United States military and prostitution in South Korea

{{short description|none}} <!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see [[WP:SDNONE]] --> {{Infobox Korean name | title = United States military and prostitution in South Korea | image = USFK Prostitution Warning.jpg | caption = [[Uniform Code of Military Justice]] warning poster against prostitution and human trafficking posted by [[United States Forces Korea|USFK]] | hangul = 양공주<ref name=nd200900601>{{cite news |first=Young-hoon |last=Rhee |title=그날 나는 왜 그렇게 말하였던가 |date=2009-06-01 |work=New Daily |url=http://www.newdaily.co.kr/news/article.html?no=27671 |access-date=2013-04-07}}</ref> | hanja = 洋公主 | rr = yanggongju | mr = yanggongju | othername1 = Alternative Korean name | hangul1 = 미군 위안부<ref name="박정희 정부, 미군 위안부·기지촌 여성' 직접 관리" /><ref name="경향신문20131106"/> | hanja1 = 美軍慰安婦 | rr1 = Migun wianbu | mr1 = Migun wianbu }}

{{Slavery}}

During and following the [[Korean War|Korean war]], the [[United States military]] used regulated prostitution services in [[South Korea]]n military camptowns. Despite prostitution being illegal since 1948, women in South Korea were the fundamental source of sexual services for the U.S. military and a component of Korean-American relations.{{sfn|Lee|2011}} The women in South Korea who served as prostitutes are known as ''kijichon'' (기지촌) women, also called as "Korean Military Comfort Women", and were visited by the US military, Korean soldiers, and Korean civilians. The prostitutes were from Korea, the [[Philippines]],{{sfn|Okubo|Shelley|2011|p=167}} [[China]], [[Vietnam]], [[Thailand]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Indonesia]], and the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]]{{sfn|Chow|Segal|Lin|2011|p=87}}{{sfn|Hughes|2010|p=125}}{{sfn|Finckenauer|2007}} (specifically [[Russia]], [[Kazakhstan]]{{sfn|Hughes|2010|p=125}}{{sfn|Renzaho|2016}}{{sfn|Soh|2008}}{{sfn|Finckenauer|2007}} and [[Ukraine]]).<ref>{{cite journal|title=The "Natasha" Trade:Transnational Sex Trafficking|page=10|journal=National Institute of Justice Journal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T5FarpEwsYsC&pg=PA10|issue=246|publisher=U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, National Institute of Justice|date=January 2001}}</ref>

==Etymology== Prostitutes servicing members of the [[List of United States Army installations in South Korea|U.S. military in South Korea]] have been known locally under a variety of terms. They have been referred to as "bar girls", "special entertainers", "Korean Military Comfort Women", "comfort women", "hostesses", and "business women".{{sfn|Moon|2006|p=2}}

Yankee princess ({{Korean|hangul=양공주|hanja=洋公主|rr=yanggongju|labels=no}}{{sfn|Cheng|2010|p=63}}{{sfn|Höhn|2010|p=46}}{{sfn|Cho|2008|p=103}}) also translated as Western princess''',''' were other common names and literal translations for the prostitutes in the ''Gijichon'', U.S. military Camp Towns<ref name="nd200900601" />{{sfn|Hughes|Chon|Ellerman|2016}}<ref name="SU">{{cite web |title=The United States, South Korea, and "Comfort Women" |publisher=[[Stanford University]] |url=https://stanford.edu/group/womenscourage/cgi-bin/blogs/structuralviolence/2009/01/22/the-united-states-south-korea-and-comfort-women/ |access-date=2013-05-26 |date=January 22, 2009 |archive-date=2014-03-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140301205433/http://stanford.edu/group/womenscourage/cgi-bin/blogs/structuralviolence/2009/01/22/the-united-states-south-korea-and-comfort-women/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> in South Korea.<ref name="DongaIlbo20100427">{{cite web|url=http://news.donga.com/3/all/20100427/27918516/1 |title=[뉴스테이션/탐사리포트]또 다른 양공주의 비극 |trans-title=Another tragedy |website=[[The Dong-a Ilbo]] |date=2010-04-27 |access-date=2013-04-08}}</ref><ref name="jooogang20090624">{{cite web |url=http://article.joinsmsn.com/news/article/article.asp?ctg=1&Total_ID=3660250 |title=[백년명가②] "88년부터 찌개로… 김치 넣기 시작했지" |trans-title=[One hundred years old man ②] "From 88 years to stewing ... I started to put in kimchi. " |website=[[JoongAng Ilbo]] |date=2009-06-24 |access-date=2013-04-07 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130619003047/http://article.joinsmsn.com/news/article/article.asp?ctg=1&Total_ID=3660250 |archive-date=2013-06-19 }}</ref>{{sfn|Cho|2007|p=164}} The term "Western princess" has been commonly used in the press, such as ''[[The Dong-a Ilbo]]'' for decades.<ref name="DongaIlbo20100427" /> It is also used as a derogatory term when referring to [[Interracial marriage|interracial]] couples, particular those between a white male and Korean female.<ref name="jooogang20120613">{{cite web|url=http://koreajoongangdaily.joinsmsn.com/news/article/article.aspx?aid=2954295|title=The actual reality of interracial relationships|author=Sung So-young|date=2012-06-13|website=[[Joongang Daily]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130321011946/http://koreajoongangdaily.joinsmsn.com/news/article/article.aspx?aid=2954295|archive-date=2013-03-21|url-status=usurped|access-date=2013-04-07}}</ref>

Yankee whore ({{Korean|hangul=양갈보|rr=Yanggalbo|labels=no}}){{sfn|Cheng|2010|p=63}} and Western whore are also common names. The women are also referred to as [[United Nations Command|U.N.]] madams ({{Korean|hangul=유엔마담|labels=no}}).<ref name="DongaIlbo20001103" /><ref name="ChosunIlbo080823">{{cite news |last=Pyo |first=Jeong-hun |date=2008-08-23 |title=[추억 엽서-대한민국 |trans-title=Memorial Postcard - 60 Years in Korea |url=http://issue.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2008/08/25/2008082500185.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130622121329/http://issue.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2008/08/25/2008082500185.html |archive-date=2013-06-22 |access-date=2013-04-09 |work=[[The Chosun Ilbo]]}}</ref><ref name="SJOKS269">{{cite book |title=Seoul Journal of Korean Studies, Volume 14 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=twFxAAAAMAAJ |publisher=[[Seoul National University]] |year=2001 |page=269}}</ref>

Until the early 1990s, the term "comfort women" ({{Korean|hangul=위안부|hanja=慰安婦 |labels=no}}) was often used by South Korean media and officials to refer to prostitutes for the U.S. military,{{sfn|Shin|2006|p=26}}<ref name="dongailbo19610914">{{cite news |title=UN軍 相對 慰安婦 13日부터 登錄實施 |trans-title=UN Registration of comfort women |date=1961-09-14 |newspaper=[[The Dong-a Ilbo]] |url=http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Registration_of_comfort_women.jpg |access-date=2013-05-01}}</ref> and the term "Yankee princess" has been used instead.<ref name="nd200900601" />{{sfn|Cho|2007|loc=p. 164 ''Wianbu'', the word used to refer to the so-called comfort women who were forced sexual laborers for the Japanese military, was also used to describe the women who were sexual laborers for the U.S. military. That is, until another word replaced ''wianbu'' to connote a different kind of shame. ''Yanggongju'' would draw the line between the violated virgins and the willing whores. ''Yanggongju'', literally meaning 'western princess' and commonly translated as 'Yankee whore' replaced ''wianbu'' as the popular name for women who are prostitutes for the U.S. military.}}<ref>{{cite news|title=한국군도 '위안부' 운용했다 |trans-title=The ROK military also operated 'comfort women' |url=http://www.ohmynews.com/NWS_Web/view/at_pg.aspx?CNTN_CD=A0000067241&PAGE_CD= |work=[[OhmyNews]] |access-date=2014-06-10 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107141521/http://www.ohmynews.com/NWS_Web/view/at_pg.aspx?CNTN_CD=A0000067241&PAGE_CD= |archive-date=2012-11-07 |date = 2002-02-22}}</ref> However, by 2013, some South Korean media were using the term "U.S. comfort women" ({{Korean|hangul=미군 위안부|labels=no}}) instead.<ref name="박정희 정부, 미군 위안부·기지촌 여성' 직접 관리">{{cite web |date=6 November 2013 |title=박정희 정부, '미군 위안부·기지촌 여성' 직접 관리 |trans-title="Park Chung-hee government," direct management of "women comfort women |url=http://www.hani.co.kr/arti/politics/assembly/610056.html |access-date=7 September 2014 |archive-date=26 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150926053210/http://www.hani.co.kr/arti/politics/assembly/610056.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="경향신문20131106">{{cite web |date=2013-11-06 |title=유승희 의원 "박정희 정권 '미군 위안부' 관리" |trans-title=Yoo Seung-hee "Park Jeong-hee regime" US military comfort women "management" |url=http://news.khan.co.kr/kh_news/khan_art_view.html?artid=201311061121181& |website=[[Kyunghyang Shinmun]]}}</ref>

