Central Kilimanjaro language

{{Short description|Bantu language spoken in Tanzania}} {{Infobox language | name = Central Kilimanjaro | nativename = Central Chaga | states = [[Tanzania]] | region = [[Kilimanjaro Region|Kilimanjaro]] | ethnicity = [[Chaga people|Chaga]] | familycolor = Niger-Congo | fam2 = [[Atlantic–Congo languages|Atlantic–Congo]] | fam3 = [[Volta-Congo]] | fam4 = [[Benue–Congo languages|Benue–Congo]] | fam5 = [[Bantoid languages|Bantoid]] | fam6 = [[Southern Bantoid]] | fam7 = [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] | fam8 = [[Northeast Bantu]] | fam9 = Chaga–Taita | fam10 = [[Chaga languages|Chaga]] | lc1 = vun | ld1 = Wunjo | lc2 = old | ld2 = Mochi | guthrie = E.622 (ex-E.62a,62b) | glotto = vunj1238 | glottoname = Vunjo | glotto2 = moch1256 | glottoname2 = Mochi | dia1 = [[Mochi language|Mochi]] | dia2 = Uru | dia3 = Mbokomu | dia4 = Wuunjo }}

'''Central Kilimanjaro''', or '''Central Chaga''', is a [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] language of [[Tanzania]] spoken by the [[Chaga people]].

== Dialects == There are several dialects:<ref name="Guthrie"/> * [[Mochi language|Moshi]] (Old Moshi, Mochi, ''Kimochi'') * Uru * Mbokomu * Wuunjo (Wunjo, Vunjo, ''Kivunjo''), including Kiruwa, Kilema, Mamba, Moramu (Marangu), Mwika

Moshi is the language of the Chaga cultural capital, [[Moshi, Kilimanjaro|Moshi]], and the [[prestige dialect]] of the [[Chaga languages]].{{citation needed|date=February 2025}}

== Phonology ==

=== Vowels === {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" ! ![[Front vowel|Front]] ![[Central vowel|Central]] ![[Back vowel|Back]] |- ![[High vowel|High]] | align="center" |{{IPA link|i}} | | align="center" |{{IPA link|u}} |- ![[Mid vowel|Mid]] |{{IPA link|e}} | |{{IPA link|o}} |- ![[Low vowel|Low]] | |{{IPA link|a}} | |}

In orthography, long vowels are written double. However, while older works suggest vowel length contrast may have formerly been phonemic, more recent works suggest the distinction has been partially or completely neutralized, unlike in [[West Kilimanjaro language|West Kilimanjaro]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Shinagawa |first=Daisuke |title=Vowel Length and TMA Micro-Variation in Kilimanjaro Bantu |year=2015 |pp=5-21 |journal=Asian and African Languages and Linguistics |number=9 |hdl=10108/80343 |url=https://files01.core.ac.uk/download/41885850.pdf}}</ref>

