{{Short description|Roman Catholic society of apostolic life}} {{Redirect|Missionaries of Africa||Category:Christian missions in Africa}} {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2026}} {{Infobox organization | name = Missionaries of Africa | native_name = Missionarii Africae | native_name_lang = la | image = Cardinal Lavigerie.jpg | caption = [[Charles Lavigerie|Charles-Martial Allemand-Lavigerie]] | abbreviation = M.Afr. | nickname = White Fathers | formation = {{start date and age|1868|p=yes|br=yes}} | founder = Archbishop [[Charles Lavigerie|Charles-Martial Allemand-Lavigerie]] | founding_location = [[Algiers]], [[French Algeria]] | type = [[Society of apostolic life]] of [[pontifical right]] (for men) | headquarters = Via Aurelia 269, [[Rome]], Italy | membership = 1,371 members (includes 1,029 priests) as of 2020 | leader_title = Superior General | leader_name = Fr. Stanley Lubungo, M. Afr. | leader_title2 = Ministries | leader_name2 = [[Evangelism]] and education | parent_organization = [[Roman Catholic Church]] | website = {{url|mafrome.org}} }}
The '''White Fathers''' ({{langx|fr|Pères Blancs}}), officially known as the '''Missionaries of Africa''' ({{langx|la|Missionarii Africae}}) and abbreviated '''MAfr''', are a [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] [[society of apostolic life]] of [[pontifical right]] for men. They were founded in 1868 by [[Charles Lavigerie]], who was then the [[Archbishop of Algiers]].<ref>{{cite web|work=Gcatholic|title= Missionaries of Africa (M.AFR) White Fathers |year=2021|url=https://www.gcatholic.org/orders/030.htm|accessdate=15 November 2021}}</ref> The society focuses on [[Evangelism|evangelization]] and education, primarily in Africa. As of 2021, the Missionaries of Africa comprised 1,428 members from 36 nationalities, working in 42 countries across 217 communities.<ref name="blanc" />
==History== {{More citations needed|section|date=March 2020}} [[Image:Maison-Carrée Pères Blancs.jpg|thumb|right|The first convent in Maison-Carrée (now [[El-Harrach]]), near [[Algiers]], [[French Algeria]].]]
The [[1863–1875 cholera pandemic|cholera epidemic of 1867]] caused the death of 80,000 people in [[French Algeria]]<ref name="Pandemics" >{{Cite book|first=Joseph Patrick|last=Byrne|title=Encyclopedia of Pestilence, Pandemics, and Plagues: A–M|url=https://www.academia.dk/MedHist/Sygdomme/PDF/Encyclopedia_of_Pestilence_Pandemics_and_Plagues.pdf|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2008|page=107|isbn=978-0313341021|access-date=1 July 2024|archive-date=15 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200215143932/https://www.academia.dk/MedHist/Sygdomme/PDF/Encyclopedia_of_Pestilence_Pandemics_and_Plagues.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> and left a large number of [[Algerians|Algerian orphans]], prompting the establishment of the society of White Fathers in Maison-Carrée (now [[El-Harrach]]), near [[Algiers]]. While the initial focus of the White Fathers was on the education and Christian instruction of these children, the society's founder, [[Charles Lavigerie|Charles-Martial Allemand-Lavigerie]], who was then the [[Archbishop of Algiers]], envisioned the society's mission extending to the [[Conversion to Christianity|conversion]] of [[Arabs]] in the [[Maghreb]] and the [[Africans|peoples of Central Africa]] to Christianity.
Lavigerie instructed his missionaries to integrate with local cultures by speaking the native language, eating the same food, and wearing the same clothing. As a result, they adopted traditional North African attire for their [[vestments]]: the ''[[gandoura]]'' for the [[cassock]], the ''[[burnous]]'' for the [[Mantle (vesture)|mantle]], and the [[Taqiyah (cap)|''chechia'']] for the [[zucchetto]].<ref name="blanc">{{Cite web |title=The Missionaries of Africa - The White Fathers- The origins of Our Society |first=Jean-Claude |last=Ceillier |url=http://peresblancs.org/histoi1a.htm |access-date=12 December 2021 |website=peresblancs.org}}</ref> They also wore their [[rosary|rosaries]] with [[Crucifix|crucifixes]] as necklaces, symbolizing their religion and imitating the ''[[misbaha]]'' of the [[marabouts]].<ref name="Forbes" /> This distinctive attire earned them the nickname "White Fathers".