The early 1990s also saw the two [[women's rights]] movements diverge: on one side the one representing the Cheongsindae (comfort women for the Japanese military), and on the other side the movement representing the Gijichon (Camptown for the U.S. military). Despite many women on both sides being victims of forced labor, those who supported Cheongsidae believed the kijich'on women were willing participants in the system of prostitution and sexually promiscuous.{{sfn|Cho|2008|p=122}}

== History == Beginning in 1945, an institutionalized system of prostitution was adopted and permitted by the U.S. military and the Republic of Korea. Despite the [[United States Forces Korea]]'s policy stating, "Hiring prostitutes is incompatible with our military core values",<ref name=R20130429>{{cite news |first=Tabassum|last=Zakaria |title=U.S. military faces scrutiny over its prostitution policies |date=2013-04-29 |work=[[Reuters]] |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-agents-military-idUSBRE83S09620120429 |access-date=2013-05-14}}</ref> there is a discrepancy between "practice" and "policy".{{sfn|Moon|1997|p=27}} In Korean society, prostitution is viewed as a "necessary evil".{{sfn|Moon|2006|p=39}} The U.S. military have explained it as military culture that allows for American GIs to blow off steam and prevent [[Homosexuality|homosexual]] tendencies.<ref name="joong20050731">{{cite news|url=http://koreajoongangdaily.joinsmsn.com/news/article/article.aspx?aid=2600608|title=Openly revealing a secret life|last=Lee|first=Min-a|date=2005-07-31|access-date=2013-04-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130619000725/http://koreajoongangdaily.joinsmsn.com/news/article/article.aspx?aid=2600608|archive-date=2013-06-19|url-status=usurped|newspaper=[[JoongAng Ilbo]]}}</ref> Prostitutes for U.S. soldiers were esteemed to be at the bottom of the social hierarchy by South Koreans.<ref name=HyunseonLee>{{cite web |title=Broken Silence: The Taboo of Korean Prostitutes during American Occupation and Its Depiction in the Korean Films of the 1990s |author=Hyunseon Lee |publisher=[[University of London]] |url=http://sas-space.sas.ac.uk/2287/1/Lee%20-%20Broken%20Silence%20-%202004.pdf |access-date=2013-04-18}}</ref> They were also the lowest status within the hierarchy of prostitution.{{sfn|Kim|1997|p={{page needed|date=May 2022}}}}

=== U.S. military government rule in South Korea 1945-1948 === {{main|United States Army Military Government in Korea}} [[File:Preventing Venereal Disease (Poster, Korean War, 1951).jpg|left|thumb|Sign during the Korean war warning of the risks of unprotected sex (1951)]] In September 1945, [[United States Armed Forces]], led by General John R. Hodge, occupied South Korea after Korea's liberation from Japan. This also included Imperial Japanese comfort stations.{{sfn|Cho|2008|p=94}} These events continued the government-sanctioned prostitution that was established in Korea under Japan's rule.{{sfn|Moon|1997|p=85}} The formation of licensed prostitution by Japan established registration protocols and mandatory [[Sexually transmitted infection|STD]] examinations for Korean sex workers. Once the U.S. military occupied Korea, these examinations were conducted by the Bureau of Public Health and Welfare.{{sfn|Lee|2007|p=457}} In order to protect U.S. soldiers from contracting diseases from prostitutes, the service bars and clubs were relocated near and within military bases.{{sfn|Lee|2007|page=463}} By confining the prostitutes to within a small area, the U.S. military had the power to regulate and monitor the women's activities and health.{{sfn|Lee|2007|page=464}} As the U.S. military government tolerated and regulated prostitution, women's organizations argued for the abolishment of prostitution. In response, the United States passed The Abolishment of Public Prostitution Law in 1947. This abolished licensed prostitution; however, the law increased the proliferation of private prostitution.{{sfn|Lee|2007|page=466}}

=== Post Korean war === The aftermath of the Korean war resulted in extreme poverty and chaos. This produced a large influx in prostitutes as women resorted to sex work in order to support themselves and their family members.{{sfn|Moon|2006|p=29}} Prostitution became a regular and enduring feature of military camptowns.{{sfn|Cho|2008|p=104}}{{sfn|Cho|2007|p=163}}{{sfn|Kim|2016|p=46}}{{sfn|Lie|1995|p=316}}{{sfn|Woo|2019|p=145}}

Estimates for the number of Korean prostitutes below are variously based on figures from articles of independent writers, venereal disease examinations, and government statistics.

In 1953, the total number of prostitutes throughout the population in South Korea was 350,000{{sfn|Cho|2008|p=104}}{{sfn|Cho|2007|p=163}}{{sfn|Kim|2016|p=46}} according to one government report.{{sfn|Lie|1995|p=316}}{{sfn|Woo|2019|p=145}} However, according to statistics from the Korean government, the total number of prostitutes in South Korea was 17,349 in 1953.<ref>{{cite news |title=萬七千三百名(만칠천삼백명) 全國接待(전국접대)및慰安婦總數(위안부총수) |url=https://newslibrary.naver.com/viewer/index.nhn?articleId=1953121200329202029&editNo=1&printCount=1&publishDate=1953-12-12&officeId=00032&pageNo=2&printNo=2364&publishType=00020 |agency=경향신문 |publisher=치안국보안과 |date=1953-12-12}}</ref> According to the research by professor Lee Young-hoon, an economics professor at Seoul National University, into the number of examinations for venereal disease, he estimated that there were around 10,000 comfort women for the US military in the 1950's to 1960's. This is about one-third of the number of people engaged in the prostitution industry at a specific point in time between 1955 and 1966 ( 26,000 to 39,000 ).<ref>{{cite web |title=[이승만TV 위안부의 진실③] "한국군‧미군 위안부에는 왜 분노하지 않는가" |date=2019-05-15 |url=https://mediawatch.kr/mobile/article.html?no=254009}}</ref> Surveys carried out during the 1950s and 1960s suggest that 60% of these prostitutes worked near U.S. military camps,{{sfn|Cho|2008|p=104}}{{sfn|Cho|2007|p=163}}{{sfn|Kim|2016|p=46}}{{sfn|Lie|1995|p=316}}{{sfn|Woo|2019|p=145}} but although these prostitutes worked near U.S. military camps, many of them served only Korean men.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Consolidation of Military Prostitution in South Korea (1950~60): The Nation-State, Gendered Nationalism, and Women's Resistance |journal=한국여성학회 |date=2007 |volume=2007, vol.23, no.4, pp. 5-48 (44 pages) |issue=이나영 /Lee Na Young(중앙대학교) |url=https://www.kci.go.kr/kciportal/ci/sereArticleSearch/ciSereArtiView.kci?sereArticleSearchBean.artiId=ART001227599}}</ref> A 1984 report suggested that the number of prostitutes around U.S. bases had dropped to less than a third of the total number of prostitutes in the country.{{sfn|Lie|1995|p=317}}

The average age of Korean prostitute for American soldiers is 27 years old while for Korean soldiers it is 21 years old. The average Korean prostitutes work for several years, others work 5 to 10 years. The average Korean prostitute length of service is 2.5 years for Korean soldiers while for American soldiers the average length is 3 years. The average number of instances of sexual intercourse per day was 1.7 times with the U.S. military, which was significantly less than those for Koreans (5.51 times). However, the average monthly income per Korean prostitute was 11,423 won with U.S. military, more than three times that with Koreans (3,455 won). At the time, the average monthly wage for manufacturing workers was 3,800 won for males, and about 2,500 won for females.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://www.mediawatch.kr/news/article.html?no=254009|title=[이승만TV 위안부의 진실③] "한국군‧미군 위안부에는 왜 분노하지 않는가"|website=www.mediawatch.kr}}</ref>

