White Army

{{Short description|Army/faction in the Russian Civil War}} {{other uses|White Army (disambiguation)}} {{use dmy dates|date=March 2021}} {{Infobox military unit | unit_name = White Army | native_name = Бѣлая армія{{efn|[[Reforms of Russian orthography#Post-revolution reform|Pre-1918 spelling]]}} Белая армия | image = Kolchak_government_—_coat_of_arms.png | image_size = | alt = | caption = Project of the coat of arms of the Russian State<ref>A drawing of the coat of arms design by the artist [[Gleb Ilyin|Ilin]] from the cover of Karl Khartling's book "Guarding the Motherland. Events in Vladivostok. Late 1919 – Early 1920", published in Shanghai in 1935</ref> | dates = 1917–1922 | disbanded = | country = {{flagcountry|Russian state}} | notable_commanders = [[Lavr Kornilov]] [[Alexander Kolchak]] [[Anton Denikin]] [[Pyotr Wrangel]] [[Nikolai Yudenich]] [[Mikhail Drozdovsky]] [[Mikhail Diterikhs]] [[Anatoly Pepelyayev]] [[Vladimir Kantakuzen]] | countries = | allegiance = | branch = | type = | role = | size = '''Overall:''' ~1,023,000 (May 1919) '''In combat units:''' ~4,000 (December 1917) ~683,000<ref>Red Army Intelligence Assessment</ref> (June 1919) ~300,000<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://knowledge.su/k/kolchaka-armii |title=Kolchak's Army – "Encyclopedia" |access-date=25 February 2020 |archive-date=6 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170406121534/http://knowledge.su/k/kolchaka-armii |url-status=live }}</ref> (December 1919) ~100,000 (Summer 1920) ~8,000 (September 1922) ~1,000 (1923) | command_structure = | garrison = [[Russian State (1918–1920)|Russia]] [[Bogd Khanate of Mongolia|Outer Mongolia]] (1920–21) [[Beiyang government|China]] [[Qajar Iran|Persia]] | garrison_label = | nickname = | patron = | motto = | colors =  | colors_label =  | march = | mascot = | anniversaries = | equipment = | equipment_label = | battles = | decorations = | battle_honours = | battle_honours_label = | flying_hours = | website =  | current_commander = | commander1 = | commander1_label = | commander2 = | commander2_label = | commander3 = | commander3_label = | commander4 = | commander4_label = | commander5 = | commander5_label = | commander6 = | commander6_label = | commander7 = | commander7_label = | commander8 = | commander8_label = | commander9 = | commander9_label =  | identification_symbol = [[File:Volunteer Army Insignia.svg|30px]] [[File:Don White Army.svg|30px]] [[File:Flag of the Ural government (1918).svg|30px]] [[File:СЗА_нарукавный_знак.JPG|30px]] | identification_symbol_label = | identification_symbol_2 = | identification_symbol_2_label = | identification_symbol_3 = | identification_symbol_3_label = | identification_symbol_4 = | identification_symbol_4_label = | identification_symbol_5 = | identification_symbol_5_label =  | aircraft_attack = | aircraft_bomber = | aircraft_electronic = | aircraft_fighter = | aircraft_helicopter = | aircraft_helicopter_attack = | aircraft_helicopter_cargo = | aircraft_helicopter_multirole = | aircraft_helicopter_observation = | aircraft_helicopter_transport = | aircraft_helicopter_trainer = | aircraft_helicopter_utility = | aircraft_interceptor = | aircraft_patrol = | aircraft_recon = | aircraft_trainer = | aircraft_transport = | aircraft_tanker = | aircraft_general = }}