Some missionaries in South Africa had changing attitudes towards indigenous cultures over time, as more interaction led to more nuanced understanding, instead of dismissive views.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hale|first=Frederick|date=2015|title=Nils Astrup and Indigenous African Cultures: A Study in Evolving Missionary Attitudes|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24805691.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3Aea8a674f40784b8278387da076955905&ab_segments=&initiator=&acceptTC=1|journal=Journal for the Study of Religion|volume=28|issue=2|pages=42-63|via=JSTOR}}</ref>
A novitiate was established in 1868, and missionary posts were set up in [[Kabylie]] and the [[Sahara]]. In 1876, three missionaries traveling to [[Timbuktu]] were killed by desert nomads.<ref name="blanc" /> In 1878, ten missionaries departed from [[Algiers]] to establish missions at [[African Great Lakes|Lakes]] [[Lake Victoria|Victoria]], [[Lake Malawi|Nyassa]], and [[Lake Tanganyika|Tanganyika]].<ref name="Forbes">[https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15613d.htm Forbes, John. "White Fathers." The Catholic Encyclopedia] Vol. 15. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1912. 3 March 2020{{PD-notice}}</ref> That same year, a caravan of missionaries arrived at the port of [[Mombasa]] and, after a three-month trek, reached [[Lake Victoria]].
The White Fathers were the largest [[Christian mission|Christian missionary society]] operating in [[Zambia]] and among the earliest to settle in the country. Their first station, established in 1891 among the [[Mambwe people]] in the Tanganyika-Malawi corridor, predated the establishment of [[British Empire|British rule]]. The Mambwe had been harassed by the politically and linguistically dominant [[Bemba people]] of northern [[Zambia]], towards whom the White Fathers subsequently directed their efforts.
In 1898, the establishment of the Chilubula mission by Bishop [[Joseph Dupont (bishop)|Joseph Dunpont]] of the Nyasa Vicariate marked the beginning of the White Fathers' mission in Lubemba. This expansion allowed the society to extend its influence further than any other missionary organization in northern [[Rhodesia]]. By the mid-1930s, the White Fathers had established approximately twenty missions, primarily in present-day northern and [[Luapula Province|Luapula]] provinces, with a smaller presence in the eastern Province of Zambia.<ref>Marja Hinfelaar, Giacomo Macola, ‘The White Fathers’ Archive in Zambia’, History in Africa, Vol. 30, Publisher: Cambridge University Press, (2003).</ref> Additionally, much of the documentation on the [[Luganda]], spoken in [[Uganda]]—such as grammars, dictionaries, and individual articles—is available in English or French. This can be traced back to the French Catholic missionary congregation of the White Fathers and their influence during the [[History of colonialism|colonial period]], between 1885 and 1921. The White Fathers, who arrived in the [[Lake Victoria]] region in 1879, published six Luganda grammars and dictionaries in French.<ref>Michael Meeuwis, ‘THE WHITE FATHERS AND LUGANDA To the Origins of French Missionaries linguistics in the Lake Victoria region.’, Annales Aequatoria, Vol. 20, Publisher: Honore Vinck, (1999).</ref>
Missionaries in the Lake Victoria area actively worked to learn and use local languages, such as Luganda in their work. This was advantageous for them in their goal to integrate themselves into the community and assimilate to the culture.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Meeuwis|first=Michael|date=1999|title=The White Fathers and Luganda: To the origins of French missionary linguistics in the Lake Victoria region|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/25836660|journal=Annales Aequatoria|pages=413-443}}</ref>
White Father missionaries in [[French Algeria]] ransomed a young slave, [[Adrien Atiman]], and arranged for his education.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rockel|first=Stephen |date=16 April 2013 |title=The Remarkable Story of Adrian Atiman: Freed Slave to Medical Missionary |url=https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2252267 |language=en |journal=[[SSRN]]|ssrn=2252267 }}</ref> Atiman later became a medical catechist with the White Fathers at [[Karema, Tanzania|Karema]] and is known for providing a significant autobiographical account of his enslavement, subsequent freedom, and integration into the White Fathers' mission.<ref>{{cite web |title=African history specialist discusses Adrien Atiman, freed slave to medical missionary |url=https://yfile.news.yorku.ca/2014/03/14/african-history-specialist-discusses-adrien-atiman-freed-slave-to-medical-missionary/ |website=14 March 2014 |publisher=York University |access-date=18 August 2020}}</ref>
