-86447-009-3}}

=== Chapters === * {{cite book|last1=Fritsch|first1=RM|last2=Friesen|first2=N|title=Evolution, domestication and taxonomy|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237309729|pages=5–30|ref={{harvid|Fritsch|Friesen|2002}}}}, in {{harvtxt|Rabinowitch|Currah|2002}}

=== Articles ===

* {{cite journal|last1=Banfi|first1=Enrico|last2=Galasso|first2=Gabriele|last3=Soldano|first3=Adriano|title=Notes on systematics and taxonomy for the Italian vascular flora. 2.|url=http://sisn.pagepress.org/nhs/article/download/nhs.2011.85/36|journal=Natural History Sciences (Milan)|date=1 September 2011|volume=152|issue=2|pages=85–106|doi=10.4081/nhs.2011.85|doi-access=free}} * {{cite journal|last1=von Berg|first1=Gerlinde Linne|last2=Samoylov|first2=Alexander|last3=Klaas|first3=Manfred|last4=Hanelt|first4=Peter|title=Chloroplast DNA restriction analysis and the infrageneric grouping of Allium (Alliaceae)|journal=Plant Systematics and Evolution|date=September 1996|volume=200|issue=3–4|pages=253–261|doi=10.1007/bf00984939|bibcode=1996PSyEv.200..253V |s2cid=12751231|ref={{harvid|von Berg et al|1996}}}} * {{cite journal|last1=Choi|first1=Hyeok Jae|last2=Giussani|first2=Liliana M.|last3=Jang|first3=Chang Gee|last4=Oh|first4=Byoung Un|last5=Cota-Sánchez|first5=J. Hugo|title=Systematics of disjunct northeastern Asian and northern North American ''Allium'' (Amaryllidaceae)|journal=Botany|date=June 2012|volume=90|issue=6|pages=491–508|doi=10.1139/b2012-031|bibcode=2012Botan..90..491C |hdl=11336/68813|hdl-access=free}} * {{cite journal|last1=Deniz|first1=İsmail Gökhan|last2=Genç|first2=İlker|last3=Sarı|first3=Duygu|title=Morphological and molecular data reveal a new species of ''Allium'' (Amaryllidaceae) from SW Anatolia, Turkey|journal=Phytotaxa|date=9 June 2015|volume=212|issue=4|pages=283–292|doi=10.11646/phytotaxa.212.4.4|url=http://www.biotaxa.org/Phytotaxa/article/download/phytotaxa.212.4.4/13689|ref={{harvid|Deniz et al|2015}}|doi-access=free|bibcode=2015Phytx.212..283D }} * {{cite journal|last1=Dubouzet|first1=J. G.|last2=Shinoda|first2=K.|last3=Murata|first3=N.|title=Phylogeny of Allium L. subgenus Rhizirideum (G. Don ex Koch) Wendelbo according to dot blot hybridization with randomly amplified DNA probes|journal=Theoretical and Applied Genetics|date=17 December 1997|volume=95|issue=8|pages=1223–1228|doi=10.1007/s001220050685|s2cid=33083704}} * {{cite journal|last1=Fragman-Sapir|first1=Ori|last2=Fritsch|first2=Reinhard M.|title=New species of ''Allium'' sect. ''Melanocrommyum'' from the eastern Mediterranean|journal=Herbertia|date=2011|volume=65|pages=31–50|url=http://img2.timg.co.il/forums/1_161874743.pdf|access-date=2016-09-22|archive-date=2016-09-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160923033204/http://img2.timg.co.il/forums/1_161874743.pdf|url-status=dead}} * {{cite journal | last1 = Friesen | first1 = N. | last2 = Fritsch | first2 = R. | last3 = Bachmann | first3 = K. | year = 1997 | title = Hybrid origin of some ornamentals of ''Allium'' subgenus ''Melanocrommyum'' verified with GISH and RAPD | journal = Theoretical and Applied Genetics | volume = 95 | issue = 8 | pages = 1229–1238 | doi = 10.1007/s001220050686 | s2cid = 21554910 | url = http://dare.uva.nl/personal/pure/en/publications/hybrid-origin-of-some-ornamentals-of-allium-subgenus-melanocrommyum-verified-with-gish-and-rapd(0d97d57e-1ffc-46e4-96a3-be9e7c2744aa).html }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Friesen | first1 = Nikolai | last2 = Fritsch | first2 = Reinhard M. | last3 = Pollner | first3 = Sven | last4 = Blattner | first4 = Frank R. | year = 2000 | title = Molecular and Morphological Evidence for an Origin of the Aberrant Genus ''Milula'' within Himalayan Species of ''Allium'' (Alliacae) | journal = Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution | volume = 17 | issue = 2| pages = 209–218 | doi = 10.1006/mpev.2000.0844|ref={{harvid|Friesen et al|2000}} | pmid=11083935| bibcode = 2000MolPE..17..209F }} * {{cite journal|last1=Friesen|first1=N|last2=Fritsch|first2=RM|last3=Blattner|first3=Frank R|title=Phylogeny and new intrageneric classification of ''Allium'' (Alliaceae) based on nuclear ribosomal DNA ITS sequences|journal=Aliso|date=2006|volume=22|pages=372–395|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228372845|access-date=13 October 2015|doi=10.5642/aliso.20062201.31|doi-access=free}} * {{cite journal|last1=Fritsch|first1=RM|last2=Gurushidze|first2=M|last3=Jedelská|first3=J|last4=Keusgen|first4=M|title=More than a pretty face - ornamental "drumstick onions" of ''Allium'' subg. ''Melanocrommyum'' are also potential medicinal plants|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/247472799|journal=Herbertia|date=2006|volume=60|pages=26–59|ref={{harvid|Fritsch et al|2006}}}} * {{cite journal|last1=Fritsch|first1=RM|last2=Blattner|first2=FR|last3=Gurushidze|first3=M|title=New classification of ''Allium'' L. subg. ''Melanocrommyum'' (Webb & Berthel) Rouy (Alliaceae) based on molecular and morphological characters|journal=Phyton|date=2010|volume=49|pages=145–220|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/234074694|access-date=13 October 2015|ref={{harvid|Fritsch et al|2010}}}} * {{cite journal|last1=Gurushidze|first1=Maia|last2=Fuchs|first2=Jörg|last3=Blattner|first3=Frank R.|title=The Evolution of Genome Size Variation in Drumstick Onions (''Allium'' subgenus ''Melanocrommyum'')|journal=Systematic Botany|date=1 March 2012|volume=37|issue=1|pages=96–104|doi=10.1600/036364412X616675|bibcode=2012SysBo..37...96G |s2cid=85838253|ref={{harvid|Gurushidze et al|2012}}}} * {{cite journal | last1 = Hirschegger | first1 = Pablo | last2 = Jaške | first2 = Jernej | last3 = Trontelj | first3 = Peter | last4 = Bohanec | first4 = Borut | year = 2010 | title = Origins of ''Allium ampeloprasum'' horticultural groups and a molecular phylogeny of the section Allium (''Allium''; Alliaceae)". | journal = Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution | volume = 54 | issue = 2| pages = 488–497 | doi = 10.1016/j.ympev.2009.08.030|ref={{harvid|Hirschegger et al|2010}} | pmid=19733249| bibcode = 2010MolPE..54..488H }} * {{cite journal|last1=Huang|first1=De-Qing|last2=Yang|first2=Jing-Tian|last3=Zhou|first3=Chun-Jing|last4=Zhou|first4=Song-Dong|last5=He|first5=Xing-Jin|title=Phylogenetic reappraisal of Allium subgenus Cyathophora (Amaryllidaceae) and related taxa, with a proposal of two new sections|journal=Journal of Plant Research|date=21 December 2013|volume=127|issue=2|pages=275–286|doi=10.1007/s10265-013-0617-8|pmid=24362461|s2cid=15531719}} * {{cite journal|last1=İpek|first1=Meryem|last2=İpek|first2=Ahmet|last3=SIMON|first3=Philipp W.