The '''White Army''',{{efn|{{langx|ru|Белая армия|Belaya armiya}}; [[Reforms of Russian orthography#Post-revolution reform|pre-reform spelling]]: Бѣлая армія. The pre-reform spelling was used by the Whites even afterwards to differentiate from the Reds.}} also known as the '''White Guard''',{{efn|{{langx|ru|Белая гвардия|Belaya gvardiya}}; [[Reforms of Russian orthography#Post-revolution reform|pre-reform spelling]]: Бѣлая гвардія.<ref>[https://bigenc.ru/domestic_history/text/1853225 The White Guard] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200225183923/https://bigenc.ru/domestic_history/text/1853225 |date=25 February 2020 }} // "Banquet Campaign" of 1904 – Big Irgiz – Moscow: The Great Russian Encyclopedia, 2005 – Page 190 – (The [[Great Russian Encyclopedia]]: in 35 Volumes / Editor-in-Chief [[Yury Osipov]]; 2004–2017, Volume 3) – {{ISBN|5-85270-331-1}}</ref>}} the '''White Guardsmen''',{{efn|{{langx|ru|белогвардейцы|belogvardeytsi}}; [[Reforms of Russian orthography#Post-revolution reform|pre-reform spelling]]: бѣлогвардейцы.}} or simply the '''Whites''',<ref name=alpha>{{cite web | title=The White armies | website=Alpha History | date=15 August 2019 | url=https://alphahistory.com/russianrevolution/white-armies/ | access-date=30 March 2021 | archive-date=5 April 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405030704/https://alphahistory.com/russianrevolution/white-armies/ | url-status=live }}</ref> was a common collective name for the armed formations of the [[White movement]] and [[Anti-Sovietism|anti-Bolshevik]] governments during the [[Russian Civil War]].{{sfn|Great Russian Encyclopedia|2005|p=268}} They fought against the [[Red Army]] of [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Soviet Russia]].<ref name=alpha/>

When it was created, the structure of the [[Russian Army (1917)|Russian Army]] during the period of the [[Russian Provisional Government]] was used, while almost every individual formation had its own characteristics. The military art of the White Army was based on the experience of the [[World War I|First World War]] which left a strong imprint on the specifics of the Russian Civil War.<ref>Military Encyclopedic Dictionary / Editorial Board: Alexander Gorkin, Vladimir Zolotarev et al. – Moscow: Great Russian Encyclopedia, RIPOL Classic, 2002 – 1664 Pages</ref>

==History== The name "White" is associated with white symbols of the supporters of the [[Ancien Régime|pre-revolutionary order]], dating back to the time of the [[French Revolution]],<ref name="fel">{{cite journal |author=David Feldman |title= Red White: Soviet Political Terms in a Historical and Cultural Context |url=http://magazines.russ.ru/voplit/2006/4/fe1.html |journal=Literature Issues|type=Journal|year= 2006|number= 4|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160305031838/http://magazines.russ.ru/voplit/2006/4/fe1.html |archive-date= 2016-03-05 }}</ref>{{efn|In the [[historiography of the French Revolution]], the 1793–1794 revolutionary republican [[Reign of Terror]] of [[Robespierre]] against any suspected supporter of the [[Ancien Régime]] is also known as the "Red Terror", whereas the reactionary/anti-revolutionary monarchist pro-Bourbon mass killings and persecutions of revolutionaries and ex-[[Jacobins]] (and in southern France, Protestants) are known as the 1794–1795 [[First White Terror]] and the 1815–1816 [[Second White Terror]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=terreur |encyclopedia=[[Encarta]] Encyclopedie [[Winkler Prins]] |date=1993–2002 |publisher=Microsoft Corporation/Het Spectrum |language=nl}}</ref>}} in contrast to the name of the [[Red Guards (Russia)|Red Guard]] detachments, and then the Red Army. For the first time, the name "White Guard" was used in [[Russian State (1918–1920)|Russia]] for [[Whites (Finland)|Finnish police]] detachments created in 1906 to fight the [[Russian Revolution of 1905|revolutionary movement]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.helsinki200.fi/helsinki-1812-2012/1906-viaporin-kapina-ja-hakaniemen-mellakka/ |title=1906 Viaporin kapina ja Hakaniemen mellakka. Helsinki 200 vuotta pääkaupunkina|publisher=www.helsinki200.fi |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107010057/http://www.helsinki200.fi/helsinki-1812-2012/1906-viaporin-kapina-ja-hakaniemen-mellakka/|archive-date=2017-11-07}}</ref> Their members wore white bandages on their sleeves; however, this did not have a direct connection with the White Army during the [[Russian Civil War]].