In 1882, at the request of the Holy See, the White Fathers established [[:commons:Category:St. Anne's Seminary (Jerusalem)|St. Anne's Seminary]] in Jerusalem to train [[Melkite Greek Catholic Church|Greek Melchite]] clergy of that rite. The seminary operated until 1967.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bouwen |first=Frans |title=Servir l’Église à Jérusalem |date=2008 |url=https://www.peresblancs.org/jerusalem.htm}}</ref> In 1894, a mission was founded in [[French Sudan]] (now [[Mali]]).<ref name="Forbes" />
The Missionaries of Africa experienced more conversions among the LoDagaa in northern Ghana in 1932, during a period of drought and political issues. <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hawkins|first=Sean|date=January 1997|title=To Pray or Not To Pray: Politics, Medicine, and Conversion among the LoDagaa of Northern Ghana, 1929-1939|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00083968.1997.10751105|journal=Canadian Journal of African Studies / Revue canadienne des études africaines|language=en|volume=31|issue=1|pages=50–85|doi=10.1080/00083968.1997.10751105|issn=0008-3968|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
Missionaries in northwestern Ghana also got converts through gaining their trust and credibility by healing them. They also used education and through building bonds with local community, and the overall appeal to emotion helped locals have less fear towards conversion to Christianity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Naaeke|first=Anthony|date=2006-12-01|title=Dismantling Fear and Establishing Ethos: Missionary Activity as Persuasion.|url=https://openurl.ebsco.com/contentitem/gcd:25178619?sid=ebsco:plink:crawler&id=ebsco:gcd:25178619&jrnl=16080130|journal=Journal of Dagaare Studies|language=en|volume=6|pages=29|issn=1608-0130}}</ref>
==Present day== These now form the present [[Archdiocese]]s of [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Kampala|Kampala]], [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Lilongwe|Lilongwe]], [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Gitega|Gitega]], and [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Tabora|Tabora]], as well as the dioceses of [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Kigoma|Kigoma]], and [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Kalemie-Kirungu|Kalemie-Kirungu]].
The society is composed of missionary priests and brothers. The members take an oath committing them to labor for the conversion of Africa, in accordance with the constitutions of their society. The missionaries are not, strictly speaking, a [[religious institute]], whether an "[[Catholic religious order|order]]" or "[[Congregation of Papal Right|congregation]]". Instead, they are a [[society of apostolic life]]. While they may retain their own property, they may only use it within the society at the direction of their superiors.
The White Fathers, members of the international Missionary Society of priests and brothers, numbered:
* 2,098 in 1998 * 1,712 in 2007
As of 2021, the Society is constituted as follows:
-1,144 Missionaries of Africa – fully professed priests, [[deacon]]s, and brothers:
-467 are living and working in Europe
-120 in the Americas
-510 in Africa
-16 in Asia
-31 in the Generalate in [[Rome]]
Although there are currently 460 students at various stages of preparation, many of the White Fathers are retired due to age or ill health. This raises concerns about the future of the Society, which is diminishing in Europe.<ref name="Preparation">{{Cite web|title=Preparation|url=https://www.missionariesofafrica.org.uk/preparation|access-date=7 December 2021|website=Missionaries of Africa|language=en-GB}}</ref>
=== Formation === Currently, the process of becoming a White Father is much longer than it was before. Candidates must first spend one year in a preparatory center. This is followed by 3 or 4 years of philosophy studies. The next step is the Spiritual Year, which takes place in one of three centers in Africa: two are English-speaking, and one is French-speaking. The final period of study, lasting 4 years, takes place either in Africa or [[Jerusalem]].<ref name="Preparation"/>
==Aims== One of the key aspects of the rule concerns community life in the missions, with each house required to have at least three members. The head of the society is the General Superior, who is elected every six years by the chapter. He resides in Rome at the Generalate house on Via Aurelia.
