Al-Ma'arri

{{Short description|Arab philosopher and poet (973–1057)}} {{Lowercase title}} {{Use dmy dates|date=April 2020}} {{Infobox philosopher | name = Abu al-'Ala' al-Ma'arri<br>أبو العلاء المعري | image = Al-Maʿarri by Khalil Gibran (cropped).png | alt = | caption = al-Ma'arri by Kahlil Gibran | other_names = {{Plainlist| * Abulola Moarrensis * Abulola }} | birth_date = December 973 | birth_place = Ma'arrat al-Nu'man, Hamdanid Emirate of Aleppo | death_date = {{Death date and given age|1057|05||83|df=yes}} | death_place = Ma'arrat al-Nu'man, Mirdasid Emirate of Aleppo | region = Middle Eastern philosophy * Arabic philosophy | era = Post-classical era * Islamic Golden Age | school_tradition = {{plainlist| * Pessimism * Rationalism }} | main_interests = {{Hlist|Poetry, skepticism|ethics|antinatalism}} | notable_ideas = Veganism }}

'''Abu al-Ala al-Ma'arri''' ({{Langx|ar|أبو العلاء المعري}};{{efn|Full name: {{Langx|ar|أبو العلاء أحمد بن عبد الله بن سليمان التنوخي المعري|translit=ʾAbū al-ʿAlāʾ Aḥmad ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn Sulaymān al-Tanūkhī al-Maʿarrī}}}} December 973{{Snd}}May 1057),<ref name="EB">{{Cite web|title=al-Maʿarrī|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/al-Maarri|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180221090622/https://www.britannica.com/biography/al-Maarri|archive-date=21 February 2018|access-date=21 February 2018|website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> also known by his Latin name '''Abulola Moarrensis''',<ref>Or more often simply '''Abulola'''; see ''Catalogue of Arabic Books in the British Museum'', vol. 1, 1894 ([https://books.google.com/books?id=ZR4YAAAAYAAJ&q=Abulola+Moarrensis p. 115]); Christianus Benedictus Michaelis, ''Dissertatio philologica de historia linguae Arabicae'', 1706 ([https://books.google.com/books?id=775QAAAAcAAJ&pg=PP27 p. 25]); in an English context: Charles Hole, ''A Brief Biographical Dictionary'' (<!-- quote=abulola. --> p. 3).</ref> was an Arab philosopher, poet, and writer from Ma'arrat al-Nu'man, Emirate of Aleppo (in present day Syria).<ref name="poet">{{Cite news |last1=Tharoor |first1=Kanishk |last2=Maruf |first2=Maryam |date=8 March 2016 |title=Museum of Lost Objects: The Unacceptable Poet |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-35745962 |access-date=5 November 2019 |work=BBC News}}</ref> Al-Ma'arri's religious beliefs and philosophical worldview have been the subject of extensive historical and modern academic debate. While his critical poetry led detractors and early Western scholars to characterize him as a deist, freethinker, or one of the "foremost atheists" of his time,{{efn|Quotation of Nasser Rabbat}}<ref name="poet" /><ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yyD0DwAAQBAJ&dq=al+ma%27arri+deist&pg=PT187 | title=All the World is Awry: Al-Maʿarrī and the Luzūmiyyāt, Revisited | isbn=978-1-4384-7946-0 | last=Kevin Lacey | first=R. | date=December 2021 | publisher=State University of New York Press }}</ref> this categorization is highly disputed by other scholars and by Al-Ma'arri's own subsequent writings. In his self-defensive treatise ''Zajr al-Nabeh'' (The Repelling of the Barker), al-Ma'arri explicitly affirmed his orthodox Islamic faith—including his belief in the Day of Judgment—and sought refuge in God from claims that his poetry was proof of atheism.<ref>Zajr al-Nabeh, pp. 21, 27.</ref> In these texts, he clarified that his verses were not a rejection of Islam itself, but rather harsh critiques directed at the corruption of religious scholars, hypocritical practices, and the theological ignorance of his contemporaries.<ref>Zajr al-Nabeh, p. 28.</ref>

Born in the city of al-Ma'arra (present-day Ma'arrat al-Nu'man, Syria) during the later Abbasid era, he became blind at a young age from smallpox but nonetheless studied in nearby Aleppo, then in Tripoli and Antioch. Producing popular poems in Baghdad, he refused to sell his texts. In 1010, he returned to Syria after his mother began declining in health, and continued writing, which gained him local respect.