The White Armies comprised a number of different groups, who operated independently and did not share a single ideology or political goal. Their leaders were conservative or moderate generals and political leaders, each with different goals and plans to achieve them, and most of these armies did not coordinate their actions. The chain of command in each, as well as individual members, differed from experienced veterans of [[World War I]] to fresh volunteers.<ref name=alpha/><ref>[https://elan-kazak.ru/sites/default/files/IMAGES/ARHIV/Periodika/chasovoy/1932/79.pdf Двухнедѣльный военный и военно-морской журналъ «Часовой»: органъ связи русскаго воинства за рубежомъ подъ ред. В. В. Орѣхова и Евгенія Тарусскаго, — Paris, 1 мая 1932. — № 79.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101217052020/http://elan-kazak.ru/sites/default/files/IMAGES/ARHIV/Periodika/chasovoy/1932/79.pdf |date=2010-12-17 }}</ref>

The White Guards, in addition to directly fighting with the Reds as well as the [[Revolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine|Makhnovtsi]], carried out the [[White Terror (Russia)|White Terror]], taking part in mass executions, including assisting allied foreign interventionists (for example, 257 civilians were killed in 1919 in the course of the struggle in the village of [[Ivanovka, Russia|Ivanovka]] of the [[Japanese intervention in Siberia|Japanese Army]] and the White Guards against the [[Bolsheviks|pro-Bolshevik]] detachments of partisans).<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.nakanune.ru/articles/112546/ |title=Article by Elena Kiryakova. "In the Course of the White Terror, Everyone was Chopped Off, Including Women and Children" |access-date=25 February 2020 |archive-date=3 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190803011228/http://www.nakanune.ru/articles/112546 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Historian [[Ronald Suny]] notes that a higher proportion of [[anti-semitic]] attacks were committed by the White military, which accounted for 17% of the anti-Jewish atrocities during the Russian Civil War.<ref name="Verso Books">{{cite book |last1=Suny |first1=Ronald |title=Red Flag Unfurled: History, Historians, and the Russian Revolution |date=14 November 2017 |publisher=Verso Books |isbn=978-1-78478-566-6 |pages=1–320 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nm7nDwAAQBAJ&dq=Red+terror+consensus&pg=PT319 |language=en}}</ref> Suny stated that the casualties of the White Terror would have exceeded the Red Terror with the inclusion of [[anti-Soviet]] violence and Jewish [[pogroms]] into the death toll.<ref name="Verso Books" /> According to historian [[Marcel Liebman]], the Red Terror was initiated in response to several planned assassinations of Bolshevik leaders and the initial massacres of Red prisoners in [[Moscow]] and during the [[Finnish Civil War]] by Finnish Whites.<ref name="Liebman">{{cite book |last1=Liebman |first1=Marcel |title=Leninism under Lenin |date=1975 |publisher=London : J. Cape |isbn=978-0-224-01072-6 |pages=313–314 |url=https://archive.org/details/leninismunderlen0000lieb_f2h6/page/313/mode/1up}}</ref>

===Volunteer and Don Army=== After the [[October Revolution]], the arrested generals [[Lavr Kornilov]], [[Anton Denikin]], [[Sergey Markov]] and others were released by Commander-in-Chief [[Nikolay Dukhonin]] before his removal and subsequent murder by the mob and went to [[Don Republic|Don Host]] to Ataman [[Alexey Kaledin]]. The Don region abandoned the power of the [[Soviet (council)|Soviets]] and proclaimed independence "before the formation of a nation-wide, popularly recognized government".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.krugosvet.ru/enc/istoriya/belaya-gvardiya|title=White Guard|publisher=[[Krugosvet|Encyclopedia Krugosvet]]|access-date=25 February 2020|archive-date=3 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171103220041/http://www.krugosvet.ru/enc/istoriya/belaya-gvardiya|url-status=live}}</ref> The first White Army was created by [[Mikhail Alekseyev]], calling it the "Alekseyev Organization".<ref>{{cite book |author=Roman Abinyakin |title=The Officer Corps of the Volunteer Army: Social Composition, Worldview of 1917–1920|edition=Monograph|location=[[Oryol]]|publisher=Alexander Vorobyov|year=2005|page=204|isbn=5-900901-57-2|oclc=60540889}}</ref> Officers were recruited on a voluntary basis. A [[Volunteer Army]] was created from the members of this organization. Generals Kaledin and Kornilov joined him. Three months later, in April 1918, the Council of Defense of the Don Host formed the [[Don Army]]. In May 1918, the Drozdovsky brigade [[Iași–Don March|joined]] the Volunteer Army from the [[Romanian Front]].