An estimate from a writer claimed the number of prostitutes was probably proportional to the number of U.S. soldiers.{{sfn|Lie|1995|p=316}} The number of U.S. soldiers stationed in Korea stood at 326,863 in 1953; 225,590 in 1954; 75,328 in 1955; 55,864 in 1960;<ref>{{cite web|last1=Kane|first1=Tim|title=Global U.S. Troop Deployment, 1950-2005|url=http://www.heritage.org/defense/report/global-us-troop-deployment-1950-2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170207064136/http://www.heritage.org/defense/report/global-us-troop-deployment-1950-2005|url-status=unfit|archive-date=February 7, 2017|website=The Heritage Foundation|access-date=9 April 2018|date=24 May 2006}}</ref> 45,000 in the 1970s and 42,000 in the 1980s.{{sfn|Lie|1995|p=316}} Many of the Korean prostitutes that worked in 1953 would leave within a year, while others continued to work for several more years. As the number of U.S. soldiers decreased after 1953, so did the number of Korean prostitutes.<ref name="auto"/>

In 1954, Korean government (보건사회복지부) figures give a total of 10,000–30,000 prostitutes servicing the UN/U.S. military in the South Korea,<ref>{{cite news |title=甲午記者手帖(갑오기자수첩)에서 (3) 失職洋公主(실직양공주) |url=https://newslibrary.naver.com/viewer/index.nhn?articleId=1954122200209202007&editNo=1&printCount=1&publishDate=1954-12-22&officeId=00020&pageNo=2&printNo=9792&publishType=00020 |agency=네이버뉴스라이브러리 |publisher=[[The Dong-a Ilbo]](Dong-A Ilbo) |date=1954-12-22}}</ref> about 20,000 prostitutes in 1966,<ref>{{cite news |title=달러市場(시장) 生態(생태) (5) 洋公主(양공주)가버는 外貨(외화)만年間(연간)2百(백)40萬弗(만불) |url=https://newslibrary.naver.com/viewer/index.nhn?articleId=1966072300099203004&editNo=1&printCount=1&publishDate=1966-07-23&officeId=00009&pageNo=3&printNo=104&publishType=00020 |agency=네이버뉴스라이브러리 |issue=Maeil Business Newspaper |publisher=매일경제 |date=1966-07-23}}</ref> reducing to 13,000-14,000 in 1969,<ref>{{cite news |title=美減軍(미감군)의 안팎을 진단하는 特輯(특집)시리즈 (5) 不況(불황)이깔리는 基地村(기지촌) |url=https://newslibrary.naver.com/viewer/index.nhn?articleId=1970072900329203001&editNo=2&printCount=1&publishDate=1970-07-29&officeId=00032&pageNo=3&printNo=7635&publishType=00020 |agency=네이버뉴스라이브러리 |issue=The Kyunghyang Shinmun |publisher=[[Kyunghyang Shinmun]] |date=1970-07-29}}</ref> then reducing further to 9,935 in 1977.<ref>{{cite news |title=박정희 전 대통령 '기지촌 여성 관리' 문건에 친필사인 결재 |url=https://www.polinews.co.kr/news/article.html?no=190425 |issue=2013–11–06 |publisher=폴리뉴스}}</ref>

The [[Second Republic of South Korea|Second Republic]] viewed prostitution as something of a necessity.<ref name=ny20090107b /> Starting in the 1960s, an official organized system was established to provide the U.S. military men with entertainment and leisure that fulfilled their sexual fantasies, such as [[peep show]]s and [[strip club]]s.{{sfn|Moon|1997|p=27}} Lawmakers of the [[National Assembly (South Korea)|National Assembly]] urged the South Korean government to train a supply of prostitutes for allied soldiers to prevent them from spending their dollars in Japan.<ref name=ny20090107b /> [[Lee Seung-u]], the deputy {{ill|Minister of Home Affairs (South Korea)|ko|내무부 장관|lt=home minister}}, gave a response to the National Assembly that the government had made some improvements in the "Supply of Prostitutes" for American soldiers.<ref name=ny20090107b /> These camptowns existed as a site for the American [[G.I. (military)|GIs]] R&R.{{Citation needed|date=June 2019}} [[File:Park Chung-hee, 1961-August-21.jpg|thumb|[[Park Chung-hee]] (left) shakes hands with [[General]] [[Guy S. Meloy]] after the [[May 16 coup]]. Park helped to enforce the "Base Community Clean-Up Campaign".<ref name=h050201 /><ref name=omn20040810>{{cite news |title='박정희 리스트'로 고구마 캐듯 수사김창룡이 '구명'제안, 백선엽이 결심 |trans-title=Kim Chang-ryong's proposal for 'life presumption' by Sweet Potato Kagamari as 'Park Jeong-hee List'|date=2004-08-10 |work=[[OhmyNews]] |url=http://www.ohmynews.com/NWS_Web/view/at_pg.aspx?CNTN_CD=A0000203207 |access-date=2013-05-22}}</ref>]]

Park seized power in the [[May 16 coup]], and immediately enforced two core laws.{{sfn|Lee|2010}} The first was the prostitution prevention law, which excluded "camp towns" from the governmental crackdown on prostitution; the second was the tourism promotion law, which designated camp towns as special tourism districts.{{sfn|Lee|2010}}

During the 1960s, prostitution and other related businesses generated nearly 25% of the South Korean [[GNP]].<ref name=joongang20081030>{{cite news|first=Soo-mee |last=Park |title=Former sex workers in fight for compensation |date=2008-10-30 |work=[[Joongang Daily]] |url=http://koreajoongangdaily.joinsmsn.com/news/article/article.aspx?aid=2896741 |access-date=2013-04-07 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130430220310/http://koreajoongangdaily.joinsmsn.com/news/article/article.aspx?aid=2896741 |archive-date=2013-04-30 }}</ref> In 1962, 20,000 comfort women were registered.<ref name=nd200900601/> The prostitutes attended classes sponsored by their government in English and etiquette to help them sell more effectively.<ref name=ny20090107a /> They were praised as "dollar-earning patriots" or "true patriots" by the South Korean government.<ref name=joong20050731 /><ref name=ny20090107a /> In the 1970s one junior high school teacher told his students that "The prostitutes who sell their bodies to the U.S. military are true patriots. Their dollars earned greatly contributes to our national economy. Don't talk behind their back that they are western princesses or U.N. madams."<ref name=DongaIlbo20001103>{{cite web|url=http://news.donga.com/Series/List_70070000000279/3/70070000000279/20001103/7603681/1?dis_box=1 |title=[늘보의 옛날신문읽기] 양공주, 유엔마담 그리고 화냥년 |trans-title=Reading the old newspaper of the Neul-Bo |website=[[The Dong-a Ilbo]] |date=2000-11-03 |access-date=2013-04-08}}</ref>

[[File:Camptown clean up campain signed by President Park Chung-hee in 1977.jpg|thumb|Base Community clean up policy, signed by President Park in 1977]]

In 1971, the number of American soldiers was reduced by 18,000 due to the [[Nixon Doctrine]].<ref name="h111128">{{cite news|url=http://h21.hani.co.kr/arti/cover/cover_general/30838.html|title=대한민국 정부가 포주였다 [2011.11.28 제887호] [표지이야기] 성매매 단속하는 척하며 여성을 외화벌이 수단으로 여겼던 한국 정부… 한국전쟁 때 위안소 설치하고, 독재정권은 주한미군·일본인 대상 성매매 조장해|trans-title=The Government of the Republic of Korea was a pimp |last=Kim|first=Tae|date=2011-11-28|access-date=2013-04-07|newspaper=[[Hankyoreh]]}}</ref><ref name="h121130">{{cite news|url=http://www.hani.co.kr/arti/society/society_general/563197.html|title=유신공주는 양공주 문제엔 관심이 없었다 |trans-title=Yu-shin was not interested in the issue of beef and pork |date=2012-11-30|work=[[The Hankyoreh]]|access-date=2013-04-07}}</ref> Because of this, South Koreans were more afraid of the North Korean threat and its economic impact.{{sfn|Höhn|2010|p=67}} Even so, camp town prostitution had already become an important component of South Korean livelihood.{{sfn|Höhn|2010|p=67}} The advocacy group [[My Sister's Place]] wrote in 1991 that the American soldiers contributed one billion dollars to the South Korean economy. This was 1% of the South Korean GNP.{{sfn|Moon|1997|loc=p 76, Quoting the newsletter of My Sister's Place, July 1991, p. 8}}

