{{Short description|Genus of flowering plants}} {{Use Australian English|date=August 2020}} {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}} {{Automatic taxobox |taxon=Xanthorrhoea |image = Xanthorrhoea semiplana - Anstey Hill.JPG |image_caption = ''X. semiplana'' |authority = Sol. ex Sm. |synonyms_ref=<ref name="WCSPKew" /> |synonyms=''Acoroides'' {{small|Sol. ex Kite{{small|, not validly published}}}} |subdivision_ranks = Species |subdivision = 28 species }}
'''''Xanthorrhoea''''' ({{IPAc-en|z|æ|n|θ|əʊ|ˈ|r|iː|ə}}<ref name="oed" />) is a genus of about 30 species of succulent flowering plants in the family Asphodelaceae. They are endemic to Australia. Common names for the plants include '''grasstree''', '''grass gum-tree''' (for resin-yielding species), '''kangaroo tail''', '''balga''' (Western Australia), '''yakka''' (South Australia), '''yamina''' (Tasmania, from the palawa kani language), and '''black boy''' (or "blackboy"). The most common species is ''Xanthorrhoea australis'', and some of these names are applied specifically to this species.
==Description== [[File:Xanthorrhoea trunk cross-section.jpg|thumb|right|The dead "trunk" of ''Xanthorrhoea'' is a hollow ring of accumulated leaf bases. Nutrient transport was via vascular bundles that run down the centre. The parenchymatous tissue is decomposed.]] All species in the genus are perennials and have a secondary thickening meristem in the stem. Many, but not all, species develop an above ground stem. The stem may take up to twenty years to emerge. Plants begin as a crown of rigid grass-like leaves, the caudex slowly growing beneath. The main stem or branches continue to develop beneath the crown. This is rough-surfaced, built from accumulated leaf-bases around the secondarily thickened trunk. The trunk is sometimes unbranched, some species will branch if the growing point is damaged, and others naturally grow numerous branches.<ref name="foa" /><ref name="Botanica" />
Flowers are borne on a long spike above a bare section called a scape; the total length can be over three to four metres long in some species.<ref name="Botanica" /> Flowering occurs in a distinct period, which varies for each species, and often stimulated by bushfire. Fires will burn the leaves and blacken the trunk, but the plant survives as the dead leaves around the stem serve as insulation against the heat of a wildfire.{{citation needed|date=August 2018}}
The rate of growth of ''Xanthorrhoea'' is slow. Some species grow slowly ({{convert|0.8|–|6|cm|disp=or}} in height per year), but increase their rate of growth in response to season and rainfall. After the initial establishment phase, the rate of growth varies widely from species to species. Thus, while a {{convert|5|m|ft|spell=in|adj=mid|-tall}} member of the fastest-growing ''Xanthorrhoea'' may be 200 years old, a member of a more slowly growing species of equal height may have aged to 600 years.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bushheritage.org.au/species/grass-trees|title=Grass trees|access-date=4 June 2017|publisher=Bush Heritage Australia}}</ref><ref name="Botanica" />
==Systematics== ===Taxonomy=== ''Xanthorrhoea'' is part of the family Asphodelaceae, containing related genera such as ''Aloe'', ''Alstroemeria'', ''Gasteria'', ''Haworthia'' and ''Hemerocallis'' (to name a few), but is placed within its own monotypic subfamily, the '''Xanthorrhoeoideae'''.<ref name="WCSPKew" /> The Xanthorrhoeoideae are monocots, part of the greater order of Asparagales.<ref name="Bedford1986">{{cite book |last1=Bedford |first1=David J. |author-link1=David John Bedford |editor-last=George |editor-first=A. S. |year=1986 |volume=46 |title=Flora of Australia: Iridaceae to Dioscoreaceae |publication-date=1986 |publisher=Australian Govt. Pub. Service |location=Canberra |chapter=9. Xanthorrhoea |pages=148–169 |isbn=978-0-644-04356-4 |url=https://www.environment.gov.au/science/abrs/publications/flora-of-australia/vol46 |oclc=715706708}} [https://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/pages/8c363f01-655d-4328-b13a-569b35fae37d/files/flora-australia-46-iridaceae-dioscoreaceae-3.pdf (PDF)]</ref>