Among those who came to the Don were public figures. One of the first to join the Alekseyev organization was [[Vasily Shulgin]], who later became a member of the Special Meeting under Denikin. [[Boris Savinkov]]—the former head of the [[Combat Organization of the Socialist Revolutionary Party|Socialist Revolutionary Combat Organization]], who organized the [[Union for the Defense of the Motherland and Freedom]] under the Volunteer Army—was also there.<ref>{{cite book|author=David Golinkov|title=Covert operations of the All-Russian Extraordinary Commission|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4QajDgAAQBAJ&q=%D0%93%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2+%D0%94.+%D0%9B.+%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7+%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%89%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%8B+%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%8B+%D0%B8+%D0%A1%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%8B&pg=PT167|publisher=Litres|date=2017|page=257|isbn=978-5-04-051463-2|access-date=4 November 2020|archive-date=5 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405030650/https://books.google.com/books?id=4QajDgAAQBAJ&q=%D0%93%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2+%D0%94.+%D0%9B.+%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7+%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%89%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%8B+%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%8B+%D0%B8+%D0%A1%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%8B&pg=PT167|url-status=live}}</ref> Military leaders and [[Cossacks]] reacted extremely negatively to his presence.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://white-force.ru/trubeckoj-gody-smut/sozdanie-dobrovolcheskoj-armii-2|title=Creation of the Volunteer Army|author=Grigory Trubetskoy|publisher=white-force.ru|access-date=25 February 2020|archive-date=7 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107024603/http://white-force.ru/trubeckoj-gody-smut/sozdanie-dobrovolcheskoj-armii-2|url-status=live}}</ref>

===People's Army=== On 8 June 1918, the uprising [[Czechoslovak Legion|White Czechs]] took [[Samara]]. On the same day, the [[People's Army of Komuch|People's Army]] was organized under the command of Colonel Nikolai Galkin. It was formed by the [[Committee of Members of the Constituent Assembly]], which was [[Russian Constituent Assembly|repressed]] by the Bolsheviks in 1918.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://xn--80aa2bkafhg.xn--p1ai/article.php?nid=347352|title=People's Army of Komuch|publisher=rustrana.rf|access-date=25 February 2020|archive-date=3 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200603111022/http://xn--80aa2bkafhg.xn--p1ai/article.php?nid=347352|url-status=live}}</ref> On 9 June, after the arrival of Lieutenant Colonel [[Vladimir Kappel]] in the army, the following were formed: 1st Volunteer Samara Squadron, Cavalry Squadron of Staff Captain Stafievsky, Volzhskaya Equestrian Battery of Captain Vyrypayev, horse reconnaissance, subversive command and economic unit. After the formation of the units, Kappel's troops occupy [[Syzran]] and [[Tolyatti|Stavropol]] on 11 and 12 June, respectively.<ref name="Por">{{Cite web|url=https://sites.google.com/site/olegdankir/Poriadnik/vse-formirovania/armia/narodnaa-armia-komuca|title=Народная армия КОМУЧа - Казачий Порядник. О.Данкир|trans-title=People's Army of Komuch – Cossack Order|author=Oleg Dankir|access-date=25 February 2020|archive-date=3 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200603081901/https://sites.google.com/site/olegdankir/Poriadnik/vse-formirovania/armia/narodnaa-armia-komuca|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 10 July, the People's Army again entered Syzran, occupied by the Bolsheviks, and threw them back to [[Ulyanovsk|Simbirsk]]. A few days later, Kappel's detachments occupied Simbirsk and from there they advanced in several directions: from Syzran to [[Volsk]] and [[Penza]], from Simbirsk to [[Inza, Russia|Inza]] and [[Alatyr, Chuvash Republic|Alatyr]] and along the banks of the Volga to the mouth of the Kama. After the capture of [[Kazan]], the People's Army was reorganized. The Volga Front was created under the command of [[Stanislav Čeček|Stanislav Chechek]]. It was divided into several groups: Simbirsk, Kazan, Khvalynsk, Ufa, Nikolaev, Ural Cossack troops and the Orenburg Cossack troops.