=== Racial segregation and discrimination against black soldiers === Camp town clubs were [[Racial segregation|racially segregated]] between blacks and whites, and women were classified according to the soldiers' race.<ref name=h050201 /> The residents near [[Camp Humphreys]] discriminated between black and white soldiers.<ref name=h050201>{{cite news |title='한-미 우호'의 아랫도리… '양공주'들을 민간외교관으로 활용하다 |trans-title=I have to say that I am ... Utilize "Yang-ho-ju" as a civilian diplomat |date=2005-02-01 |newspaper=[[Hankyoreh]] |url=http://legacy.www.hani.co.kr/section-005000000/2005/02/005000000200502011314001.html |access-date=2013-04-09 |archive-date=2014-07-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714193419/http://legacy.www.hani.co.kr/section-005000000/2005/02/005000000200502011314001.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Black soldiers vented their anger against camp town residents.<ref name=h050201 /> On July 9, 1971, fifty black soldiers provoked a riot against racist discrimination and destroyed some clubs near Camp Humphreys.<ref name=h050201 /> In turn, residents hunted down black soldiers with sickles.<ref name=h050201 /> American military police and South Korean police quelled the rioters.<ref name=h050201 /> Many Korean prostitutes demonstrated prejudiced behavior toward black soldiers by refusing to offer sexual services. Women who fraternized or sold sexual services to blacks were labeled as "black" by Americans and Koreans and faced severe social condemnation and stigmatization by others.{{sfn|Kim|1997|p={{page needed|date=May 2022}}}}

=== Camptown clean-up campaign === The significant increase in camptown problems and tensions among community relations resulted in a number of policies that sought to improve U.S. military camp areas.{{sfn|Moon|2006|pp=75–77}} In August 1971, the Secretary of {{ill|Ministry of Home Affairs (South Korea)|ko|대한민국 내무부|lt=Home Affairs Ministry}}, in cooperation with health authorities, gave orders to each police station to take precautions against [[Sexually-Transmitted Diseases|sexually transmitted diseases]] and to instruct prostitutes about them.<ref name="h111128" /> On December 22, 1971, [[Park Chung-hee]], the [[President of South Korea]], enforced the Base Community Clean-Up Campaign.<ref name="h050201"/> This also became known as the BCCUC.{{sfn|Dank|Refinetti|2000}} U.S. military personnel advised the South Korean government that the camp towns were breeding grounds for sexually transmitted infections and places of [[racist discrimination]].{{sfn|Cho|2008|p=107}} The [[venereal disease]] ratio per 1,000 American soldiers rapidly increased.<ref name="h121130" /> Through the collaboration of the United States and the Republic of Korea, these policies were implemented to prevent and correct unfavorable conditions and base-community relations.{{sfn|Moon|2006|pp=75–77}} The United States' military and the BCCUC worked separately on solving issues that pertained to the camptown improvements.{{Citation needed|date=June 2019}}

The BCCUC's goal was to create a favorable image of U.S. servicemen in South Korea among Korean nationals.{{Citation needed|date=June 2019}} However; in order to do so, the BCCUC needed to fix a "source of embarrassment",{{sfn|Moon|2006|p=79}} the high rates of venereal disease among the American GIs and Korean sex workers. Registering prostitutes, enforcing STD examinations, and improving clinics were ways the BCCUC attempted to control prostitution and reduce the rates of sexually transmitted diseases. The U.S. military's goal was to improve the living conditions for U.S. servicemen and boost troop morale and discipline.{{sfn|Moon|2006|p=77}} By establishing the Subcommittee on Civil Military Relations, the U.S. military began to attend to these goals by focusing on eradicating sexually transmitted diseases and reducing racial discrimination. Other tasks included widening roads, improving sanitation, and making R&R establishments more accessible and inviting were some measures taken to improve the overall camptown environment.{{Citation needed|date=June 2019}}

It is argued{{Specify|reason=by whom?|date=July 2019}} that this campaign forced prostitutes to carry the weight of American-Korean relations.{{sfn|Moon|2006|p=84}} The [[Military Police Corps (United States)|U.S. Military Police Corps]] and South Korean officials regularly raided prostitutes who were thought to be spreading disease. They would detain those thought to be ill, locking them up under guard in so-called "monkey houses" that had barred windows.<ref name="ny20090107a" /> The three-story facility <ref>{{cite web |last=Shorrock|first=Tim|publisher=Korean Quarterly|url=https://www.koreanquarterly.org/features/welcome-to-the-monkey-house/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201021100950/https://www.koreanquarterly.org/features/welcome-to-the-monkey-house/ |title=Welcome to the Monkey House|archive-date=21 October 2020}}</ref> near [[Camp Casey, South Korea|Camp Casey]], Korea was a medical jail for bar girls and prostitutes infected with [[sexually transmitted infection]]. (STD) The women were forced to take medications that were reported to make them vomit.<ref name="ny20090107a" /> Women who were certified to be without disease wore tags.<ref name="joong20050731" /> The U.S. military issued and required the prostitutes who worked at clubs to carry venereal disease cards and also published a venereal disease guide to inform American soldiers patronizing bars.{{sfn|Kuo|2005|p=72}}

=== South Korean women's movement === The women's movement against military prostitution began in the mid-1980s when Christian women and student movement activists came together to address the military prostitution issue.{{sfn|Lee|2011}} Ignited by the longstanding effort of Christian women organizations in the 1920s,{{Citation needed|date=June 2019}} it became a goal to eradicate prostitution. However, in the 1980s, the movement became focused on the relationship between women, [[democratization]], and [[Authoritarianism|US military authoritarian rule]]. Two groups joined for this movement: Christian women organizations and student activists. My Sister's Place, also known as ''Durebang'', was the first women's organization founded in 1986 to bring awareness to the kijich'on movement. Not only did they advocate for the abolishment of prostitution and against the exploitation of Korean women, My Sister's Place was also a center that provided educational and rehabilitation services for kijich'on women.{{sfn|Lee|2011}} The effort put into activism against kijich'on prostitution brought nationwide attention and became the subject for many feminist scholars.

=== Post-military government rule === {{See also|Yun Geum-i murder}}[[File:Gyeonggi-Dongducheon.svg|thumb|[[Dongducheon]], where many "juicy bars" and clubs are situated near military bases]] During the early 1990s, the prostitutes became a symbol of South Korean [[anti-American sentiment in Korea|anti-American nationalism]].{{sfn|Cho|2008|p=91}} In 1992, one estimate claimed there were about 18,000 registered and 9,000 unregistered South Korean women around U.S. military bases.<ref name=coatwap199911>{{cite news |title=Filipinas in Prostitution around U.S. Military Bases in Korea: A Recurring Nightmare |date=November 1999 |publisher=[[Coalition Against Trafficking in Women]] Asia Pacific |url=https://childhub.org/en/system/tdf/library/attachments/enriquez_catw_1996_filipin.pdf?file=1&type=node&id=16713 |first=Jean |last=Enriquez|access-date =2013-05-25}}</ref> Korean government figures for 1992 were about 1,129 prostitutes working around U.S. military bases,<ref>{{cite news |title=매춘지역및 기지촌 윤락여성 수 줄어...정무제2장관실 |url=https://www.hankyung.com/news/article/1993100501671 |agency=한국경제 |issue=The Korea Economic Daily |publisher=국정감사자료 |date=1993-10-05}}</ref> and around 926 in 1993 and around 8,000 (mostly foreign women) in 1995.<ref>{{cite news |title=한국인의 초상 (7) 美軍(미군)기지촌「혼혈문화」의 고향「한국속 아메리카」 |url=https://newslibrary.naver.com/viewer/index.nhn?articleId=1995021000209111001&editNo=45&printCount=1&publishDate=1995-02-10&officeId=00020&pageNo=11&printNo=22765&publishType=00010 |agency=네이버라이브러리 |publisher=[[The Dong-a Ilbo]] |date=1995-02-10}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=[기지촌의 사회학①] 필리핀 기지촌 여성의 싸움을 한 번 더 기록하는 이유 |url=https://news.sbs.co.kr/news/endPage.do?news_id=N1005274435 |issue=SBS NEWS |publisher=스브스 뉴스 |date=2019-05-21}}</ref>

In 1992, [[Yun Geum-i murder|Yun Geum-i]], a camptown sex worker in [[Dongducheon]], was brutally killed by U.S. servicemen.{{sfn|Cho|2008|p=115}}<!--Quote from source: In October 1992, a camptown sex worker named Yun Geum-I was brutally murdered by one of her clients during a dispute.--><ref name=joong20110930>{{cite news |title=After soldier held for rape, U.S. vows assistance |date=2011-09-30 |work=[[JoongAng Ilbo]] |url=http://koreajoongangdaily.joinsmsn.com/news/article/html/170/2942170.html |first=Gwang-lip |last=Moon |access-date=2013-04-12 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130619020155/http://koreajoongangdaily.joinsmsn.com/news/article/html/170/2942170.html |archive-date=2013-06-19 }}</ref>{{sfn|Moon|2009}} Yun was found dead with a bottle stuffed into her vagina and an umbrella into her anus.{{sfn|McHugh|2005|p=133}} In August 1993, the U.S. government compensated the victim's family with about US$72,000.<ref name=Hankyoreh20061028>{{cite news |title=U.S. soldier free after brutal 1992 murder |date=2006-10-28 |work=[[The Hankyoreh]] |url=http://www.hani.co.kr/arti/english_edition/e_national/167869.html |access-date=2013-04-15}}</ref> However, the murder of a prostitute did not itself spark a national debate about the [[U.S.–South Korea Status of Forces Agreement|prerogatives of the U.S. forces]]; on the other hand, the [[1995 Okinawa rape incident|rape of a twelve-year-old Okinawan school girl in 1995]] by three American servicemen, one being a [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy Seaman]], the others [[United States Marine Corps|U.S. Marines]], elicited much public outrage and brought wider attention to military-related violence against women.{{sfn|Moon|2009}}