=== Consonants === {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" |+Consonants in the Moshi dialect<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Nurse |first1=Derek |title=Tone in Old Moshi (Chaga) |last2=Philippson |first2=Gérard |publisher=University of California, Los Angeles |year=1977 |location=Studies in African linguistics 8 |pages=49–80}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> ! colspan="2" | ![[Labial consonant|Labial]] ![[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]] ![[Postalveolar consonant|Post- alveolar]] ![[Palatal consonant|Palatal]] ![[Velar consonant|Velar]] ![[Glottal consonant|Glottal]] |- ! colspan="2" |[[Nasal consonant|Nasal]] |{{IPA link|m}} {{angle bracket|m}} |{{IPA link|n}} {{angle bracket|n}} | |{{IPA link|ɲ}} {{angle bracket|ny}} |{{IPA link|ŋ}} {{angle bracket|ng'}} | |- ! rowspan="3" |[[Stop consonant|Stop]] !voiceless |{{IPA link|p}} {{angle bracket|p}} |{{IPA link|t}} {{angle bracket|t}} | | |{{IPA link|k}} {{angle bracket|k}} | |- !voiced |{{IPA link|b}} {{angle bracket|b}} |{{IPA link|d}} {{angle bracket|d}} | | | | |- !NC |{{IPA|mb}} {{angle bracket|mb}} |{{IPA|nd}} {{angle bracket|nd}} | | |{{IPA|ŋɡ}} {{angle bracket|ng}} | |- ! rowspan="2" |[[Affricate]] !voiceless |{{IPA link|pf}} {{angle bracket|pf}} |{{IPA link|ts}} {{angle bracket|ts}} |{{IPA link|tʃ}} {{angle bracket|ch}} | | | |- !NC |{{IPA|mbv}} {{angle bracket|mpf}} |{{IPA|ndz}} {{angle bracket|nts}} |{{IPA|ndʒ}} {{angle bracket|nch}} | | | |- ! [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]] !voiceless |{{IPA link|f}} {{angle bracket|f}} |{{IPA link|s}} {{angle bracket|s}} |{{IPA link|ʃ}} {{angle bracket|sh}} | | |{{IPA link|h}} {{angle bracket|h}} |- ! rowspan="2" |[[Rhotic consonant|Rhotic]] ![[Trill consonant|trill]] | |{{IPA link|r}} {{angle bracket|r}} | | | | |- ![[Tap consonant|tap]] | |{{IPA link|ɾ}} {{angle bracket|r}} | | | | |- ! colspan="2" |[[Lateral consonant|Lateral]] | |{{IPA link|l}} {{angle bracket|l}} | | | | |- ! colspan="2" |[[Approximant consonant|Approximant]] |{{IPA link|w}} ~ {{IPA link|β}} {{angle bracket|w}} | |{{IPA link|ɻ}} {{angle bracket|rh}} |{{IPA link|j}} {{angle bracket|y}} | | |} * Consonants {{IPA|/k, ŋɡ, l/}} become palatalized to {{IPA|[kʲ, ŋɡʲ, lʲ]}} when occurring before the front vowels {{IPA|/i, e/}}. * {{IPA|/w/}} appears as a fricative {{IPA|[β]}} when before the front vowels {{IPA|/i, e/}}.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=McHugh |first=Brian David |title=Cyclicity in the phrasal phonology of KiVunjo Chaga |publisher=University of California at Los Angeles |year=1990 |url=https://linguistics.ucla.edu/images/stories/McHugh.1990.pdf}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last1=Philippson |first1=Gérard |title=Kilimanjaro Bantu (E60 and E74) |last2=Montlahuc |first2=Marie-Laure |publisher=London & New York: Routledge. |year=2003 |location=In Nurse, Derek and Philippson, Gérard (eds.), The Bantu Languages |pages=475–500}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" |+Consonants in the Vunjo dialect<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=McHugh |first=Brian David |title=Cyclicity in the phrasal phonology of KiVunjo Chaga |publisher=University of California at Los Angeles |year=1990 |url=https://linguistics.ucla.edu/images/stories/McHugh.1990.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{SOWL|210-211}}</ref> ! colspan="2" | ![[Labial consonant|Labial]] ![[Dental consonant|Dental]]/ [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]] ![[Postalveolar consonant|Post- alveolar]] ![[Palatal consonant|Palatal]] ![[Velar consonant|Velar]] ![[Glottal consonant|Glottal]] |- ! colspan="2" |[[Nasal consonant|Nasal]] |{{IPA link|m}} {{angbr|m}} |{{IPA link|n̪}} {{angbr|n}} | |{{IPA link|ɲ}} {{angbr|ny}} |{{IPA link|ŋ}} {{angbr|ng'}} | |- ! rowspan="3" |[[Stop consonant|Stop]] !voiceless |{{IPA link|p}} {{angbr|p}} |{{IPA link|t̪}} {{angbr|t}} | |{{IPA link|c}} {{angbr|ky}} |{{IPA link|k}} {{angbr|k}} | |- !voiced |({{IPA link|b}}) {{angbr|b}} |{{IPA link|d}} {{angbr|d}} | | |({{IPA link|ɡ}}) {{angbr|g}} | |- !NC‡ |{{IPA|m̩b}} {{angbr|mb}} |{{IPA|n̩d}} {{angbr|nd}} | |{{IPA|ɲ̍ɟ}} {{angbr|ngy}} |{{IPA|ŋ̍ɡ}} {{angbr|ng}} | |- ! rowspan="2" |[[Affricate]] !voiceless |{{IPA link|pf}} {{angbr|pf}} |{{IPA link|ts}} {{angbr|ts}} |{{IPA link|tʃ}} {{angbr|c}} | | | |- !NC‡ |{{IPA|m̩bv}} {{angbr|mv}} |{{IPA|n̩dz}} {{angbr|nz}} |{{IPA|n̩dʒ}} {{angbr|nj}} | | | |- ! rowspan="2" |[[Fricative consonant|Fricative]] !voiceless |{{IPA link|f}} {{angbr|f}} |{{IPA link|s}} {{angbr|s}} |{{IPA link|ʃ}} {{angbr|sh}} | | |{{IPA link|h}} {{angbr|h}} |- !voiced | | | | {{IPA link|ʝ}} ~ {{IPA link|j}} {{angbr|ghy}} |{{IPA link|ɣ}} ~ {{IPA link|w}} {{angbr|gh}} | |- ! rowspan="2" |[[Rhotic consonant|Rhotic]] ![[Trill consonant|trill]] | |{{IPA link|r}} {{angbr|r}}† | | | | |- ![[Tap consonant|tap]] | |{{IPA link|ɺ}} {{angbr|lr}} | | | | |- ! colspan="2" |[[Lateral consonant|Lateral]] | |{{IPA link|l̪}} {{angbr|l}}† |{{IPA link|l̠ʲ}} {{angbr|ly}} | | | |- ! colspan="2" |[[Approximant consonant|Approximant]] |{{IPA link|w}} ~ {{IPA link|β}} {{angbr|w}} |colspan=2|{{IPA link|ɹ}} {{angbr|zr}}† |{{IPA link|j}} {{angbr|y}} | | |} * {{IPA|/b/}} and {{IPA|/ɡ/}} are restricted to loans. {{IPA|/l̠ʲ/}} is native and contrasts with the {{IPA|[ʎ]}} allophone of {{IPA|/l̪/}} but is rare. * {{IPA|/t n l/}} are dental, {{IPA|/d/}} et al. are alveolar. * The consonants {{IPA|/k, ŋɡ, ɣ/}} and {{IPA|/l̪/}} become palatal (and merge with the palatals) when occurring before the front vowels {{IPA|/i, e/}}. * {{IPA|/w/}} appears as a fricative {{IPA|[β]}} when before the front vowels {{IPA|/i, e/}}.<ref name=":0" /> * The dental lateral {{IPA|/l̪/}} is usually velarized as {{IPA|[ɫ̪]}}. * {{IPA|/ɹ/}} is also heard as postalveolar {{IPA|[ɹ̠]}}.