Kappel suggested the command to take [[Nizhny Novgorod]]. He suggested that the occupation of the city would break the Bolshevik plans to sign additional agreements with the [[Wilhelm II, German Emperor|Kaiser]] of [[German Empire|Germany]] in [[Berlin]], as he would deprive them of money from the "pocket of Russia". However, the command and the Czechs abandoned these plans, citing a lack of reserves.<ref name="Por" />

===Siberian Army=== [[File:G3 46.jpg|thumb|280px|Appeal to volunteers, {{circa|1918–19}}]] [[File:Агитационный плакат армии Колчака.jpg|thumb|Anti–Bolshevik White Army poster encouraging people to enlist as volunteers]]

At the same time, in June 1918, the [[Provisional Siberian Government (Omsk)|Provisional Siberian Government]] in [[Novosibirsk|Novo-Nikolaevsk]] created the [[Siberian Army]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ruguard.ru/article/read/Sibirskaja_armija.html|title=Siberian Army. White Guard – Publicism|author=White Guard|publisher=ruguard.ru|access-date=25 February 2020|archive-date=7 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107003312/http://ruguard.ru/article/read/Sibirskaja_armija.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Initially, it was called the West Siberian Volunteer Army. From June to December 1918, the headquarters of the Siberian Army was the general headquarters for the entire White Movement of [[Siberia]]. In August the [[Supreme Administration of the Northern Region]] in [[Arkhangelsk]] created troops of the Northern Region, sometimes referred to as the Northern Army (not to be confused with General [[Alexander Rodzyanko|Rodzyanko]]'s Northern Army).

In January 1919, the Don and Volunteer Armies were combined into the [[Armed Forces of South Russia|Armed Forces of the South of Russia]]. In June the Northern Army was created from Russian officers and soldiers of the Northern Corps, who left the Estonian army. A month later, the army was renamed the Northwest.

===Unification in the Russian Army=== On 14 October 1918, Minister of War [[Alexander Kolchak]] arrived in [[Omsk]]. On 18 November 1918 he was proclaimed the [[Supreme Ruler of Russia]], who also assumed the supreme command of all the land and naval forces of Russia. He made a substantial reorganization of the forces of the White movement and carried out its integration into a single [[Russian Army (1919)|Russian Army]] on 23 September 1918. On 4 November Kolchak became part of the [[Provisional All-Russian Government|Russian Government]].

As the Supreme Ruler of Russia, Kolchak was recognized by all the commanders of the White Armies both in the south and west of Russia, as well as in Siberia and the Far East; generals Denikin, [[Yevgeny Miller]], [[Nikolai Yudenich]] voluntarily submitted to Kolchak and recognized his Supreme High Command over all armies in Russia. The supreme commander at the same time confirmed the authority of the commanders. From that moment, the Armed Forces of the South of Russia, the [[Northwestern Army (Russia)|Northwestern Army]], the [[Northern Army (Russia)|Northern Army]], and the [[Eastern Front of the Russian Civil War|Eastern Front]] began operating on the fronts as a single army.

The name "Russian Army" was approved as the union of all White fronts, the status of commanders of the fronts formally from the Supreme Commander-in-Chief was received by the commanders of the North and Northwest Armies Generals Yudenich and Miller. In April 1920, the [[Far Eastern Army]] was created in [[Transbaikal]]ia from the remnants of the troops of the Eastern Front under the leadership of General [[Grigory Mikhaylovich Semyonov|Grigory Semenov]]. Out of the remnants of the Armed Forces of the South of Russia that left for [[Crimea]] in May 1920, General Wrangel formed the [[Army of Wrangel|armed forces]] that inherited the name "Russian Army" from the single Russian army of Kolchak of 1919 – as the last of its fronts. In 1921, from the remnants of the Far Eastern Army of General Semyonov in Primorye, the [[White Rebel Army]] was formed, later renamed the [[Zemskaya Rat|Zemsky Army]], since the Amur Zemsky Government was created in [[Vladivostok]] in 1922.