Described by various scholars as a "pessimistic freethinker", al-Ma'arri was a controversial rationalist of his time,<ref name="poet"/> known for challenging superstition and dogmatism. His written works exhibit a fixation on the study of language and its historical development, known as philology.<ref name="EB"/><ref name="Ridgeon">Lloyd Ridgeon (2003), ''Major World Religions: From Their Origins To The Present'', Routledge: London, page 257. {{ISBN|0-415-29796-6}}</ref> He was pessimistic about life, describing himself as "a double prisoner" of blindness and isolation. Because his poetry fiercely critiqued the religious practices of his era, several critics interpreted his work as an attack on Judaism, Christianity, Islam, and Zoroastrianism,<ref name="Ridgeon" /><ref name="Hastings">James Hastings, ''Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics'', Part 2, page 190. Kessinger Publishing.</ref><ref name="Luzumiyat">''The Luzumiyat'', stanza 35.</ref> with some historians asserting he became a deist.<ref name="Ridgeon" /><ref name="Luzumiyat" /> However, in response to contemporary accusations of heresy stemming from these poetic critiques, al-Ma'arri authored ''Zajr al-Nabeh''. In this text, he explicitly denied holding atheistic or anti-Islamic beliefs, clarifying that his verses targeted the corruption, hypocrisy, and ignorance of religious figures rather than the core tenets of the faith itself.<ref>Zajr al-Nabeh, pp. 24, 28.</ref>

He advocated social justice and lived a secluded, ascetic lifestyle.<ref name="EB" /><ref name="poet" /> He was a vegan, known in his time as a moral vegetarian, entreating: "Do not desire as food the flesh of slaughtered animals / Or the white milk of mothers who intended its pure draught for their young."<ref name="vegan">{{cite web |title= Do not desire as food the flesh of slaughtered animals |website= Humanistictexts.org |url= http://www.humanistictexts.org/al_ma%27arri.htm |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20010305091340/http://www.humanistictexts.org/al_ma%27arri.htm |archive-date= 5 March 2001 |type= in poem #14 |access-date= 18 February 2007 }}</ref> Al-Ma'arri held an antinatalist outlook, in line with his general pessimism, suggesting that children should not be born to spare them of the pains and suffering of life.<ref name="EB" /> ''Saqt az-Zand'', ''Luzumiyat'', and ''Risalat al-Ghufran'' are among his main works.

Consistent with his pervasive pessimism, al-Ma'arri harbored a deep skepticism regarding gender relations and advocated for the strict seclusion of women. As analyzed by the Egyptian scholar Taha Hussein, al-Ma'arri advised against teaching women to read or write to shelter them from societal corruption, and controversially argued that the Hajj pilgrimage should not be obligatory for them.<ref>Hussein, Taha (1915). ''Tajdid Dhikra Abi al-'Ala''' [Renewing the Memory of Abu al-'Ala']. Dar al-Ma'arif. See the sections analyzing his social pessimism and views on women.</ref>

==Life== Abu al-'Ala' was born in December 973 in al-Ma'arra (present-day Ma'arrat al-Nu'man, Syria), southwest of Aleppo, whence his ''nisba'' ("al-Ma'arri"). At his time, the city was part of the Abbasid Caliphate, the third Islamic caliphate, during the Islamic Golden Age.<ref name=":0">{{cite episode |last=Shakespeare |first=Tom |author-link=Tom Shakespeare |title=Al-Ma'arri – Visionary Free Thinker, The Genius of Disability |series=The Essay |network=BBC Radio 3 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b04wmklk |date=2015-01-05 |access-date=2026-01-19}}</ref> He was a member of the Banu Sulayman, a notable family of Ma'arra, belonging to the larger Tanukh tribe.<ref name="EB" /><ref>1940 {{lang|ar|أبو العلاء المعري: نسبه وأخباره وشعره ومعتقده، تأليف أحمد تيمور باشا، ص.3، ط}}</ref><ref> Miguel Asín Palacios, ''Islam and the Divine comedy'', Routledge, 1968, {{ISBN|978-0-7146-1995-8}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=hbHv0Hi-VbsC&pg=PA55 p. 55]</ref> One of his ancestors was probably the first qadi of Ma'arra. The Tanukh tribe had formed part of the aristocracy in Syria for hundreds of years, and some members of the Banu Sulayman had also been noted as good poets.<ref name=":1">{{cite web |title=The 11th Century poet who pissed off al-Qaeda |url=https://www.historyanswers.co.uk/medieval-renaissance/olga-of-kiev-one-saint-you-do-not-want-to-mess-with/ |work=All About History |date=2 February 2015 |access-date=2026-01-19}}</ref> He lost his eyesight at the age of four due to smallpox. Later in his life, he regarded himself as "a double prisoner", which referred to both his blindness and the general isolation that he felt during his life.<ref name="poet" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Hitti |first=Philip Khuri |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6FklfLSxpIkC&q=al+ma'arri&pg=PA147 |title=Islam: A Way of Life |date=1971 |publisher=U of Minnesota Press |isbn=978-1-4529-1040-6}}</ref>