Since 2004, the majority of prostitutes have been Philippine or [[Russian people|Russian]] women. South Korean sex workers have become less numerous as Filipino and Russian women were a cheaper labor alternative.<ref name=DongaIlbo20100427 /><ref name=sisapress030729>{{cite news |title=6·25의 사생아 '양공주' 통곡 50년 전쟁 그리고 약소국의 아픈 상처 '양공주'. 6·25가 끝난 지 50년이나 흘렀지만, 분단과 전쟁의 희생양인 양공주는 아직도 민족사 한가운데에서 총성 없는 전쟁을 치르고 있다. |trans-title=Major conglomerates, new recruits increase by 10% than originally planned ... 14.5% increase next year |date=2003-07-29 |work=[[Sisa Journal|시사저널]] |url=http://www.sisapress.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=1864 |access-date=2013-04-09 |archive-date=2014-07-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714232552/http://www.sisapress.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=1864 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Since the mid-1990s, foreigners make up 80–85% of the women working at clubs near military bases.<ref name=Hankyoreh20090228>{{cite news |title=[Editorial] Human trafficking in S. Korea |date=2009-02-28 |work=[[The Hankyoreh]] |url=http://english.hani.co.kr/arti/english_edition/e_editorial/341437.html |access-date=2013-04-14}}</ref> With the collapse of the [[Soviet Union]], thousands of Russian migrated to Korea to work as entertainers while others were forced into prostitution for both American soldiers and Korean civilian men.{{sfn|Soh|2008}}

Despite Filipino and Russian sex workers being the majority, Korean prostitutes are still present in large numbers. According to the [[Ministry of Gender Equality and Family]], South Korean prostitutes numbered about 330,000 in 2002.<ref name=joong20040902>{{cite news |title=New figures on sex trade anger Seoul |date=2004-09-02 |work=[[Joongang Daily]] |url=http://koreajoongangdaily.joinsmsn.com/news/article/article.aspx?aid=2463698 |first=Kyung-ran |last=Moon |access-date=2013-04-12 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130619012606/http://koreajoongangdaily.joinsmsn.com/news/article/article.aspx?aid=2463698 |archive-date=2013-06-19 }}</ref> Most of these are not working near US bases, but operating in the local economy.

In August 1999, a Korean club owner in [[Dongducheon]] was accused of trafficking in women by bringing more than 1000 Philippine and Russian women into South Korea for U.S. military bases, but a South Korean judge overturned the warrant.<ref name=Time20020805 /> In 2000, five foreign women locked in a brothel died in a fire in [[Gunsan]].{{sfn|Hughes|Chon|Ellerman|2016}}

In 2002, [[Fox Television]] reported casing brothels where trafficked women were allegedly forced to prostitute themselves to American soldiers.<ref name=Time20020805>{{cite magazine |title=Base Instincts |date=2002-08-05 |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,333899,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071114120854/https://time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,333899,00.html|archive-date=November 14, 2007 |first=Donald |last=Macintyre |url-status=dead |access-date=2013-04-23}}</ref> U.S. soldiers testified that the club or bar owners buy the women at auctions, therefore the women must earn large sums of money to recover their [[passport]]s and freedom.{{sfn|Hughes|Chon|Ellerman|2016}} In May 2002, [[United States Congress|U.S. lawmakers]] asked [[United States Secretary of Defense|U.S. Secretary of Defense]] [[Donald Rumsfeld]] for an investigation that "If U.S. soldiers are patrolling or frequenting these establishments, the military is in effect helping to line the pockets of human traffickers".<ref name=Time20020805 />

In June 2002, the U.S. Department of Defense pledged to investigate the trafficking allegations.<ref name=Time20020805 /> In 2003, the [[Seoul]] District Court ruled that three night club owners near [[Camp Casey, South Korea|Camp Casey]] must compensate all [[Filipina]] women who had been forced into prostitution.<ref name=joong20030531 /> The club owners had taken their passports and had kept the women locked up.<ref name=joong20021017>{{cite news |title=11 Filipinas sue owners of club |date=2002-10-17 |work=[[Joongang Daily]] |url=http://koreajoongangdaily.joinsmsn.com/news/article/article.aspx?aid=1909907 |first=Seung-hyun |last=Kim |access-date=2013-04-12 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130619004659/http://koreajoongangdaily.joinsmsn.com/news/article/article.aspx?aid=1909907 |archive-date=2013-06-19 }}</ref> One Philippine woman who was in captivity kept a diary about her confinement, beating, [[abortion]] and [[starvation]].<ref name="joong20021019">{{cite news|url=http://koreajoongangdaily.joinsmsn.com/news/article/article.aspx?aid=1910008|title=[EDITORIALS]Deliver them from 'hell'|date=2002-10-19|work=[[Joongang Daily]]|access-date=2013-04-08|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130613134822/http://koreajoongangdaily.joinsmsn.com/news/article/article.aspx?aid=1910008|archive-date=2013-06-13}}</ref> Before the trial began, the [[International Organization for Migration]] studied the trafficking of foreign women and reported the result to its headquarters in [[Geneva]].<ref name=joong20021019 /> The [[Philippine Embassy]] also joined the proceedings, making it the first embassy to take steps on behalf of its nationals.<ref name=joong20030531>{{cite news |title=Court rules in favor of Filipina prostitutes |date=2003-05-31 |work=[[JoongAng Ilbo]] |url=http://koreajoongangdaily.joinsmsn.com/news/article/article.aspx?aid=1987730 |access-date=2013-04-12 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130619001522/http://koreajoongangdaily.joinsmsn.com/news/article/article.aspx?aid=1987730 |archive-date=2013-06-19 }}</ref>

In 2002, the South Korean government completely discontinued issuing visas to [[Russia]]n women, so prostitution businesses moved to bring in more Filipinas instead.<ref name="Hankyoreh20091201">{{cite news|url=http://english.hani.co.kr/arti/english_edition/e_international/390782.html|title=Filipinas forced into prostitution on the rise in S.Korea|date=2009-12-01|work=[[The Hankyoreh]]|access-date=2013-04-08}}</ref><ref name=Hankyoreh20090228 /> [[Human trafficking|Human traffickers]] also brought in many Russian women through marriages and [[sham marriage]]s with Korean men so they could stay legally in South Korea.<ref name=Hankyoreh20090228 /> In 2005, Filipina and Russian women became common in Korean red light districts and even accounted for 90 percent of the prostitutes in U.S. military camp towns.{{sfn|Lee|2010|p=126}} In 2005, [[Hwang Sook-hyang]], a club owner in Dongducheon, was sentenced to a 10-month [[suspended sentence]] and 160 hours of [[community service]] on charges of illegal [[Procuring (prostitution)|brothel-keeping]].<ref name=SS20050806>{{cite news |title=Ex-bar worker who was forced into prostitution wins $5,000 judgment|first=Seth|last=Robson |date=August 6, 2005 |work=[[Stars and Stripes (newspaper)|Stars and Stripes]] |url=http://www.stripes.com/news/ex-bar-worker-who-was-forced-into-prostitution-wins-5-000-judgment-1.36633 |access-date=2013-05-16}}</ref> The following civil trial sentenced him to compensate US$5,000 to a Philippine woman who was forced to have sex with U.S. soldiers between February 8 and March 3, 2004.<ref name=SS20050806 /> The Philippine woman was recruited by a South Korean company in the Philippines as a [[nightclub singer]] in 2004, then she and several Philippine women were locked inside Hwang's club and forced to have sex with U.S. soldiers.<ref name=SS20050806 /> The former "juicy bar" employees testified that soldiers usually paid US$150 to bring women from the bar to a hotel room for sex; the women received US$40.<ref name=SS20090909 /> Most juicy bars have a quota system linked to drink purchases.<ref name=SS20090909 /> Women who do not sell enough juice are forced into prostitution by their managers.<ref name=SS20090909 />