‡ NC are not [[prenasalized consonant]]s but rather consonant sequences; in initial position, the nasal is syllabic.

† {{IPA|/r/}}, {{IPA|/ɹ/}} and {{IPA|/l̠ʲ/}} may be pronounced as fricatives. {{IPA|/r/}} being heard as an alveolar fricative trill {{IPA|[r̝]}}, the {{IPA|/ɹ/}} being heard as a retroflex fricative {{IPA|[ɻ̝]}}, with an extent of frication on the palatalized lateral {{IPA|/l̠ʲ/}} as {{IPA|[l̠̝ʲ]}}.<ref>Davey, Moshi & Maddieson (1982) Liquids in Chaga. ''UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics'' 54..</ref>

=== Tones === Vunjo dialect has two underlying tones (high /H/ and low /L/) that surface as three level and five contour tones: [xH] (extra-high), [H], [L], falling [HL] and [xHL], rising [LH] and [LxH], and peaking [LHL], plus two downstepped tones [ꜝH] and [ꜝxH].<ref name=":0" />

==Bibliography== *Dalgish, Gerard M. (1978) 'The syntax and semantics of the morpheme ni in kiVunjo (Chaga)', ''Kiswahili'', 48, 1, 42–56. *Philippson, Gérard (1984) '"Gens des bananeraies" (Tanzanie): contribution linguistique à l'histoire culturelle des Chaga du Kilimanjaro' (Cahier no. 16.) Paris: Editions Recherche sur les civilisations.

==References== {{Reflist}}

{{Languages of Tanzania}} {{Narrow Bantu languages (Zones E–H)}} [[Category:Languages of Tanzania]] [[Category:Chaga languages]]