He began his career as a poet at a young age, around 11 or 12 years old. He was educated at first in Ma'arra and Aleppo, then in Antioch and other Syrian cities. Among his teachers in Aleppo were companions from the circle of Ibn Khalawayh.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> This grammarian and Islamic scholar had died in 980 CE, when al-Ma'arri was still a child.<ref name="al-Maarri">{{Cite book|title = Epistle of Forgiveness: Hypocrites, Heretics, and Other Sinners|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=iiegAgAAQBAJ&q=epistle+of+forgiveness&pg=PR11|publisher = NYU Press|date = 1 January 2014|isbn = 9780814768969|first = Abu l-Ala|last = al-Maarri}}</ref> Al-Ma'arri nevertheless laments the loss of Ibn Khalawayh in strong terms in a poem of his ''Risālat al-Ghufrān''.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|title = The Encyclopaedia of Islam|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=_JY3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA932|publisher = Brill Archive|date = 1 January 1954|first = Sir Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen|last = Gibb}}</ref> Al-Qifti reports that when on his way to Tripoli, al-Ma'arri visited a Christian monastery near Latakia where he listened to Hellenistic philosophy debates that birthed his secularism, but other historians such as Ibn al-Adim deny that he had been exposed to any theology other than Islamic doctrine.<ref name=":6" />

In 1004–05, al-Ma'arri learned that his father had died and, in reaction, wrote an elegy where he praised his father.<ref name=":6" /> Years later he would travel to Baghdad where he became well received in the literary salons of the time, though he was a controversial figure.<ref name=":6" /> After the eighteen months in Baghdad, al-Ma'arri returned home for unknown reasons. He may have returned because his mother was ill, or he may have run out of money in Baghdad, as he refused to sell his works.<ref name="EB" /> He returned to his native town of Ma'arra in about 1010 and learned that his mother had died before his arrival.<ref name=":0" />

He remained in Ma'arra for the rest of his life, where he opted for an ascetic lifestyle, refusing to sell his poems, living in seclusion and observing a strict vegetarian diet, eventually becoming one of the earliest known vegans.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.humanistictexts.org/al_ma%27arri.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010305091340/http://www.humanistictexts.org/al_ma%27arri.htm | archive-date=5 March 2001 | title=Al Ma'arri | access-date=7 July 2025 | url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>D. S. Margoliouth, [https://archive.org/stream/journalroyalasi69irelgoog#page/n323/mode/1up Abu 'l-ʿAla al-Ma'arri's correspondence on vegetarianism], ''Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society'', 1902, p. 289.</ref> His personal confinement to his house was only broken once when violence had struck his town.<ref name=":6" /> In that incident, al-Ma'arri went to Aleppo to intercede with its Mirdasid emir, Salih ibn Mirdas, to release his brother Abu'l-Majd and several other Muslim notables from Ma'arra who were held responsible for destroying a winehouse whose Christian owner was accused of molesting a Muslim woman.<ref name=":6"/> Though he was confined, he lived out his later years continuing his work and collaborating with others.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|title = Abu-L-Ala al-Maarri Facts|url = http://biography.yourdictionary.com/abu-l-ala-al-maarri|website = biography.yourdictionary.com|access-date = 13 July 2015}}</ref> He enjoyed great respect and attracted many students locally, as well as actively holding correspondence with scholars abroad.<ref name="EB"/> Despite his intentions of living a secluded lifestyle, in his seventies, he became rich and was the most revered person in his area.<ref name=":0" /> Al-Ma'arri never married and died in May 1057 in his hometown.<ref name="EB" /><ref name=":2" />

== Works == ===''The Tinder Spark'' (''Saqṭ az-Zand''; {{lang|ar|سقط الزند}})=== {{listen|filename=Poem by Abu 'ala al-Ma'arri ("I no longer steal from nature") read in Arabic.ogg|title=Poem from Luzūmīyāt, read in Arabic|description=The restrictive rhyme and meter can be heard in the start of poem 197<ref>Reynold Nicholson, [https://archive.org/stream/studiesinislamic00nichuoft#page/134/mode/2up Studies in Islamic Poetry and Mysticism], 1921, p. 134.</ref>}}

An early collection of his poems appeared as ''The Tinder Spark'' (''Saqṭ az-Zand''; {{lang|ar|سقط الزند}}). The collection of poems included praise of people of Aleppo and the Hamdanid ruler Sa'd al-Dawla. It gained popularity and established his reputation as a poet. A few poems in the collection were about armour.<ref name="EB" />

===''Unnecessary Necessity'' (''Luzūm mā lam yalzam'' {{lang|ar|لزوم ما لا يلزم}})=== A second, more original collection appeared under the title ''Unnecessary Necessity'' (''Luzūm mā lam yalzam'' {{lang|ar|لزوم ما لا يلزم}}), or simply ''Necessities'' (''Luzūmīyāt'' {{lang|ar|اللزوميات}}). The title refers to how al-Ma'arri saw the business of living and alludes to the unnecessary complexity of the rhyme scheme used.<ref name="EB" />