A reference to its yellow resin,<ref name="oed" /> ''Xanthorrhoea'' literally means "yellow-flow" in Ancient Greek. Smith named it, in 1798,<ref name="Linnean" /> from ''{{transliteration|grc|xanthos}}'' ('yellow, golden') and ''{{transliteration|grc|rhœa}}'' ('flowing, flow').<ref name="oed" /> The invalid ''Acoroides'' ('''Acorus''-like'<ref name="Gledhill">{{cite book |last=Gledhill |first=D. |title=The Names of Plants |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NJ6PyhVuecwC&pg=PA35 |year=2008 |orig-year=First published 1985 |publisher=Cambridge U. Press |edition=4th |isbn=978-0-521-86645-3 |page=35}}</ref>) was a temporary designation in Solander's manuscript from his voyage with Cook, originally not meant for publication.<ref name="Linnean" />
''Kingia'' and ''Dasypogon'' are unrelated Australian plants with a similar growth habit to ''Xanthorrhoea''. Both genera have, at times, been confused with xanthorrhoeas and misnamed as "grasstrees".{{citation needed|date=August 2018}} Some plant classification systems, such as Cronquist,<ref name="Cronquist">Cronquist, A.J. ''An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants,'' Columbia University Press, New York 1981. {{ISBN|0231038801}}</ref> have included a wide range of other genera in the same family as ''Xanthorrhoea''. However, future anatomical and phylogenetic research supported the views of Dahlgren,<ref name="Dahlgren1980">{{cite journal |last1=Dahlgren |first1=R. M. T. |title=A revised system of classification of the angiosperms |year=1980 |journal=Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society |publisher=Oxford University Press (OUP) |volume=80 |issue=2 |pages=91–124 |eissn=1095-8339 |issn=0024-4074 |oclc=974317225 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.1980.tb01661.x }}</ref> whom regarded ''Xanthorrhoea'' as the sole taxon of the family Xanthorrhoeaceae ''sensu stricto'', which is now treated as a subfamily, Xanthorrhoeoideae.<ref name="Chase2009" />
===Names=== {{anchor|Common names}} Common names for ''Xanthorrhoea'' include grasstree, grass gum-tree (for its resin-yielding species),<ref name="oed" /> and kangaroo tail.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://parksaustralia.gov.au/booderee/discover/nature/plants/kanagroo-tail/|title=Kangaroo tail|publisher=Parks Australia|access-date=2022-04-16}}</ref> The name grasstree<!--intentional link to DAB page--> is applied to many other plants. They are also known as balga grass plants, which derives from the word ''balga'' in the Noongar language of south-west of Western Australia, particularly for ''X. preissii''.<ref name=peters1996/> Its meaning is "black boy" or "blackboy", a name which was applied to the plant for many years. Some thought that Aboriginal peoples used the name balga because the trunk blackened after a bushfire resembles a child-like black figure. The name is now seen as racist, and ''Xanthorrhoea'' are more commonly known as grass tree.