Those desiring to become priests or brothers are admitted to the [[novitiate]] after completing their philosophical studies. Following the novitiate, they spend two years in missionary training in the field and four years studying theology. The training may vary slightly for brother candidates. The theological studies are conducted at scholasticates currently located in Abidjan ([[Ivory Coast]]), Nairobi ([[Kenya]]), [[Merrivale, Devon|Merrivale (Devon)]], South Africa, and [[Jerusalem]]. The society admits individuals of all nationalities.
The Missionaries of Africa society claims that, from its origins, it has aimed at the [[Evangelism|evangelization]] of the African continent and addressing the presence of [[Islam]] in the world. Since its founding by [[Charles Lavigerie|Charles- Martial Allemand- Lavigerie]], the White Fathers have been predominantly active in the following areas: the establishment and development of new Christian communities in Africa; the formation of laity and clergy; social work; the struggle for justice within African countries; rural development; and the attempt to convert followers of other faiths, particularly in opposition to Islam.<ref>[https://mafrome.org/archives-of-the-mafr Archives and Library of the Missionaries of Africa].</ref>
Some early Christian missionaries in Africa were often against traditional funeral rituals, viewing them as pagan, though some scholars later emphasized the importance of these practices in a social manner in African communities.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=van 't Spijker|first=Gerard|date=2005|title=The Role of Social Anthropology in the Debate on Funeral Rites in Africa|url=https://doi.org/10.1163/157254305774258654|journal=Exchange|volume=34|issue=3|pages=248–268|doi=10.1163/157254305774258654|issn=0166-2740|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
Missionary activity in colonial Africa often involved not only religious teaching but also public lectures, the formation of institutions, and engagement with communities locally, which would sometimes draw a large audience and influenced society in both social and personal aspects. <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gopalan|first=Karthigasen|date=June 2012|title=The Role of Visiting Indian Hindu Missionaries in their Attempts to ‘Reform’ Hinduism in South Africa, 1933–1935|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/02582473.2011.647319|journal=South African Historical Journal|volume=64|issue=2|pages=273–294|doi=10.1080/02582473.2011.647319|issn=0258-2473|url-access=subscription}}</ref> The White Fathers live in Regional Houses, with each house required to contain at least three members. The General Superior is at the head of the society and is elected every six years by the chapter. These Regional Houses often have archives that document the progress and goals the White Fathers aimed to achieve. The archives at the Regional House outside [[Mwanza]], Tanzania, provide valuable insight into the research conducted in the areas where the White Fathers lived and worked. The archives contain the ''Rapports Annuales'' and a complete set of ''Chronique Trimestrielle'', which document the White Fathers' progress in pursuing their goals from the 1880s to the late 1950s. The ''Chronique Trimestrielle'' was published quarterly and provided information about the mission and their work in the surrounding area and community. The Rapports Annuales included various statistics, such as the number of missionaries, [[Catechesis|catechists]], neophytes, catechumans, [[baptism]]s of various categories, marriages, [[Confession (religion)|confessions]], confirmations, and the number of boys and girls attending school at each mission station. Education was one of the main objectives highlighted in these records and reports.<ref>Kathleen R. Smythe, ‘The White Father Archives at Mwanza, Tanzania’, History in Africa, Vol. 24, Publisher: Cambridge University Press, (1997).</ref>[[Image:Cypress Grove House.jpg|thumb|Cypress Grove House, home of the White Fathers in Ireland]]