In 2004, the [[United States Department of Defense|U.S. Defense Department]] proposed anti-prostitution policies. A U.S. serviceman at Camp Foster (located on Okinawa) told a ''[[Stars and Stripes (newspaper)|Stars and Stripes]]'' reporter that although prostitution was illegal in the United States, South Korea, [[Thailand]] and [[Australia]], it was "pretty open".<ref name=SS20040925>{{cite news |title=Troops mixed on anti-prostitution proposal|first=David|last=Allen |date=September 25, 2004 |work=[[Stars and Stripes (newspaper)|Stars and Stripes]] |url=http://www.stripes.com/news/troops-mixed-on-anti-prostitution-proposal-1.24476 |access-date=2013-05-17}}</ref> By 2009, the Philippine Embassy in South Korea had established a "Watch List" of bars where Philippine women were forced into prostitution and were considering sharing it with the U.S. military in hopes that U.S. commanders would put such establishments near bases off-limits to their troops.<ref name=SS20090926>{{cite news |title=Philippine Embassy has 'watch list' of suspect bars in South Korea|first=Jon|last=Rabiroff |date=September 26, 2009 |work=[[Stars and Stripes (newspaper)|Stars and Stripes]] |url=http://www.stripes.com/news/philippine-embassy-has-watch-list-of-suspect-bars-in-south-korea-1.95038 |access-date=2013-05-15}}</ref>

As of 2009, some 3,000 to 4,000 women working as prostitutes came annually from [[Southeast Asia]], accounting for 90% of the prostitutes.<ref name=ips20090707>{{cite news |title=RIGHTS-SOUTH KOREA: Prostitution Thrives with U.S. Military Presence|first=Zoltán |last=Dujisin |date=Jul 7, 2009 |publisher=[[Inter Press Service]] |url=http://www.ipsnews.net/2009/07/rights-south-korea-prostitution-thrives-with-us-military-presence/ |access-date=2013-05-15}}</ref> Despite prostitution being illegal in South Korea, camp towns were still practically exempted from crackdowns.<ref name=ips20090707 />

In 2011, the [[Eighth United States Army|Eighth Army]] founded the Prevention of Sexual Assault Task Force; the task force assessed and reported the climate in South Korea regarding [[sexual assault]] among U.S. soldiers.<ref name=SS20130521>{{cite news |title=Report underscores Army's ineffectiveness to prevent sexual assaults in Korea|first=Ashley|last=Rowland |date=May 21, 2013 |work=[[Stars and Stripes (newspaper)|Stars and Stripes]] |url=http://www.stripes.com/report-underscores-army-s-ineffectiveness-to-prevent-sexual-assaults-in-korea-1.221886 |access-date=2013-05-21}}</ref>

In 2012, a United States Forces Korea public service announcement clarified, "Right now, young women are being lured to Korea thinking they will become singers and dancers," and "Instead, they will be sexually exploited in order to support their families." The [[United States Forces Korea]] posted a video on [[YouTube]], clarifying that "buying overpriced drinks in a juicy bar supports the human trafficking industry, a form of modern-day [[slavery]]." However, some U.S. commanders continue to allow American soldiers to patronize the bars as long as they have not been caught directly engaging in prostitution or human trafficking.<ref name=SS20121220>{{cite news |title=USFK video links 'juicy bars' with human trafficking |first=Jon |last=Rabiroff |date=December 20, 2012 |work=[[Stars and Stripes (newspaper)|Stars and Stripes]] |url=http://www.stripes.com/news/usfk-video-links-juicy-bars-with-human-trafficking-1.201373 |access-date=2013-05-16 |archive-date=2013-05-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130506100416/http://www.stripes.com/news/usfk-video-links-juicy-bars-with-human-trafficking-1.201373 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Most recently, in June 2013, General [[Jan-Marc Jouas]] placed all juicy bars outside [[Osan Air Base]] [[Jan-Marc Jouas#Commander of the Seventh Air Force|off-limits]] for [[Seventh Air Force]] personnel. This change in policy resulted in three weeks of large scale protests in the local area; however, General Jouas credits this change in policy as resulting in most juicy bars in the area closing down.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stripes.com/news/pacific/businesses-counter-protest-juicy-bars-demo-outside-osan-1.226238|title=Businesses counter-protest 'juicy bars' demo outside Osan|website=Stars and Stripes}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stripes.com/news/pacific/bar-owners-workers-protest-osan-s-off-limits-ban-on-juicy-bars-1.225849|title=Bar owners, workers protest Osan's off-limits ban on juicy bars|website=Stars and Stripes|access-date=2013-12-08|archive-date=2015-09-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924131959/http://www.stripes.com/news/pacific/bar-owners-workers-protest-osan-s-off-limits-ban-on-juicy-bars-1.225849|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.osan.af.mil/news/commentary/story.asp?id=123355554|title=Commentary - Fighting human trafficking - the Songtan Protest and its aftermath|website=af.mil|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131215232029/http://www.osan.af.mil/news/commentary/story.asp?id=123355554|archive-date=2013-12-15}}</ref>

In 2013, the [[Government of the Philippines]] stopped approving contracts that promoters used to bring Philippine women to South Korea to work near U.S. military bases.<ref name=SS20100618>{{cite news |title=Report on human trafficking cites South Korean juicy bars|first=Jon|last=Rabiroff |date=June 18, 2010 |work=[[Stars and Stripes (newspaper)|Stars and Stripes]] |url=http://www.stripes.com/news/pacific/report-on-human-trafficking-cites-south-korean-juicy-bars-1.107610 |access-date=2013-05-15 }}</ref>

On June 25, 2014, 122 surviving Korean comfort women for the U.S. forces filed a lawsuit against their government to reclaim human dignity and demand [[South Korean won|₩]]10 million compensation per plaintiff. According to the claim, they were supervised by the U.S. forces and the South Korean government and South Korean authorities colluded with pimps in blocking them from leaving.<ref>{{cite web |title=Claims South Korea Provided Sex Slaves for U.S. Troops Go to Court |website=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |date=Jul 15, 2014 |url=http://blogs.wsj.com/korearealtime/2014/07/15/claims-south-korea-provided-sex-slaves-for-u-s-troops-go-to-court/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808073410/http://blogs.wsj.com/korearealtime/2014/07/15/claims-south-korea-provided-sex-slaves-for-u-s-troops-go-to-court/ |archive-date=8 August 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Former Korean 'comfort women' for U.S. troops sue own government |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-southkorea-usa-military-idUSKBN0FG0VV20140711 |author=Ju-Min Park|date=11 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140723211012/http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/07/11/us-southkorea-usa-military-idUSKBN0FG0VV20140711 |archive-date=23 July 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.yahoo.com/former-korean-comfort-women-u-troops-sue-own-104514461.html|title=Former Korean 'comfort women' for U.S. troops sue own government|date=11 July 2014|website=Yahoo News}}</ref> In 2017, a three judge panel of the Central District Court in Seoul ordered the government to pay 57 plaintiffs the equivalent of $4,240 each in compensation for physical and psychological damage.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/20/world/asia/south-korea-court-comfort-women.html|title=South Korea Illegally Held Prostitutes Who Catered to G.I.s Decades Ago, Court Says|date=January 20, 2017|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref>

Since 2014, USFK has banned all American military service members from visiting any establishments that allow patrons to buy drinks (or juice) for the hostesses for the purposes of their companionship.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.stripes.com/news/pacific/usfk-bans-buying-drinks-for-juicy-bar-workers-1.310811|title=USFK bans buying drinks for 'juicy bar' workers|website=Stars and Stripes|access-date=2016-05-09}}</ref> Hostess bars, juicy bars and anywhere that the company of women can be purchased are off-limits to the American military. Since US military service members were a large source of the hostess bars' clientele, this effectively closed all hostessing themed establishments nearby to all US military bases in Korea.

== Trafficking in persons (TIP) ranking ==

{{as of|2022}}. the [[United States Department of State|U.S. State Department]] [[Trafficking in Persons Report]] evaluates each country's progress in anti-trafficking and places each country in a tiered ranking based on their governments' efforts to comply with the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking as prescribed by the [[Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000]] (TVPA):<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-trafficking-in-persons-report|title=2022 Trafficking in Persons Report|publisher=U.S. Department of State}}</ref> *Tier 1: Countries whose governments fully meet the TVPA's minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking. *Tier 2: Countries whose governments do not fully meet the TVPA's minimum standards but are making significant efforts to bring themselves into compliance with those standards. *Tier 3: Countries whose governments do not fully meet the TVPA's minimum standards and are not making significant efforts to do so.