<ref>{{cite web | title=Xanthorrhoea- The Story of the Black Boy Plant| website=Florist with Flowers | date=17 August 2017 | url=https://www.floristwithflowers.com.au/blog/xanthorrhoea-the-story-of-the-black-boy-plant/ | access-date=5 June 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-10-02/blackboy-ridge-nature-reserve-name-change-investigated/12726138|title='Blackboy Ridge' nature reserve told to change name due to cultural insensitivity |publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|date=2020-10-02|access-date=2022-04-16}}</ref> However a 2015 report written by Aboriginal Tasmanian authors, who refer to the plant as ''yamina'', says "yamina forest on lungtalanana is important to the community. yamina are also commonly known as black boys. They are called this because the plant has a thick black trunk".<ref name=plan2015>{{cite web|url=https://maps.northwestatlas.org/files/montara/links_to_plans/TAS/TAS2_lungtalanana%20Babel%20and%20Big%20Dog%20Healthy%20Country%20Plan.pdf| title =lungtalanana, Babel Island & Big Dog Island: Healthy Country Plan 2015|date=2015| author=Tasmanian Aboriginal Centre| author-link=Tasmanian Aboriginal Centre| page=5–7}}</ref>
In South Australia, ''Xanthorrhoea'' is commonly known as ''yakka'', also spelled ''yacca'' and ''yacka'', a name probably from<ref name=peters1996>Peters, Pam, ''The Cambridge Australian English Style Guide'', Cambridge University Press, 1996, p823. {{ISBN|978-0-521-57634-5}}</ref> the Kaurna language (''Yakko'', or alternatively ''Kurru''). The Ngarrindjeri name is ''Bukkup''.<ref>{{cite web | title=Yakkas (Xanthorrhoea semiplana and X. quadrangulata) | website=Ligaya Garden | date=26 November 2018 | url=https://ligayagarden.online/bushfoods/yakka/ | access-date=5 June 2024}}</ref>
Some of the above names are applied specifically to ''Xanthorrhoea australis'', the most common species.<ref>{{cite web | title= Xanthorrhoea australis| website=Australian National Botanic Gardens | date=February 2003 | url=https://www.anbg.gov.au/apu/plants/xantaust.html | access-date=5 June 2024}}</ref>
== Diversity and distribution == [[File:Avon vally gnangarra-23.jpg|right|thumb|A {{convert|5|m|ft|spell=in|adj=mid|-tall}} ''Xanthorrhea drummondii'' in the Avon Valley National Park, Western Australia]] The genus is endemic to Australia, occurring in all national states and territories. Some species have a restricted range, others are widely distributed. According to the ''World Checklist of Selected Plant Families'', {{as of|2014|September|lc=yes}} the following species are accepted:<ref name="WCSPKew" /> <!-- In each table, link one (usually 1st) instance of terms, remove other WP:OVERLINK(s). --> {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;" |+ List of ''Xanthorrhea'' species in Australia |- ! rowspan="2" | Image ! rowspan="2" | Name ! rowspan="2" | Authority ! colspan="7" | States and Territories |- ! NSW ! QLD ! VIC ! TAS ! SA ! WA ! NT |- |120px | style="text-align:left" | ''X. acanthostachya'' | style="text-align:left" | D.J.Bedford | · | · | · | · | · | Y | · |- | | style="text-align:left" | ''X. acaulis'' | style="text-align:left" | (A.T.Lee) D.J.Bedford | Y | · | · | · | · | · | · |- |120px | style="text-align:left" | ''X. arborea'' | style="text-align:left" | R.Br. | Y | · | · | · | · | · | · |- | | style="text-align:left" | ''X. arenaria'' | style="text-align:left" | D.J.Bedford | · | · | · | Y | · | · | · |- |120px | style="text-align:left" | ''X. australis'' | style="text-align:left" | R.Br. | Y | · | Y | Y | Y | · | · |- | | style="text-align:left" | ''X. bracteata'' | style="text-align:left" | R.Br. | · | · | · | Y | · | · | · |- | | style="text-align:left" | ''X. brevistyla'' | style="text-align:left" | D.A.Herb. | · | · | · | · | · | Y | · |- |120px | style="text-align:left" | ''X. brunonis'' | style="text-align:left" | Endl. in J.G.C.Lehmann | · | · | · | · | · | Y | · |- |center|frameless|160x160px | style="text-align:left" | ''X. caespitosa'' | style="text-align:left" | D.J.Bedford | · | · | · | · | Y | · | · |- |center|frameless|181x181px | style="text-align:left" | ''X. concava'' | style="text-align:left" | (A.T.Lee) D.J.Bedford | Y | · | · | · | · | · | · |- |120px | style="text-align:left" | ''X. drummondii'' | style="text-align:left" | Harv. | · | · | · | · | · | Y | · |- |120px | style="text-align:left" | ''X. fulva'' | style="text-align:left" | (A.T.Lee) D.J.Bedford | Y | Y | · | · | · | · | · |- |120px | style="text-align:left" | ''X. glauca'' | style="text-align:left" | D.J.Bedford | Y | Y | Y | · | · | · | · |- |120px | style="text-align:left" | ''X. gracilis'' | style="text-align:left" | Endl. in J.G.C.Lehmann | · | · | · | · | · | Y | · |- |120px | style="text-align:left" | ''X. johnsonii'' | style="text-align:left" | A.T.Lee | Y | Y | · | · | · | · | · |- |120px | style="text-align:left" | ''X. latifolia'' | style="text-align:left" | (A.T.Lee) D.J.Bedford | Y | Y | · | · | · | · | · |- |120px | style="text-align:left" | ''X. macronema'' | style="text-align:left" | F.Muell. ex Benth. | Y | Y, Fraser Island | · | · | · | · | · |- |120px | style="text-align:left" | ''X. malacophylla'' | style="text-align:left" | D.J.Bedford | Y | · | · | · | · | · | · |- |120px | style="text-align:left" | ''X. media'' | style="text-align:left" | R.Br. | Y | · | · | · | · | · | · |- |120px | style="text-align:left" | ''X. minor'' | style="text-align:left" | R.Br. | Y | · | Y | · | Y | · | · |- |center|frameless|120x120px | style="text-align:left" | ''X. nana'' | style="text-align:left" | D.A.Herb. | · | · | · | · | · | Y | · |- |center|frameless|120x120px | style="text-align:left" | ''X. platyphylla'' | style="text-align:left" | D.J.Bedford | · | · | · | · | · | Y | · |- |120px | style="text-align:left" | ''X. preissii'' (syn. ''X. pecoris'' F.Muell.) | style="text-align:left" | Endl. in J.G.C.Lehmann | · | · | · | · | · | Y | · |- |center|frameless|120x120px | style="text-align:left" | ''X. pumilio'' | style="text-align:left" | R.Br. | · | Y | · | · | · | · | · |- |120px | style="text-align:left" | ''X. quadrangulata'' | style="text-align:left" | F.Muell. | · | · | · | · | Y | · | · |- |120px | style="text-align:left" | ''X. resinosa'' (syn. ''X. hastilis'') | style="text-align:left" | Pers. | Y | · | Y | · | · | · | · |- |120px | style="text-align:left" | ''X. semiplana'' | style="text-align:left" | F.Muell. | · | · | Y | · | Y | · | · |- |120px | style="text-align:left" | ''X. thorntonii'' | style="text-align:left" | Tate | · | · | · | · | Y | Y | Y |- |}
==Habitat== Grasstrees grow in coastal heaths, and wet and dry forests of Australia. They are drought and frost tolerant. The grass tree mainly occurs in soils that are very free draining and consequently low in nutrients. It survives in the poorest soils, with a shallow root system, enabling it easily access nutrients from decaying litter, while storing all the food reserves in its stem.<ref>Flora of Tasmania. Xanthorrhoea Australis [PDF]. Retrieved from http://dpipwe.tas.gov.au/Documents/Xanthorrhoea-australis-Notesheet.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160323101915/http://Quarantine.Enquiries@dpipwe.tas.gov.au/Documents/Xanthorrhoea-australis-Notesheet.pdf |date=23 March 2016 }}</ref>
==Ecology== The grass tree has developed adaptations that help it better suit the environment where it occurs. If a fire breaks out, the grass tree has a special physiological adaptation called thermal insulation that helps protect the plant. The grass tree holds its thick, dead leaves around its stem which serves as insulation, and helps to protect the plant against the heat of the fire.<ref>Petruzzello, M. (2017) Playing with Wildfire: 5 Amazing Adaptations of Pyrophytic Plants. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/list/5-amazing-adaptations-of-pyrophytic-plants </ref>