===''The Epistle of Forgiveness'' (''Risalat al-Ghufran'' {{lang|ar|رسالة الغفران}})=== His third work is a work of prose known as ''The Epistle of Forgiveness'' (''Risalat al-Ghufran'' {{lang|ar|رسالة الغفران}}). The work was written as a direct response to the Arabic poet Ibn al-Qarih, whom al-Ma'arri mocks for his religious views.<ref name="al-Maarri"/><ref>{{Cite book|title = The Epistle of Forgiveness: Volume Two: Hypocrites, Heretics, and Other Sinners|url = https://muse.jhu.edu/books/9780814768969|publisher = NYU Press|date = 2014|location = New York|isbn = 9780814768969|first1 = Abu l-Ala|last1 = al-Maarri|first2 = Geert Jan Van|last2 = Gelder|first3 = Gregor|last3 = Schoeler}}</ref> In this work, the poet visits paradise and meets the Arab poets of the pagan period. This view is shared by Islamic scholars, who often argued that pre-Islamic Arabs are indeed capable of entering paradise.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Fate of Non-Muslims: Perspectives on Salvation Outside of Islam|url=https://yaqeeninstitute.org/jonathan-brown/the-fate-of-non-muslims-perspectives-on-salvation-outside-of-islam|access-date=2021-02-22|website=Yaqeen Institute for Islamic Research}}</ref> Because of the aspect of conversing with the deceased in paradise, the ''Risalat al-Ghufran'' has been compared to the ''Divine Comedy'' of Dante<ref>William Montgomery Watt and Pierre Cachia, ''A History of Islamic Spain'', 2nd edition, Edinburgh University Press, 1996, pp. 125–126, {{ISBN|0-7486-0847-8}}.</ref> which came hundreds of years after. The work has also been noted to be similar to Ibn Shuhayd's ''Risala al-tawabi' wa al-zawabi'', though there is no evidence that al-Ma'arri was inspired by Ibn Shuhayd nor is there any evidence that Dante was inspired by al-Ma'arri.<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Biographical Encyclopedia of Islamic Philosophy|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=iX-8BwAAQBAJ&q=al+qifti+al-ma+arri&pg=PT364|publisher = Bloomsbury Publishing|date = 16 July 2015|isbn = 9781472569462|first = Oliver|last = Leaman}}</ref> Algeria reportedly banned ''The Epistle of Forgiveness'' from the International Book Fair held in Algiers in 2007.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":5" />

===Other works=== ''Paragraphs and Periods'' (''al-Fuṣūl wa al-Ghāyāt'') is a collection of homilies. The work has been accused of being a parody of or an attempt to imitate the Quran.{{Sfn|Stewart|2017}}{{Sfn|Grigoryan|2023|p=50–52}}

Al-Ma'arri also composed a significant corpus of verse riddles.<ref>Pieter Smoor, '[http://www.jstor.org/stable/43377840 The Weeping Wax Candle and Ma'arrī's Wisdom-tooth: Night Thoughts and Riddles from the Gāmi' al-awzān]', ''Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft'', 138 (1988), 283–312.</ref>

<gallery> File:Saqt al-Zand.jpg|''Saqt al-Zand'' File:Resalat Al-Ghufran book cover, Commerial library edition (1923).jpg|''Risalat al-Gufran'' </gallery>

==Views==

===Opposition to religion=== In early Western scholarship, Al-Ma'arri has frequently been characterized as a skeptic<ref name="poet" /> who denounced superstition and dogmatism in religion. This specific interpretation of his poetry, along with his general negative view on life, has led to descriptions of him as a pessimistic freethinker. Throughout his philosophical writings, a recurring theme highlighted by these early critics is the idea that reason holds a privileged position over traditions, suggesting that relying on the preconceptions and established norms of society can be limiting.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite web|title = Al Ma'arri|url = http://www.humanistictexts.org/al_ma%27arri.htm|website = Humanistictexts.org|access-date = 13 July 2015|url-status = dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161127200338/http://www.humanistictexts.org/al_ma%27arri.htm|archive-date = 27 November 2016}}</ref>

Based on English translations of select verses, early orientalists such as Reynold A. Nicholson argued that Al-Ma'arri viewed religion as a "fable invented by the ancients", alleging he considered it worthless except for those who exploit the credulous masses.<ref name="Nicholson318">Reynold Alleyne Nicholson, 1962, ''A Literary History of the Arabs'', page 318. Routledge</ref> This historical viewpoint is frequently illustrated by translations found in early 20th-century encyclopedias:

{{blockquote|Do not suppose the statements of the prophets to be true; they are all fabrications. Men lived comfortably till they came and spoiled life. The sacred books are only such a set of idle tales as any age could have and indeed did actually produce.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hastings |first=James |author-link=James Hastings |date=1909 |title=Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, Vol. 2 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.56055/page/n212 |location=Edinburgh |publisher=T&T Clark |page=190}}</ref>}}