=== Leadership ===
From 1874, under the leadership of Archbishop (later Cardinal) [[Charles Lavigerie|Charles-Martial Allemand-Lavigerie]], the General Superiors served as the overall leaders of the Society. After the death of [[Charles Lavigerie|Charles-Martial Allemand-Lavigerie]] in 1892, the position of Superior General evolved into one of ultimate leadership, as the Society's work was no longer overseen by a [[Cardinal (Catholic Church)|Cardinal]] or [[Archbishop]].<ref name="missionariesofafrica.org.uk">Missionaries of Africa, Generalate (2021) < https://www.missionariesofafrica.org.uk/generalate > [accessed 17 November 2021].</ref> Today, the leader of the General Council is the [[Superior General (Christianity)|Superior General]], Father Stanley Lubungo from [[Zambia]], who is assisted by four councillors: Didier Sawadogo ([[Burkina Faso]]), Francis Barnes (British), Martin Grenier (Canadian), and Ignatius Anipu (Ghanaian).<ref>The Missionaries of Africa (White Fathers), After the "Chapter 2016": The General Council (2021), < http://peresblancs.org/conseilggb.htm > [accessed 17 November 2021].</ref> Each councillor has specific areas of responsibility, such as overseeing particular countries, which allows them to travel and visit various regions before returning to Rome. All members of the council who hold leadership positions are elected, with the next election scheduled for 2022.<ref name="missionariesofafrica.org.uk"/>
The table below lists all the [[Superior General (Christianity)|General Superiors]] from 1874 to the present day:<ref>Gcatholic, Missionaries of Africa (M.AFR) White Fathers (2021) < https://www.gcatholic.org/orders/030.htm >[accessed 15 November 2021].</ref>
{| class="wikitable" |+ |- ! Years in Role !! General Superiors |- | 1874-1880|| Fr. Francisque Deguerry |- | 1880-1885 ||Fr. [[Jean-Baptiste-Frézal Charbonnier|Jean-Baptiste-Frézal Charbonnier (later Bishop)]] |- | 1885-1886||Fr. [[Léonce Bridoux]] (later Bishop) |- | 1886-1889|| Fr. Francisque Deguerry |- | 1889-1894|| Bishop [[Léon Livinhac]] (later Archbishop) |- | 1894-11 November 1922 || Archbishop Léon Livinhac |- | 1922-1936 || Fr. Paul Voillard |- | 22 April 1936 – 30 April 1947 || Bishop [[Joseph-Marie Birraux]] |- | 5 May 1947 – 1957 || Bishop Louis-Marie-Joseph Durrieu |- | 1957-1967 || Fr. Léon Volker |- | 1967-1974|| Fr. Théoz Van Asten |- | 1974-1980 || Fr. Jean-Marie Vasseur |- | 1980-1986 || Fr. [[Robert Marie Gay]] (later Bishop) |- | 1986-1992|| Fr. Etienne Renaud |- | 1992-1998||Fr. Gothard Rosner |- | 1998-2 June 2004|| Fr. François Richard |- | 2 June 2004 – 31 May 2010 || Fr. Gérard Chabanon |- | 31 May 2010 – 17 February 2016 || Fr. Richard Baawobr (became Bishop of Wa, Ghana, earlier in 2016) |- | 27 May 2016 – Present|| Fr. Stanley Lubungo |}
== Zambia == The White Fathers were once the largest missionary society in [[Zambia]]. In 1891, they established their first station among the [[Mambwe people|Mambwe]], an ethnic group from northeastern Zambia, in the Tanganyika-Malawi corridor. This made them the earliest missionaries to settle in the country, even before the effective establishment of British rule following the [[Berlin Conference|Berlin Conference in 1885]], which placed the Zambian territory under British control.<ref name="Hinfelaar 2003 439–445">{{Cite journal|last=Hinfelaar|first=Marja|date=2003|title=The White Fathers' Archive in Zambia|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0361541300003314/type/journal_article|journal=History in Africa|language=en|volume=30|pages=439–445|doi=10.1017/S0361541300003314|s2cid=161953296|issn=0361-5413|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
In 1895, [[Joseph Dupont (bishop)|Joseph Dupont]] took over the Mambwe mission and directed his efforts toward the dominant ethnic group in Northern Zambia, [[Bemba people|the Bemba]].