They need fire to clear away dead leaves and promote flowering, as these slow-growing trees were among the first flowering plants to evolve.<ref name="Ward2004">Ward, D. (2004). Grasstrees show fire history. Australian Geographic, (75),28,</ref> Grass trees have developed a structural adaptation which helps the grass tree take advantage of soil fertilized with ash after fire, producing a flowering stalk in the aftermath.{{citation needed|date=August 2018}}
The grass tree forms a mycorrhizal relationship with fungi deep in its root system, wherein fungi live in a mutually beneficial relationship with the grass tree roots. The fungus increases the tree root's access to water and nutrients and therefore increases tree growth especially in poor conditions. The grass tree also suffers from a condition known as phytophthora dieback. ''Phytophthora cinnamomi'' is a discrete soil borne pathogen that attacks and destroys vascular root systems, causing hosts to perish through lack of nutrients and water. It is spread through infected plants and the movement of contaminated soil and gravel.<ref name="VicParks">Parks Victoria. (2016). Cinnamon Fungus. Retrieved from http://parkweb.vic.gov.au/parkmanagement/environment/weeds-and-pests/cinnamon-fungus{{Dead link|date=November 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The leaves of the grass tree are hosts to another fungi, ''Pseudodactylaria xanthorrhoeae''.<ref name=Crous2017>{{cite journal | vauthors = Crous PW, Wingfield MJ, Burgess TI, Carnegie AJ, Hardy GE, Smith D, Summerell BA, Cano-Lira JF, Guarro J, Houbraken J, Lombard L, Martín MP, Sandoval-Denis M, Alexandrova AV, Barnes CW, Baseia IG, Bezerra JD, Guarnaccia V, May TW, Hernández-Restrepo M, Stchigel AM, Miller AN, Ordoñez ME, Abreu VP, Accioly T, Agnello C, Agustin Colmán A, Albuquerque CC, Alfredo DS, Alvarado P, Araújo-Magalhães GR, Arauzo S, Atkinson T, Barili A, Barreto RW, Bezerra JL, Cabral TS, Camello Rodríguez F, Cruz RH, Daniëls PP, da Silva BD, de Almeida DA, de Carvalho Júnior AA, Decock CA, Delgat L, Denman S, Dimitrov RA, Edwards J, Fedosova AG, Ferreira RJ, Firmino AL, Flores JA, García D, Gené J, Giraldo A, Góis JS, Gomes AA, Gonçalves CM, Gouliamova DE, Groenewald M, Guéorguiev BV, Guevara-Suarez M, Gusmão LF, Hosaka K, Hubka V, Huhndorf SM, Jadan M, Jurjević Ž, Kraak B, Kučera V, Kumar TK, Kušan I, Lacerda SR, Lamlertthon S, Lisboa WS, Loizides M, Luangsa-Ard JJ, Lysková P, Mac Cormack WP, Macedo DM, Machado AR, Malysheva EF, Marinho P, Matočec N, Meijer M, Mešić A, Mongkolsamrit S, Moreira KA, Morozova OV, Nair KU, Nakamura N, Noisripoom W, Olariaga I, Oliveira RJ, Paiva LM, Pawar P, Pereira OL, Peterson SW, Prieto M, Rodríguez-Andrade E, Rojo De Blas C, Roy M, Santos ES, Sharma R, Silva GA, Souza-Motta CM, Takeuchi-Kaneko Y, Tanaka C, Thakur A, Smith MT, Tkalčec Z, Valenzuela-Lopez N, van der Kleij P, Verbeken A, Viana MG, Wang XW, Groenewald JZ | display-authors = 6 | title = Fungal Planet description sheets: 625-715 | journal = Persoonia | volume = 39 | issue = 1 | pages = 270–467 | date = December 2017 | pmid = 29503478 | pmc = 5832955 | doi = 10.3767/persoonia.2017.39.11 }}</ref>
==Cultivation== ''Xanthorrhoea'' may be cultivated, as seed is easily collected and germinated. While they do grow slowly, quite attractive plants with short trunks ({{convert|10|cm|disp=or}}) and leaf crowns up to {{convert|1.5|m|disp=or}} (to the top of the leaves) can be achieved in 10 years. The slow growth rate means that it can take 30 years to achieve a specimen with a significant trunk. Most ''Xanthorrhoea'' sold in nurseries are established plants taken from bushland. Nurseries charge high prices for the plants. However, there is a very low survival rate for nursery-purchased plants (mainly due to over watering), which may take several years to die. The most successful examples of transplanting have been where a substantial amount of soil, greater than {{convert|1|m3|ft3|spell=in}}, has been taken with the plants.{{citation needed|date=August 2018}}