Based on Nicholson's translations, Al-Ma'arri was understood by these scholars to have criticized many Islamic dogmas; Nicholson notably cited a verse where the poet allegedly described the Hajj as "a pagan's journey".<ref name="Nicholson319">Nicholson, ''A Literary History of the Arabs'', 319.</ref> In this historical Western framework, Al-Ma'arri was depicted as rejecting claims of divine revelation, with his creed characterized as that of a philosopher and ascetic for whom reason provides a moral guide and virtue is its own reward.<ref name="Nicholson317">Nicholson, ''A Literary History of the Arabs'', 317.</ref><ref name="Nicholson323">Nicholson, ''A Literary History of the Arabs'', 323.</ref> Nicholson argued that his perceived secularist views targeted Judaism and Christianity equally, quoting Al-Ma'arri's observation that monks in their cloisters and devotees in their mosques blindly followed their local beliefs, and would have become Magians or Sabians had they been born among them.<ref>Reynold A. Nicholson ''Adapted from Studies in Islamic Poetry'' Cambridge University Press, 1921, Cambridge, England. pp. 1–32</ref> A verse frequently cited by these authors to summarize his supposed stance on organized religion reads: "The inhabitants of the earth are of two sorts: those with brains, but no religion, and those with religion, but no brains."<ref>{{cite book|last=Maalouf|first=Amin|title=The Crusades Through Arab Eyes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5ie3ib8YbTcC|year=1984|publisher=Schocken Books|isbn=978-0-8052-0898-6|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5ie3ib8YbTcC&pg=PA37 37]}}</ref><ref>The full poem (in Arabic) to be found e.g. on [https://arabic-poetry.com/أبو-العلاء-المعري/إن-هللت-أفواهكم-فقلوبكم/ arabic-poetry.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191201141757/https://arabic-poetry.com/%d8%a3%d8%a8%d9%88-%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%b9%d9%84%d8%a7%d8%a1-%d8%a7%d9%84%d9%85%d8%b9%d8%b1%d9%8a/%d8%a5%d9%86-%d9%87%d9%84%d9%84%d8%aa-%d8%a3%d9%81%d9%88%d8%a7%d9%87%d9%83%d9%85-%d9%81%d9%82%d9%84%d9%88%d8%a8%d9%83%d9%85/ |date=1 December 2019 }} and [https://www.aldiwan.net/poem23175.html www.aldiwan.net] (direct links to the poem).</ref>

==== Scholarly defense and reinterpretation ====

Contemporary and historical literary critics point out that Al-Ma'arri's reputation as a heretic stems largely from selective readings of his poetry and the blind imitation of earlier detractors. The medieval historian and Qadi of Aleppo, Kamal al-Din Ibn al-Adim (d. 1262), authored an extensive treatise titled ''Al-Insaf wa al-Tahharri'' (Equity and Investigation) explicitly defending Al-Ma'arri. Ibn al-Adim concluded that Al-Ma'arri's faith was orthodox and criticized his detractors for failing to verify his actual beliefs before declaring him a heretic.<ref>Al-Trabulsi, Amjad (1965). Introduction to ''Zajr al-Nabih''. Damascus: Ministry of Culture, p. 4.</ref>

The authenticity of Al-Ma'arri's Islamic faith in his later years is critically supported by his final dictated work, ''Daw' al-Saqt'' (The Light of the Spark). Originally intended as a linguistic commentary on his early poetry, this late-life manuscript is laden with orthodox Islamic theology, including profound reverence for the Islamic prophet Muhammad, praise for Muhammad's companions, and unambiguous affirmations of the Day of Judgment. The prominent medieval historian Ibn al-Wardi, who had initially classified Al-Ma'arri as a heretic, explicitly retracted his accusations after examining this specific manuscript. In his historical chronicle, Ibn al-Wardi documented his shift in perspective, stating that ''Daw' al-Saqt'' definitively "clarified his return to the truth and the soundness of his faith," noting that as it was Al-Ma'arri's final work, "deeds are judged by their endings."<ref>Ibn al-Wardi. ''Tatimmat al-Mukhtasar fi Tarikh al-Bashar'' [Continuation of the Short History of Mankind]. (See the biographical entry on Al-Ma'arri, detailing his theological orthodoxy in his final years).</ref>

To address the accusations of heresy directly during his lifetime, Al-Ma'arri authored the apologetic work ''Zajr al-Nabih'' (Repelling the Barker) at the urging of his peers.<ref>Al-Trabulsi (1965), p. 3.</ref> Amjad al-Trabulsi, who critically edited the manuscript, highlighted a significant historiographical discrepancy: while classical biographers such as Al-Qifti and Al-Dhahabi officially listed ''Zajr al-Nabih'' in Al-Ma'arri's bibliography, they conspicuously failed to quote its contents when evaluating his beliefs, relying instead on controversial interpretations of his poetry.<ref>Al-Trabulsi (1965), pp. 6–7.</ref> In ''Zajr al-Nabih'', Al-Ma'arri clarified that verses appearing to mock religion were directed at the corruption of religious practitioners or were critiques of other faiths. Regarding the specific claim that he called the Hajj a "pagan's journey," he explained that his poetry was condemning the hypocrisy of certain pilgrims, not the Islamic ritual itself, which he affirmed as a valid hardship for eternal reward.<ref>Al-Ma'arri, Abu al-Ala (1965). ''Zajr al-Nabih'' (Critical edition by Amjad al-Trabulsi). Damascus: Ministry of Culture, pp. 14, 32, 70.</ref>