==Composition== White Armies drew both from volunteers and on the basis of mobilization. They drew from the population of controlled territories and from captured [[Red Army man|Red Army soldiers]]. On a voluntary basis, they were staffed not only from officers of the [[Imperial Russian Army]] and [[Imperial Russian Navy|Navy]], but also from all comers. It was both in the south – in the Volunteer Army, and in Siberia, for example – the division of the Labor Corps.<ref name="Spi">{{cite book|last=Spiridonov| first = A.G. |title = Стальной кулак Белой Гвардии. Ударные части на Юге России в 1918–1920 годах | trans-title=Steel Fist of the White Guard: Impact Units in the South of Russia in 1918–1920|language = ru | publisher = none | location=Taganrog|year=2008}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=December 2024}}

The strength of the White Armies fighting against the Red Army, according to intelligence estimates, by June 1919 was about 683,000. However, together with auxiliary and staff units, it could exceed 1,023,000 people.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.demoscope.ru/weekly/knigi/dinamika/volkov.html |title=Evgeny Volkov. The Population Dynamics of the Soviet Union Over Eighty Years |access-date=25 February 2020 |archive-date=16 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180916223601/http://www.demoscope.ru/weekly/knigi/dinamika/volkov.html |url-status=live }}</ref> A significant part of the White forces was on contentment. Combat units amounted to only half of this figure.<ref name="Spi"/> After that, the number of White Armies began to decline steadily.<ref>[https://bigenc.ru/military_science/text/2620941 Kolchak Army] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200225183918/https://bigenc.ru/military_science/text/2620941 |date=25 February 2020 }} // Kireev – Congo – Moscow: The Great Russian Encyclopedia, 2009 – Page 569 – (The [[Great Russian Encyclopedia]]: in 35 Volumes / Editor-in-Chief [[Yury Osipov]]; 2004–2017, Volume 14) – {{ISBN|978-5-85270-345-3}}</ref>

The White Army consisted of all kinds of troops for that period: *Air Units; *Cavalry; *Infantry; *Railway connections. *Tank Units;

All of them had their own uniforms and formation patch, often copied from the uniform of the guard units of the Imperial Russian Army. According to supporters of the White movement, the White Guard is a military man devoted to his ideals who was ready to defend his [[Personification of Russia|Motherland]] and his specific ideas about duty, honour, and justice with arms in hand.

==See also== *[[Russian All-Military Union]] *[[Russian State (1918–1920)]] *[[White Army, Black Baron]] *[[Ranks and insignia of the White Movement]] * [[Khabarovsk Campaign]]

== Notes == {{notelist}}

==References== {{Reflist}}

==Sources== *{{cite book |last=Osipov |first=Yury |date=2005 |title=White Armies |url=https://bigenc.ru/domestic_history/text/1856550 |location=Moscow |publisher=Great Russian Encyclopedia |page=268 |isbn=5-85270-331-1 |author-link=Yury Osipov |ref={{harvid|Great Russian Encyclopedia|2005}} |archive-date=11 July 2021 |access-date=25 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210711153708/https://bigenc.ru/domestic_history/text/1856550 |url-status=dead }} *{{cite book|author=Valery Klaving|title=Civil War in Russia: White Armies|url=http://you1917-91.narod.ru/klaving_belye_armii.html|location=Moscow, Saint Petersburg|publisher=AST, Terra Fantastica|year=2003|page=637|isbn=5-17-019260-6}} *{{cite book|title=White Army Funds Guide |via=Russian State Military Archive|url=http://guides.rusarchives.ru/browse/guidebook.html?bid=122 |editor=N. D. Egorov |editor2=N. V. Pulchenko |editor3=L. M. Chizhova |location=Moscow|publisher=Russian Bibliographic Society |year=1998|page=526|isbn=5-02-018037-8|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120307102147/http://guides.rusarchives.ru/browse/guidebook.html?bid=122|archive-date = 2012-03-07}} * {{Cite book |last1=Werth |first1=Nicolas |last2=Bartosek |first2=Karel |last3=Panne |first3=Jean-Louis |last4=Margolin |first4=Jean-Louis |last5=Paczkowski |first5=Andrzej |last6=Courtois |first6=Stephane |year=1999 |title=[[The Black Book of Communism|Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression]] |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |isbn=0-674-07608-7}}

==External links== * {{Commons category-inline}}

{{Armies of Russia}} {{White armies and fleets of the Russian Civil War}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Military units and formations of the White movement]] [[Category:White movement]]