''Xanthorrhoea'' is an iconic plant that epitomizes the Australian bush in its ability to live in poor nutrient soils and respond to wildfire.<ref name="Campbell">{{cite web |last1=Campbell |first1=Colin |title=Grass Tree |url=http://www.abc.net.au/gardening/factsheets/grass-tree/9426588 |website=Gardening Australia |publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation |access-date=14 August 2018 |language=en-AU |date=25 February 2006}}</ref>
Commonly-grown species for the garden include ''Xanthorrhoea australis'', ''X. malacophylla'', and ''X. preissii''.<ref name="Botanica" />
== Uses == ''Xanthorrhoea'' is important to the Aboriginal peoples. It is a highly-valued resource with many uses.<ref name="Hopper" /> The flowering spike may be utilised as the lightweight handle of a composite spear with a hardwood sharp shaft inserted into the end.<ref>http://koorihistory.com/grass-tree-resin/ Hard Yakka! Grass Tree Resin (Xanthorrhoea)</ref> It is also soaked in water and the nectar from the flowers gives a sweet-tasting drink.{{cn|date=June 2024}}
In the bush the flowers could reveal directions, since flowers on the warmer, sunnier side – usually north – of the spike often open before the flowers on the cooler side facing away from the sun.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/gardening/stories/s1145455.htm |title=Gardening Australia - Fact Sheet: Xanthorrea<!-- Bot generated title --> |website=Australian Broadcasting Corporation |access-date=2006-12-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070915220305/http://www.abc.net.au/gardening/stories/s1145455.htm |archive-date=2007-09-15 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
The resin from ''Xanthorrhoea'' plants is used in spear-making<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/quantum/s188496.htm |title=Quantum - Ancient Resin<!-- Bot generated title --> |website=Australian Broadcasting Corporation |access-date=2006-12-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061222163637/http://www.abc.net.au/quantum/s188496.htm |archive-date=2006-12-22 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and is an invaluable adhesive for Aboriginal people, often used to patch up leaky coolamons (water containers) and even yidaki (didgeridoos). The dried flower stalk scape was also used to generate fire by the hand drill friction method.{{cn|date=June 2024}}
On the Tasmanian island of lungtalanana, Aboriginal people use the leaves for weaving.<ref name=plan2015/>
Resin collected from the plant was used in Australia until the mid-twentieth century for the following purposes:<ref name="Watson2004">{{Citation |last1= Watson |first1= Phil | title=The Grass Tree: Its Uses and Abuses | date=2004 | publisher=Association of Societies for Growing Australian Plants |url=http://anpsa.org.au/APOL33/mar04-5.html | access-date=20 April 2016}}</ref> *Burnt as an incense in churches *A base component for a varnish used on furniture and in dwellings *A polish and a coating used on metal surfaces including stoves, tin cans used for storing meat and brass instruments *A component used in industrial processes, such as sizing paper, as well as making soap, perfumes, and early gramophone records
== Gallery == <gallery widths="150px" heights="200px"> File:Xanthorrhoea australis.jpg|''X. australis'' flower spike, flowering File:Xanthorrhoea preissii flower spike.jpg|''X. preissii'' flower spike, after fruiting </gallery>