This orthodox alignment is further corroborated by Al-Ma'arri's own explicit defense of the Quran. The Egyptian literary historian Mustafa Sadiq al-Rafi'i, in his extensive work ''I'jaz al-Qur'an wa al-Balagha al-Nabawiyya'' (The Inimitability of the Quran and Prophetic Eloquence), dismissed the assertions of Al-Ma'arri's atheism and the rumors that he attempted to rival the Quran. To dismantle these claims, Al-Rafi'i cited Al-Ma'arri's direct refutation of the notorious heretic Ibn al-Rawandi. In this text, Al-Ma'arri explicitly affirmed the linguistic miracle of the Quran, stating that "atheists and believers alike agree that the book brought by Muhammad peace and blessings be upon him dazzled with its inimitability." Al-Rafi'i concluded his analysis by arguing that it is logically and historically inconceivable for Al-Ma'arri to harbor disbelief while writing such a profound defense of the Quranic revelation.<ref>Al-Rafi'i, Mustafa Sadiq. ''I'jaz al-Qur'an wa al-Balagha al-Nabawiyya''. p. 118.</ref>

Furthermore, a comprehensive reading of his diwan, the ''Luzumiyat'', reveals numerous verses explicitly affirming Islamic monotheism and praising Muhammad. The Indian philologist Abd al-Aziz al-Maymani (d. 1978) argued that many of the blatantly heretical verses attributed to Al-Ma'arri were later fabrications by his detractors. Al-Maymani noted that these fabricated poems often contained weak linguistic structures completely inconsistent with Al-Ma'arri's renowned mastery of Arabic. He also documented that strict Maliki scholars from Al-Andalus cited Al-Ma'arri favorably, and recorded testimonies from figures like Al-Silafi acknowledging his piety and repentance from his early skepticism.<ref>Al-Maymani, Abd al-Aziz (1926). ''Abu al-Ala wa ma Ilayh''. Cairo: Al-Salafiyyah Press, p. 219.</ref>

In the 1991 critical edition of Al-Batalyawsi's commentary on the ''Luzumiyat'', the editor Hamid Abd al-Majid provides a comprehensive textual analysis addressing the origins of the controversies surrounding Al-Ma'arri's alleged heresy. Abd al-Majid records that Al-Ma'arri was fully aware of the systematic forgery of his poetry by his regional detractors. According to a surviving letter cited in the edition, known as ''Risalat al-Sabi'in'', Al-Ma'arri explicitly complained to the Aleppine ruler Thimal bin Salih about two specific contemporaries, including Al-Sharif bin Al-Mahbara, who deliberately altered his dictated verses to accuse him of disbelief. In this context, Al-Ma'arri described himself directly as "a lied-about old man" (''shaykh makdhub a'layh'').<ref>Al-Batalyawsi, Abu Muhammad (1991). ''Sharh al-Mukhtar min Luzumiyyat Abi al-Ala'' (Critical edition by Dr. Hamid Abd al-Majid). Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, pp. 530–531.</ref> To counter these organized distortions, Al-Ma'arri authored ''Zajr al-Nabih'' to defend his work, and subsequently wrote a tract titled ''Najr al-Zajr'' specifically to isolate the fabricated verses and clarify their intended meanings.<ref>Al-Batalyawsi (1991), p. 532.</ref> Abd al-Majid notes a historical divergence in the textual transmission of the ''Luzumiyat''; while the Eastern copies suffered heavily from deliberate interpolation by his enemies, the early copies transcribed by his trusted students and transmitted to Al-Andalus remained intact. These Andalusian manuscripts, utilized by Al-Batalyawsi, completely omitted the blatantly heretical lines found in the Eastern versions and consistently reflected orthodox Islamic theology.<ref>Al-Batalyawsi (1991), pp. 534–536.</ref> As a practical example of this textual corruption, the edition points to a well-known verse attributed to Al-Ma'arri claiming that all religions are equal in misguidance; Abd al-Majid notes that the verified Andalusian text contains an entirely different wording that conforms with Islamic orthodoxy.<ref>Al-Batalyawsi (1991), p. 536.</ref> Furthermore, the commentary addresses the misinterpretation of Al-Ma'arri's authentic verses by critics lacking jurisprudential expertise. Citing the medieval scholar Abu al-Fadl al-Khwarizmi, Abd al-Majid explains that verses commonly interpreted as mocking the rituals of Hajj were technical legal debates regarding the specific timing of rites at Mina and Muzdalifah, reflecting his knowledge of Islamic jurisprudence rather than a rejection of the pilgrimage.<ref>Al-Batalyawsi (1991), p. 537.</ref> The critical text also collates accounts from Al-Ma'arri's contemporaries to affirm his religious practice; early historians such as Al-Silafi and Ibn al-Adim recorded instances where the judge Abu al-Fath observed Al-Ma'arri weeping intensely and rubbing his face in the dirt out of fear of the afterlife upon reciting a Quranic verse, an event that led the judge to confirm the strength of his faith.<ref>Al-Batalyawsi (1991), p. 538.</ref>

===Asceticism=== Al-Ma'arri was an ascetic, renouncing worldly desires and living secluded from others while producing his works. He opposed all forms of violence.<ref name=":0" /> In Baghdad, while being well received, he decided not to sell his texts, which made it difficult for him to live.