Joseph Dupont then contacted the Bemba royalty, following the instructions of [[Charles Lavigerie|Lavigerie]]. The founding Cardinal believed in the "Clovis Model," a strategy for converting indigenous people in Zambia. This model proposed that convincing the king to convert first would lead to the conversion of the population, as the people would follow the king's example and embrace Christianity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hinfelaar|first=Marja|date=2003|title=Remembering Bishop Joseph Dupont (1850-1930) in Present-Day Zambia|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1581748|journal=Journal of Religion in Africa|volume=33|issue=4|pages=365–376|doi=10.1163/157006603322665314|jstor=1581748|issn=0022-4200|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
The White Fathers claimed success in converting at least some of the Bemba to Christianity. However, Britain, which sought to exercise indirect colonial control in the region, refused to allow the French White Fathers to establish missions before 1900.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Carey|first=Margret|date=2003|title=Missionaries in Zambia|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40793706|journal=Journal of Museum Ethnography|issue=15|pages=1–7|jstor=40793706|issn=0954-7169}}</ref> By the 1930s, however, the White Fathers were overseeing twenty missions located in the eastern provinces of Zambia.<ref name="Hinfelaar 2003 439–445"/> As European institutions remained weak, and mainly depended on local leaders for survival, African political dynamics noticeably changed missionary activity in northern Katanga. They also influenced colonial administration, as they no longer had the same power they once did. This challenged previous ideas and assumptions of dominance of missionaries.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Loffman|first=Reuben|date=2011-08-01|title=In the shadow of the tree sultans: African elites and the shaping of early colonial politics on the Katangan frontier, 1906–17|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/17531055.2011.611668|journal=Journal of Eastern African Studies|volume=5|issue=3|pages=535–552|doi=10.1080/17531055.2011.611668|issn=1753-1055|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
The White Fathers often struggled to get converts and enforce their authority in the northern Katanga region. This happened more particularly in mission areas where they had to compete with Protestant missionaries and local traditions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Loffman|first=Reuben|date=2015-09-16|title=On the Fringes of a Christian Kingdom: The White Fathers, Colonial Rule, and the Báhêmbá in Sola, Northern Katanga, 1909-1960|url=https://doi.org/10.1163/15700666-12340050|journal=Journal of Religion in Africa|volume=45|issue=3-4|pages=279–306|doi=10.1163/15700666-12340050|issn=0022-4200|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
Following a request from Zambian authorities for the remains of Joseph Dupont, the bishop's bones were reburied at Chilubula Mission on 15 December 2000. This event was unusual, occurring 88 years after the White Fathers had left Zambia. It highlights the significant influence the White Fathers had at the time and continue to have in Zambia to this day.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hinfelaar|first=Marja|date=2003|title=Remembering Bishop Joseph Dupont (1850-1930) in Present-Day Zambia|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1581748|journal=Journal of Religion in Africa|volume=33|issue=4|pages=365–376|doi=10.1163/157006603322665314|jstor=1581748|issn=0022-4200|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
Even today, [[Lusaka]] is home to the White Fathers' headquarters, where the archival collection remains and was updated in 2001 by Father Hugo Hinfelaar.<ref name="Hinfelaar 2003 439–445"/>
== Dress and membership == Africa is a continent with high levels of Islamic worship, which influenced the White Fathers' choice of robes resembling those of [[Arab-Berber|Algerian Arab]]s. Algerian Arab robes were often colorful and patterned, known as [[kaftan]]s, while the White Father missionaries typically wore pure white robes, and in some cases, black. The design was also different, resembling a [[cassock]], the traditional clerical attire in Catholicism. However, due to the African climate, wearing a full cassock was impractical, so robes were designed with inspiration from the ''[[gandoura]]'', a popular African garment made from cotton or light material that suited the weather conditions. To complete the attire, they wore a long white cloak known as a ''[[burnous]]''. The missionaries also wore a rosary around their necks, symbolizing their devotion to religion and prayer, resembling the ''[[misbaha]]'' of the [[Marabout]]s.