==References== {{Reflist|1|refs= <ref name="Botanica">{{cite book |last1=Ross |first1=Graham |date=1998-06-26 |title=Botanica |publisher=Random House |location=Milsons Point, N.S.W. |isbn=9780091837846 |page=938}}</ref> <ref name="foa">{{Flora of Australia Online|name=''Xanthorrhoea gracilis Endl., in J.G.C.Lehmann, Pl. Preiss 2: 39 (1846)''|id= 51205}}</ref> <ref name="WCSPKew">{{cite web |url=http://wcsp.science.kew.org/namedetail.do?name_id=293360 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210730124111/https://wcsp.science.kew.org/namedetail.do?name_id=293360 |url-status=dead |archive-date=30 July 2021 |title=''Xanthorrhoea'' |work=World Checklist of Selected Plant Families (WCSP) |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew }}</ref> <ref name="Linnean">{{cite journal |last1=Nelson |first1=E. Charles |last2=Bedford |first2=D.J. |author-link2=David John Bedford |title=The names of the Australian grass-tree: ''Xanthorrhoea'' Sm. and ''Acoroides'' C. Kite (Xanthorrhoeaceae) |journal=Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society |date=June 1993 |orig-year=1993 |volume=112 |issue=2 |pages=95–105 |doi=10.1006/bojl.1993.1044 |oclc=664816018 |s2cid=91163322}} [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229812945_The_names_of_the_Australian_grass-tree_Xanthorrhoea_Sm_and_Acoroides_C_Kite_Xanthorrhoeaceae ResearchGate Publication 229812945]</ref> <ref name="Hopper">{{Citation | author1=Hopper, S. |author2=Lambers, H. | title=Plant life on the sandplains in southwest Australia : a global biodiversity hotspot : kwongan matters | date=2014 | publisher=Crawley, Western Australia UWA Publishing | isbn=978-1-74258-564-2 |pages=287–90 |chapter=9. Human relationships with and use of Kwongan plants and lands}}</ref> <ref name="Chase2009">{{cite journal |last1=Chase |first1=Mark W. |last2=Reveal |first2=James L. |last3=Fay |first3=Michael F. |title=A subfamilial classification for the expanded asparagalean families Amaryllidaceae, Asparagaceae and Xanthorrhoeaceae |journal=Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society |date=2009-10-08 |orig-year=2009 |volume=161 |issue=2 |pages=132–136 |issn=0024-4074 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.00999.x |doi-access=free |oclc=460811673 |s2cid=83752262}} [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229700277_A_subfamilial_classification_for_the_expanded_asparagalean_families_Amaryllidaceae_Asparagaceae_and_Xanthorrhoeaceae ResearchGate Publication 229700277]</ref> <ref name="oed">{{OED|xanthorrhoea}} "Bot. (With capital initial.)"</ref> }}
==External links== {{Commons}} * [http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Xanthorrhoea+australis Xanthorrhoea australis - R.Br.] Plants For A Future * [http://www.pawlan.com/Monica/xanthor/ Xanthorrhoea Information Page] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150615012547/http://www.pawlan.com/Monica/xanthor/ |date=15 June 2015 }} Monica Pawlan * {{FloraBase}} * [http://www.anbg.gov.au/aborig.s.e.aust/xanthorrhoea-species.html Xanthorrhoea], Australian National Botanic Gardens * {{Cite journal |url=http://anpsa.org.au/APOL33/mar04-5.html |title=The grass tree: its uses and abuses |publisher=ASGAP |journal=ASGAP Wildlife and Native Plants Study Group Newsletter |date=Summer 2001–2002 |access-date=2010-05-16}} *Bush Heritage Australia(2016). Grass Trees. Retrieved from http://www.bushheritage.org.au/species/grass-trees *Parks Victoria. Grass Trees: ''Xanthorrhoea australis'' ''Xanthorrhoea minor''
{{Taxonbar|from=Q767448}} {{Authority control}}
Category:Asparagales of Australia Category:Australian Aboriginal bushcraft Category:Bushfood Category:Asphodelaceae genera Category:Xanthorrhoeoideae Category:Endemic flora of Australia