|title=Testing the utility of matK and ITS DNA regions for discrimination of Allium species|journal=Turkish Journal of Botany|date=2014|volume=38|pages=203–212|doi=10.3906/bot-1308-46|doi-access=free|bibcode=2014TJBot..38..203I }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Li | first1 = R. J. | last2 = Shang | first2 = Z. Y. | last3 = Cui | first3 = T. C. | last4 = Xu | first4 = J. M. | year = 1996 | title = Studies on karyotypes and phylogenetic relationship of ''Allium'' sect. ''Caloscordum'' (Liliaceae) from China | journal = Acta Phytotax. Sin. | volume = 34 | pages = 288–295 }} [In Chinese.] * {{cite journal|last1=Li|first1=Q.-Q.|last2=Zhou|first2=S.-D.|last3=He|first3=X.-J.|last4=Yu|first4=Y.|last5=Zhang|first5=Y.-C.|last6=Wei|first6=X.-Q.|title=Phylogeny and biogeography of Allium (Amaryllidaceae: Allieae) based on nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer and chloroplast rps16 sequences, focusing on the inclusion of species endemic to China|journal=Annals of Botany|date=21 October 2010|volume=106|issue=5|pages=709–733|doi=10.1093/aob/mcq177|pmc=2958792|ref={{harvid|Li et al.|2010}}|pmid=20966186}} * {{cite journal | last1 = Nguyen | first1 = Nhu H. | last2 = Driscoll | first2 = Heather E. | last3 = Specht | first3 = Chelsea D. | year = 2008 | title = A molecular phylogeny of the wild onions (''Allium''; Alliaceae) with a focus on the western North American center of diversity | journal = Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution | volume = 47 | issue = 3| pages = 1157–1172 | doi = 10.1016/j.ympev.2007.12.006 |ref={{harvid|Nguyen et al|2008}} | pmid=18226928| bibcode = 2008MolPE..47.1157N }} * [https://archive.today/20130105105730/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/118721987/abstract A. Samoylov, N. Friesen, S. Pollner, P. Hanelt. Use of chloroplast DNA polymorphisms for the phylogenetic study of ''Allium'' subgenus ''Amerallium'' and subgenus ''Bromatorrhiza'' (Alliaceae) II. ''Feddes Repertorium'' Volume 110 Issue 1–2, Pages 103–109, 1999] * {{cite journal|last1=Seregin|first1=Alexey P.|last2=Anačkov|first2=Goran|last3=Friesen|first3=Nikolai|title=Molecular and morphological revision of the ''Allium saxatile'' group (Amaryllidaceae): geographical isolation as the driving force of underestimated speciation|journal=Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society|date=May 2015|volume=178|issue=1|pages=67–101|doi=10.1111/boj.12269|doi-access=free}} * {{cite journal|last1=Sykorova|first1=E.|last2=Fajkus|first2=J.|last3=Meznikova|first3=M.|last4=Lim|first4=K. Y.|last5=Neplechova|first5=K.|last6=Blattner|first6=F. R.|last7=Chase|first7=M. W.|last8=Leitch|first8=A. R.|title=Minisatellite telomeres occur in the family Alliaceae but are lost in Allium|journal=American Journal of Botany|date=1 June 2006|volume=93|issue=6|pages=814–823|doi=10.3732/ajb.93.6.814|ref={{harvid|Sykorova|2006}}|pmid=21642143|doi-access=free|bibcode=2006AmJB...93..814S }} * {{cite journal|last1=Tzanoudakis|first1=Dimitris|last2=Trigas|first2=Panayiotis|title=''Allium occultum'', a new species of ''A.'' sect. ''Codonoprasum'' (Amaryllidaceae) from Skiros Island (W Aegean, Greece)|journal=Phytotaxa|date=12 March 2015|volume=202|issue=2|pages=135|doi=10.11646/phytotaxa.202.2.5|bibcode=2015Phytx.202..135T }} * {{cite journal|last1=Wheeler|first1=E. J.