== Archives ==
The official archives of the Missionaries of Africa ("The White Fathers") are located in [[Rome|Rome, Italy]].<ref name="calmview.bham.ac.uk">University of Birmingham, Photographs of the Society of Missionaries of Africa- [20th Century] (2016) <https://calmview.bham.ac.uk/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Catalog&id=XMS898> [accessed 15 November 2021].</ref> This archival collection is considered private; however, researchers can gain access upon request. The archives are currently managed by the General Secretariat of the Society, with Father Dominique Arnauld serving as the archivist.<ref name="mafrome.org">Missionaries of Africa White Fathers, Archives and Library of the Missionaries of Africa (2017) <https://mafrome.org/archives-of-the-mafr/> [accessed 15 November 2021].</ref>
While today the official languages of the society are French and English, most records and the limited electronic collection are organized in French. The archives hold a variety of materials, including correspondence, reports, general administration documents, and publications from their founder, [[Charles Lavigerie|Cardinal Lavigerie]].<ref name="mafrome.org"/>
This centralized archive is considered essential for those researching African history, as it contains a wealth of resources.<ref name="mafrome.org"/> However, many are unaware of the regional "White Fathers" archives that exist within Africa itself.
The archive at the "White Fathers" headquarters in [[Lusaka|Lusaka, Zambia]], was most recently updated in 2001, under the supervision of Father Hugo Hinfelaar. Prior to this, the collections were held at the Ilondola Mission's Language Learning Centre, which had been an open facility for researchers since 1960. The collections were primarily created and cataloged by Father Louis Oger until his death in 1996. These materials included documents detailing the society's administration, history, and personnel. By moving the collections to [[Lusaka]], the archive has become much more accessible, and efforts are underway to actively expand the collections.<ref>{{Cite journal|jstor=3172099|title=The White Fathers' Archive in Zambia|last1=Hinfelaar|first1=Marja|last2=MacOla|first2=Giacomo|journal=History in Africa|year=2003|volume=30|pages=439–445|doi=10.1017/S0361541300003314|s2cid=161953296|url=https://kar.kent.ac.uk/7571/1/Macola-WhiteFathers-96129-1.pdf}}.</ref>
A similar regional archive exists in [[Mwanza|Mwanza, Tanzani]]a, documenting the activities of the "White Fathers" who worked in this area. Although small, it provides valuable insight into the society's missions and contains documents such as the ''Rapports Annuels''. The latter compiles statistics related to the "White Fathers" work, including the number of [[Sisters of Mercy|Sisters]] and [[baptism]]s. Records like these are not available in Rome, highlighting the importance of seeking various archival sources, not just those from the central archive.<ref>{{Cite journal|jstor=3172043|title=The White Father Archives at Mwanza, Tanzania|last1=Smythe|first1=Kathleen R.|journal=History in Africa|year=1997|volume=24|pages=431–432|doi=10.2307/3172043}}</ref>
Photographic archives related to the "White Fathers" missionary work throughout the 20th century can be found in various institutions, such as the [[Smithsonian Institution|Smithsonian]], which provides images of the missions and the Africans living near them in [[Rwanda]] and [[Burundi]]. Similar photographs are also held in the [[University of Birmingham]] archives, documenting a variety of missionary activities across several African countries.<ref name="calmview.bham.ac.uk"/>
==Publications== *''Proche-Orient Chrétien'', a journal published in Jerusalem
==See also== [[File:Maison généralice.jpg|thumb|right|General House in Rome]] * [[Catholic missions]] * [[Burkard Huwiler|Bishop Burkhard Huwiler]] * [[Joseph Dupont (bishop)|Bishop Joseph Dupont]] * [[Melkite Greek Catholic Church]] * [[Kungoni|Mua Mission, Malawi]] * [[Catholic youth sports associations of French Algeria]] * [[The White Fathers Mission in Uganda]]
==References== {{Reflist}} {{CathEncy|wstitle=White Fathers}}
==External links== * [https://mafrome.org/home/ International Website of the Missionaries of Africa] * [https://www.missionariesofafrica.org/ Missionaries of Africa UK] * [http://www.mafrwestafrica.net/ Missionaries of Africa in West Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140517212402/http://www.mafrwestafrica.net/ |date=17 May 2014 }}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Catholic organizations established in the 19th century]] [[Category:Catholicism and Islam]] [[Category:Christian missionary societies]] [[Category:Christian organizations based in Africa]] [[Category:Religious organizations established in 1868]] [[Category:White Fathers| ]]