The 2021 TIP report ranked South Korea in Tier 1.<ref>{{cite report|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-trafficking-in-persons-report/south-korea/|title=2021 Trafficking in Persons Report: South Korea|publisher=U.S. State Deportment Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons|access-date=July 13, 2021}}</ref> The 2022 report downgraded the country to Tier 2.<ref>{{cite report|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-trafficking-in-persons-report/south-korea/|title=2022 Trafficking in Persons Report: South Korea|publisher=U.S. State Deportment Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons|access-date=February 21, 2022}}</ref>

== Policies == Foreign policies between the United States and Republic of Korea determined the U.S.'s occupation and influence in South Korea. Through collaboration between Korean leaders and the U.S. military, an institutionalized system transpired which tolerated and regulated prostitution. The arrival of American GIs resulted in greater demand for Korean sex workers and an increase in clientele for R&R (Rest and Relaxation{{sfn|Moon|1997|p=85}}) establishments.

=== Abolishment of public prostitution law === The Abolishment of Public Prostitution Law (Public Act No. 7) was passed on November 11, 1947, and took effect on February 14, 1948. The U.S. policy was installed in order to alter the system of licensed prostitution which was established in Korea under Japan's rule. Despite the abolishment of licensed prostitution, it only led to the “privatization” of prostitution and the widespread dispersement of prostitutes throughout the area.{{sfn|Lee|2007|pp=466–468}} This made it difficult for the government to systematically regulate prostitutes and their activities; specifically, mandatory STD exams for prostitutes could no longer be enforced. This resulted in a large spike of STD's among prostitutes and the U.S. military.{{sfn|Lee|2007|p=469}} Rehabilitation and welfare assistance for prostitutes were supposed to be a part of the new law; however, policymakers denied national funds towards these programs.

Through the Abolishment of Public Prostitution Law, the U.S. military government replaced licensed establishments of prostitution to camptowns near military bases. This provided a communal space for prostitutes and U.S. military men.

=== Mutual defense treaty === {{main|Mutual Defense Treaty (United States–South Korea)}} The United States' involvement in aiding South Korea during the Korean War (1950–1953) resulted in the Mutual Defense Treaty in 1953 that declared the Republic of Korea and the United States as military allies. Through this treaty, the Republic of Korea formally granted military facilities, areas, and status for U.S. troops in Korea for an indefinite period.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/resource/modern-korean-history-portal/us-korea-military-alliance|title=US-Korea Military Alliance|last=Oh|first=Daniel|website=Wilson Center Digital Archive|access-date=2019-05-15}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usfk.mil/About/SOFA/|title=Status of Forces Agreement|website=www.usfk.mil|access-date=2019-05-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Facilities and Areas and the Status of United States Armed Forces in Korea |url=https://www.usfk.mil/Portals/105/Documents/SOFA/A01_SOFA.Art.I-XXXI.pdf |website=www.usfk.mil |access-date=10 June 2019 |date=9 July 1966}}</ref> The presence of U.S. military troops, under the Mutual Defense Treaty, were the product of high kijich'on prostitution rates.{{sfn|Moon|2006|p=29}}

=== Nixon doctrine === {{main|Nixon Doctrine}} In 1969, the Nixon Doctrine declared the need to reduce the United States' military involvement from Asia. This resulted in 20,000 U.S. servicemen being removed from South Korea and the formal withdrawal of American GIs from the DMZ.{{sfn|Moon|2006|p=59}} Due to the economic dependence on the U.S. military's presence for jobs and income, prostitution decreased but competition significantly heightened among clubs, other businesses, and sex workers. Newspapers reported the significant economic losses and the widespread dislocation that occurred after the removal of U.S. troops. It was publicized that some establishments went from making $200 to $300 per night to a profit of $4 to $5.{{sfn|Moon|2006|pp=68-69}} Many who lived near U.S. bases needed to relocate to more concentrated areas while others found work in different industries. The removal of U.S. troops under the Nixon Doctrine caused an increase in camptown problems and great resentment towards the United States.

== Kijich'on (military camptown) == The large army [[kijichon|''Kijich'on'']] (lit. camp towns) were mainly located near the demilitarized zone (DMZ) which is between North and South Korea.{{sfn|Moon|1997|p=7}} The most popular camptowns were [[Pyeongtaek]], [[Paju]], [[Dongducheon]], and [[Uijeongbu]] which have developed near main U.S. army bases.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web|last=Lee|first=Na Young|date=2006|title=The Construction of U.S. Camptown Prostitution in South Korea: Trans/Formation and Resistance|url=https://drum.lib.umd.edu/bitstream/handle/1903/4162/umi-umd-3959.pdf;sequence=1}}</ref> Kijich’on towns were neighbored to U.S. military camp bases and contain a combination of American and Korean residents.{{sfn|Moon|1997|p=17}} These towns consisted of businesses and entertainment that served the interests of U.S. military men. In brothels, bars, and clubs, these R&R establishments provided kijich'on women for American GIs. Camptowns also contained other businesses such as barbershops, pawnshops, convenience stores, and so forth.<ref name=":02" /> The camp towns relied solely on the traffic of customers that is brought by the kijich'on nightlife.

From the 1950s to the 1970s, the Kyŏnggi Province housed the majority of U.S. army troops and Korean sex workers. In 1977, 18,551 of the estimated 36,924 Korean sex workers were located in the Kyŏnggi Province.{{sfn|Moon|1997|p=7}} In 2001, 21 out of 34 remaining U.S. military bases are located in the Kyŏnggi Province. Within the Kyŏnggi Province, Tongduch’ŏn, P’yŏngt’aek, P’aju, and Ŭijŏngbu are the most concentrated cities for prostitution.<ref name=":02" />

== Women and offspring == {{See also|Amerasian#South Korea}}

The children born to American soldiers and South Korean prostitutes were often abandoned when soldiers returned to the U.S.<ref name=jooogang20120613 /> By the 1970s, tens of thousands of children had been born to South Korean women and American soldiers.<ref name=sisapress030729 /> In South Korea, these children are often the target of racist vitriol and abuse, being called mostly "western princess bastards" (''Yanggongju-ssaekki'') children of white soldiers, and a minority born to black soldiers were "darkies", or "niggers" (''Kkamdungi'').{{sfn|Cheng|2010|p=63}} It was difficult for South Korean prostitutes around the U.S. military bases to escape from being stigmatized by their society, so their only hope was to move to the [[United States]] and marry an American soldier.{{sfn|Hughes|Chon|Ellerman|2016}} Trafficked Filipinas also had the same expectation.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Vine |first1=David |title='My body was not mine, but the US military's' |url=https://www.politico.eu/article/my-body-was-not-mine-but-the-u-s-militarys/ |website=Politico |access-date=9 June 2019 |date=3 November 2015}}</ref>

Some American soldiers paid off the women's debt to their owners to free them in order to marry them.{{sfn|Hughes|Chon|Ellerman|2016}} However, most U.S. soldiers were unaware of the trafficking.{{failed verification|date=July 2021}} Some soldiers helped Philippine women escape from clubs.<ref name=Time20020805 /> In 2009, juicy bar owners near [[Camp Casey, South Korea|Camp Casey]] who had political muscle demanded that U.S. military officials do something to prevent G.I.s from wooing away their bar girls with promises of marriage.<ref name=SS20090909>{{cite news|title='Juicy bars' said to be havens for prostitution aimed at U.S. military|first=Jon|last=Rabiroff|date=September 9, 2009|work=[[Stars and Stripes (newspaper)|Stars and Stripes]]|url=http://www.stripes.com/news/juicy-bars-said-to-be-havens-for-prostitution-aimed-at-u-s-military-1.8019|access-date=2013-05-15|archive-date=2013-05-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130509141128/http://www.stripes.com/news/juicy-bars-said-to-be-havens-for-prostitution-aimed-at-u-s-military-1.8019|url-status=dead}}</ref> In June 2010, U.S. forces started a program to search for soldiers who had left and abandoned a wife or children.<ref name=DongaIlbo20100427 /> ''Haunting the Korean Diaspora: Shame, Secrecy, and the Forgotten War'', a research on prostitutes by [[Grace M. Cho]], daughter of a [[G.I. (military)|G.I.]] and a South Korean woman, was awarded the best 2010 book on Asia and Asian America by the [[American Sociological Association]].<ref name=csi>{{cite web |title=Cho Wins Best Book on Asia Award |first=Joel |last=Cohen |date=June 28, 2010 |publisher=[[College of Staten Island]] |url=http://csitoday.com/2010/06/cho-wins-best-book-on-asia-award/ |access-date=2013-04-26 }}</ref><ref name=bam>{{cite web |title=Fresh Ink |date=January–February 2011 |website=[[Brown University|Brown Alumni Magazine]] |url=http://www.brownalumnimagazine.com/content/view/2753/ |access-date=2013-04-26}}</ref>