===Veganism=== In al-Ma'arri's later years, he chose to stop consuming meat and all other animal products (i.e., he became a practicing vegan). He wrote:<ref name="vegan2">{{cite web |title=Do not desire as food the flesh of slaughtered animals |url=http://www.humanistictexts.org/al_ma%27arri.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010305091340/http://www.humanistictexts.org/al_ma%27arri.htm |archive-date=5 March 2001 |website=Humanistictexts.org |type=in poem #14 |access-date=18 February 2007 }}</ref> {{poemquote|Do not unjustly eat what the water has given up, and do not desire as food the flesh of slaughtered animals,<br>Or the white (milk) of mothers who intended its pure draught for their young, not for noble ladies.<br>And do not grieve the unsuspecting birds by taking their eggs; for injustice is the worst of crimes.<br/>And spare the honey which the bees get betimes by their industry from the flowers of fragrant plants;<br>For they did not store it that it might belong to others, nor did they gather it for bounty and gifts.<br>I washed my hands of all this; and would that I had perceived my way ere my temples grew hoar!<ref name= Nicholson>"The Meditations of Al-Maʿarri", ''Studies in Islamic Poetry'' (1921) by Reynold A. Nicholson, Verse 197, pages 134–135</ref>}}

=== Antinatalism === Al-Ma'arri's fundamental pessimism is expressed in his antinatalist recommendation that no children should be begotten, so as to spare them the pains of life.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Fisk |first=Robert |title=Syrian rebels have taken iconoclasm to new depths, with shrines, statues and even a tree destroyed – but to what end? |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/comment/syrian-rebels-have-taken-iconoclasm-to-new-depths-with-shrines-statues-and-even-a-tree-destroyed--but-to-what-end-9021017.html |date=22 December 2013 |work=The Independent |location=London |access-date=28 October 2019}}</ref> In an elegy composed by him over the loss of a relative, he combines his grief with observations on the ephemerality of this life: {{poemquote|Soften your tread. Methinks the earth's surface is but bodies of the dead, Walk slowly in the air, so you do not trample on the remains of God's servants.<ref name="EB" />}} Al-Ma'arri's self-composed epitaph, on his tomb, states (in regard to life and being born): "This is my father's crime against me, which I myself committed against none."<ref>{{Cite web|title=An Elegy by al-Ma'arri|url=https://www.jadaliyya.com/Details/32488|last=Blankinship|first=Kevin|date=2015-09-20|website=Jadaliyya|access-date=2020-05-04}}</ref>

==Legacy== Al-Ma'arri is controversial even today as he was skeptical of Islam.<ref name=":3" /> In 2013 the al-Nusra Front, a rebel militia and former branch of al-Qaeda, demolished a statue of al-Ma'arri during the Syrian Civil War.<ref name=":5" /> The statue had been crafted in 1944 by the sculptor Fathi Muhammad.<ref name=":1" /> The motive behind the destruction is disputed; theories range from the fact that he was a heretic to the fact that he is believed by some to be related to the Assad family.<ref name=":5">France24, "[https://web.archive.org/web/20130216053220/http://observers.france24.com/content/20130214-jihadists-behead-statue-syrian-poet-abul-ala-al-maari Jihadists behead statue of Syrian poet Abul Ala al-Maari]", 14 February 2013</ref>

==Editions== * ''Risalat al-Ghufran, a Divine Comedy.'' Translated by G. Brackenbury 1943. * ''The Epistle of Forgiveness: Volume One: A Vision of Heaven and Hell.'' Translated by Geert Jan Van Gelder and Gregor Schoeler. Library of Arabic Literature, New York University Press 2013. * ''The Epistle of Forgiveness: Volume Two: Hypocrites, Heretics, and Other Sinners.'' Translated by Geert Jan Van Gelder and Gregor Schoeler. Library of Arabic Literature, New York University Press 2014. * Those riddles of al-Maʿarrī that are cited in al-Ḥaẓīrī's twelfth-century ''Kitāb al-Iʿjāz fī l-aḥājī wa-l-alghāz'' have been edited as Abū l-ʿAlāˀ al-Maʿarrī, ''Dīwān al-alġāz, riwāyat Abī l-Maʿālī al-Ḥaẓīrī'', ed. by Maḥmūd ʿAbdarraḥīm Ṣāliḥ (Riyadh [1990]).

== See also == *Abbasid Caliphate *Arabic literature *Islamic Golden Age *List of vegans *Veganism