|last2=Mashayekhi|first2=S.|last3=McNeal|first3=D. W.|last4=Columbus|first4=J. T.|last5=Pires|first5=J. C.|title=Molecular systematics of ''Allium'' subgenus ''Amerallium'' (Amaryllidaceae) in North America|journal=American Journal of Botany|date=26 March 2013|volume=100|issue=4|pages=701–711|doi=10.3732/ajb.1200641|pmid=23535771|ref={{harvid|Wheeler et al|2013}}}} * {{cite journal|last1=Zubaida Yousaf|last2=Zabta Khan Shinwari|last3=Rizwana ALEEM Qureshi|last4=Mir Ajab Khan|last5=Syed Shahinshah Gilani|title=Can complexity of the genus ''Allium'' L., be resolved through some numerical techniques?|journal=Pak. J. Bot.|date=2004|volume=36|issue=3|pages=487–501|url=http://www.pakbs.org/pjbot/PDFs/36(3)/PJB36(3)487.pdf|access-date=28 January 2015}}

=== Websites === * {{cite web|title=Linnaeus Sexual System|url=http://cronklab.wikidot.com/linnaeus-sexual-system|website=CronkLab|publisher=Biodiversity Research Centre, University of British Columbia|access-date=26 January 2015|ref={{harvid|Linnaeus Sexual System|2015}}}} * {{cite web |title=Allium |website=World Checklist of Selected Plant Families |url=http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/qsearch.do?plantName=Allium |access-date=9 January 2017 |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |ref={{harvid|WCLSPF|2015}} }} * [https://www.dutchgrown.co.uk/collections/alliums DutchGrown: Alliums] * [http://www.pacificbulbsociety.org/pbswiki/index.php/Allium Pacific Bulb Society: Allium] ** [http://www.pacificbulbsociety.org/pbswiki/index.php/RhizomatousAlliums Pacific Bulb Society: Rhizomatous Alliums] * {{cite web |title=Genus Allium L. |website=Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN Taxonomy) |url=https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomygenus?id=403 |access-date=19 November 2023 |publisher=USDA, Agricultural Research Service, National Plant Germplasm System |publication-place=National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland |ref={{harvid|GRIN Taxonomy|2023}} }}

== External links == * {{Commons category-inline}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20121010175440/http://botany.si.edu/ing/INGsearch.cfm?searchword=Allium Allium] At:[http://www.botany.si.edu/ing Index Nominum Genericorum] At:[http://www.botany.si.edu/index.htm?references References] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100927172741/http://botany.si.edu/index.htm?references |date=2010-09-27 }} At:[http://www.botany.si.edu/index.htm NMNH Department of Botany] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101001045837/http://botany.si.edu/index.htm |date=2010-10-01 }} * [http://www.bloomsta.com Bloomsta.com Florist Community] * [http://www.ipk-gatersleben.de/fileadmin/content-ipk/content-ipk-institut/Downloads/2015/150312_OrnamAlliumCheckl_FritschMR.pdf Reinhard M. Fritsch. Checklist of ornamental ''Allium'' species and cultivars currently offered in the trade. 2015] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170110161610/http://www.ipk-gatersleben.de/fileadmin/content-ipk/content-ipk-institut/Downloads/2015/150312_OrnamAlliumCheckl_FritschMR.pdf |date=2017-01-10 }}

Category:Allium *Allium Category:Amaryllidaceae genera Category:Bulbous plants Category:Botanical taxa named by Carl Linnaeus