== References == {{Reflist|30em}} {{notelist}}

==Sources== * {{Cite book |last=Beeston |first=A. F. L. |title=The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature |publisher=Cambridge University Press}} * {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fshmK9xYD6cC&pg=PA289 |title=A Literary History of Persia |first=Edward Granville |last=Browne |orig-year=1906 |year=1999 |publisher=Curzon|isbn=978-0-7007-0406-4 }} * {{Cite encyclopedia |year=2001 |entry=al-Ma'arrī, Abū-l-'Alā' |publisher=AltaMira Press |others=Introduction by Huston Smith |isbn=9780759101906 |entry-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=focLrox-frUC&pg=RA1-PA278 |first=Cyril |last=Glassé |title=The New Encyclopedia of Islam}} * {{Cite book |last=Grigoryan |first=Sona |title=Neither Belief nor Unbelief: Intentional Ambivalence in al-Maʿarrī's Luzūm |date=2023 |publisher=De Gruyter}} * {{Cite book |last=Hitti |first=Philip Khuri |author-link=Philip K. Hitti |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6FklfLSxpIkC&pg=PA147 |title=Islam, a Way of Life |publisher=University of Minnesota Press |year=1968 |isbn=9781452910406}} * {{Cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UfQWT_esc5cC&pg=PA577 |title=The Cambridge History of Islam |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1977 |editor-last=Holt |editor-first=P. M. |chapter=Religion and Culture |isbn=978-0-521-29138-5 |editor-last2=Lambton |editor-first2=Ann K. S. |editor-last3=Lewis |editor-first3=Bernard}} * {{cite book |title=Arabic Historical Thought in the Classical Period |first=Tarif |last=Khalidi|author-link=Tarif Khalidi |date=1994 |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511583650 |isbn=0-521-46554-0 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}} * {{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/callforheresywhy00maji/page/207 |title=A Call for Heresy: Why Dissent Is Vital to Islam and America |first=Anouar |last=Majid |date=18 September 2007 |location=Minneapolis |publisher=University of Minnesota Press |isbn=978-0-8166-5127-6}} * {{Cite book |last=Nicholson |first=Reynold Alleyne |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7jKIOJ4qAxMC&pg=PA166 |title=A Literary History of the Arabs |publisher=Kessinger Publishing |year=2006|isbn=978-1-4286-3576-0 }} * {{Cite encyclopedia |year=1984 |title=al-Ma'arri |encyclopedia=The Encyclopaedia of Islam |publisher=Brill |last=Smoor |first=P. |editor-last=Gibb |editor-first=H. A. R. |volume=3, Part 1 |pages=927–935}} * {{Cite encyclopedia |year=2006 |title=Medieval Islamic Civilization |publisher=Routledge |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MypbfKdMePIC&pg=PA6 |last=Smoor |first=Pieter |isbn=978-0-415-96691-7 |editor-last=Meri |editor-first=Josef W. |editor-first2=Jere L. |editor-last2=Bacharach}} * {{Cite book |last=Stewart |first=Devin |title=The Qur'an and Adab. The shaping of literary traditions in classical Islam |date=2017 |publisher=Oxford University Press |editor-last=Alshaar |editor-first=Nuha |pages=239–272 |chapter=Rhythmical Anxiety: Notes on Abu l-'Ala al-Maarri's (d. 449/1058) al-Fusul wa'l-Ghayat and Its Reception}} * {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jzWIgNm1NRYC&pg=PA125 |title=A History of Islamic Spain |first1=William Montgomery |last1=Watt |first2=Pierre |last2=Cachia |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=1996|isbn=978-0-7486-0847-8 }} * {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u5dJj2dSp3AC&pg=PA168 |title=The Production of the Muslim Woman |first=Lamia Ben Youssef |last=Zayzafoon |isbn=9780739110782 |publisher=Lexington Books |year=2005}}

== External links == {{sister project links|auto=1|d=y}} * {{StandardEbooks|Standard Ebooks URL=https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/abu-al-ala-al-maarri}} * {{Gutenberg author | id=26732}} * {{librivox author|id=13439}} *The Epistle of Forgiveness: A Vision of Heaven and Hell (Volume One), Abū Al ʿAlāʾ Al Maʿarrī *[https://archive.org/details/Abul-Ala-Veganism Abu 'l-ʿAla al-Ma'arri's correspondence on vegetarianism, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1902, p. 289], by D. S. Margoliouth * [https://web.archive.org/web/20161127200338/http://www.humanistictexts.org/al_ma%27arri.htm 37 of al-Ma'arri's poems {{in lang|en}}, posted by Humanistictexts.org] * [http://www.idleworm.com/literature/luzumiyat.shtml The Luzumiyat]

{{Aleppo}} {{Arabic literature}} {{People in veganism and vegetarianism}} {{Philosophical pessimism}} {{Authority control}}

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Maarri, al}} Category:973 births Category:1057 deaths Category:10th-century Arabic-language poets Category:11th-century Arabic-language poets Category:Anti-natalists Category:Muslim ascetics Category:Blind activists Category:Blind poets Category:Blind scholars and academics Category:Critics of Judaism Category:Deist philosophers Category:Former Muslim critics of Islam Category:Freethought writers Category:Freethought Category:Hermits Category:Medieval Islamic philosophers Category:Mirdasid emirate of Aleppo Category:People from Aleppo Category:People from Maarat al-Numan Category:People from the Hamdanid emirate of Aleppo Category:Philosophers from the Abbasid Caliphate Category:Philosophers of pessimism Category:Poets from the Abbasid Caliphate Category:Rationalists Category:Religious skeptics Category:Syrian critics of Christianity Category:Syrian deists Category:Syrian former Muslims Category:Tanukh Category:Veganism activists