A former South Korean prostitute said to ''[[The New York Times]]'' that they have been the biggest sacrifice of the [[Mutual Defense Treaty Between the United States and the Republic of Korea]].<ref name=ny20090107b>{{cite news |first=Sang-hun |last=Choe |title=Ex-Prostitutes Say South Korea and U.S. Enabled Sex Trade Near Bases (page 2) |date=2009-01-07 |work=[[New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/08/world/asia/08korea.html?pagewanted=2&_r=2&sq=Comfort |access-date=2013-04-07 }}</ref> The women also see themselves as war victims.<ref name=joongang20081030 /> They are seeking compensation and apologies.<ref name=ny20090107a>{{cite news |first=Sang-hun |last=Choe |title=Ex-Prostitutes Say South Korea and U.S. Enabled Sex Trade Near Bases |date=2009-01-07 |work=[[New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/08/world/asia/08korea.html |access-date=2013-04-07}}</ref> Because of this tainted history, the primary stereotype that most South Koreans held of South Korean women who had copulated with white men or "crackers" ("Hindungi") was mainly negative.<ref name=jooogang20120613 /> Besides, the first [[transnational marriage]]s were mostly between U.S. soldiers and Korean women who worked in U.S. military bases or who were camp prostitutes.<ref name=joong20051023 /> The U.S. government has no official statistic on the number of Korean women married to U.S. soldiers. Others come from unconfirmed statistics from writers. The author Grace M. Cho came up with her own estimate, claiming that by 2010, 100,000 Korean women had married U.S. soldiers and moved to the United States.<ref name=csi /><ref name=bam /> South Korean women married to foreigners are often viewed as prostitutes.{{sfn|Kim|1997|p={{page needed|date=May 2022}}}} Marriages between South Koreans and foreigners often carry a serious stigma in South Korean society.<ref name=joong20051023>{{cite news |title=Forum tackles overseas marriages |date=2005-10-23 |work=[[JoongAng Daily]] |url=http://koreajoongangdaily.joinsmsn.com/news/article/article.aspx?aid=2633151 |first=Soe-jung |last=Kim |access-date=2013-04-12 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130619010404/http://koreajoongangdaily.joinsmsn.com/news/article/article.aspx?aid=2633151 |archive-date=2013-06-19 }}</ref> A woman who is married to a [[Spaniards|Spaniard]] said that almost 100% of middle-aged South Korean men look her up and down when she walks hand in hand with her husband.<ref name=joinsmsn20120314>{{cite news |title=[권석천의 시시각각] 내 마음속 제노포비아 |trans-title=[Kwon Seokchun's Revolution] In my heart Genov Flavia|date=2012-03-14 |work=[[JoongAng Ilbo]] |url=http://article.joinsmsn.com/news/article/article.asp?total_id=7609778 |first=Seok-cheon |last=Gwon |access-date=2013-04-27|url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141026101040/http://article.joins.com/news/article/article.asp?total_id=7609778 |archive-date=26 October 2014}}</ref>

Internationally married women in the United States often faced prejudice once they arrived in America. Many people assumed the women were camp-town workers or [[sex worker]]s.<ref>{{cite book | last=Yuh | first=J.Y. | title=Beyond the Shadow of Camptown: Korean Military Brides in America | publisher=NYU Press | series=Nation of Nations | year=2004 | isbn=978-0-8147-9699-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RSoUCgAAQBAJ | page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=RSoUCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA12 12]}}</ref>

== In popular culture and contemporary art ==

=== Socially engaged art === * ''Ppeppeorl: The Montage of Time and Space'' by Dalo Hyunjoo Kim and Cho Gwang Hee, (2022) * ''Strange meetings'' by [https://janejinkaisen.com/strange-meetings-2017 Jane Jin Kaisen], (2017) * ''[https://collectingfrag.men/ts/ Gijichon: Collecting Fragment]'' by [https://alexwrit.es/on-elusive-history/ Alex Heeyeon Kil] * ''Narrow Sorrow'' by [http://www.sirenjung.com/index.php/dongducheon-project/narrow-sorrow/ siren eun young jung], (2007)

=== Films === * ''The Women Outside: Korean Women and the U.S. Military'' (1995) is a documentary produced by Hye Jung Park and J.T. Takagi. * ''Comfort Woman - Wianbu (2008)'' is a short film directed and produced by James Bang. It was nominated for the 35th Student Academy Awards. * ''The Evil Night'' (1952) and ''[[A Flower in Hell]]'' (1958) by [[Shin Sang-ok]] depict South Korean prostitutes within the films.{{sfn|Cho|2008|pp=104–105}}<ref name="joong20020118">{{cite news |title=The Reel Story |date=2002-01-18 |work=[[Joongang Daily]] |url=http://koreajoongangdaily.joinsmsn.com/news/article/article.aspx?aid=1899522 |first=Inēs |last=Cho |access-date=2013-04-12 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130619002037/http://koreajoongangdaily.joinsmsn.com/news/article/article.aspx?aid=1899522 |archive-date=2013-06-19 }}</ref> * ''Silver Stallion'' (1991) by [[Chang Kil-su]] shows a prostitute symbolizing the raped nation of Korea.<ref name="HyunseonLee" /> * ''[[Spring in My Hometown]]'' (1998) by [[Lee Kwang-mo]] depicts a prostitute waiting for her American lover who never returns.<ref name="HyunseonLee" /> * ''[[Address Unknown (2001 film)|Address Unknown]]'' (2001) by [[Kim Ki-duk]] depicts the lover of a prostitute who never returns to South Korea.<ref name="HyunseonLee" /> * ''Bloodless'' (2017) by Gina Kim is based on the true story of a South Korean prostitute, Yun Keum Yi, brutally murdered by a US soldier in 1992.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ginakimfilms.com/filmography/#/bloodless-2017/|title=Films|website=Gina Kim|access-date=2017-12-07|archive-date=2017-12-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171207140754/http://www.ginakimfilms.com/filmography/#/bloodless-2017/|url-status=dead}}</ref> * ''Camp Arirang'' (1995) * ''[[Juicy Girl (2021 film)|Juicy Girl]]'' (2021) short film directed by MJ Kim depicts a story of Soyoung, a sex trafficking victim who is murdered by a US Army medic in Korea.{{citation needed|date=March 2024}}

=== Theater === * ''Seven Neighborhoods Like Warm Sisters'' depicts prostitutes living near [[Camp Humphreys]].<ref name="joong20130412">{{cite news |title=A tantalizing season for theatergoers has arrived |date=2013-04-12 |work=[[Joongang Daily]] |url=http://koreajoongangdaily.joinsmsn.com/news/article/article.aspx?aid=2970017 |first=Gwang-lip |last=Moon |access-date=2013-04-12 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130619000748/http://koreajoongangdaily.joinsmsn.com/news/article/article.aspx?aid=2970017 |archive-date=2013-06-19 }}</ref><ref name="joinsmsn20130413">{{cite news |title=감추고픈 기지촌의 역사 <일곱집매> |trans-title=The History of the Kunchon Village|date=2013-04-13 |work=[[Joongang Ilbo]] |url=http://article.joinsmsn.com/news/article/article.asp?total_id=11219267 |first=Haewon |last=Moon |access-date=2013-04-27 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130619002948/http://article.joinsmsn.com/news/article/article.asp?total_id=11219267 |archive-date=2013-06-19 }}</ref> * Though it is not set in South Korea, the theme of ''[[Miss Saigon]]'' (1989) is based upon the romantic encounter between an American serviceman and a Vietnamese prostitute during the [[Vietnam War]].

=== Novels === * ''Memories of My Ghost Brother'' by [[Heinz Insu Fenkl]] (1996) * ''Shorty Kim'' (1957).<ref name="HyunseonLee" /> * ''[[Obaltan|A Stray Bullet]]'' by [[Yu Hyun-mok]] depicts one woman who becomes a prostitute to rescue her family.<ref name="HyunseonLee" /> * ''What Crashes, Has Wings'' (1988).<ref name="HyunseonLee" />

== See also == * [[Sexual slavery]] * [[Bordel militaire de campagne]] * [[Wartime sexual violence]] * [[Lai Đại Hàn]] * [[Prostitution in South Korea]]

== References == {{Reflist}}

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==External links== {{Commons category|Comfort women of South Korea}} * [https://ctip.defense.gov Combating Trafficking in Persons (CTIP)] * {{youTube |adQQ1mQFdUc | Human Trafficking public service announcement}}, [[United States Forces Korea]] Nov 20, 2012 * {{youTube |BtlaRjFhJII | Women outside: Korean women and US Military}} * {{youTube |7jlfAqR8uBc | Comfort Women: Do you hear their cry?}} * {{youTube |NUWv_sGw6Pk | This could now say: Sex alliance-cleansing exercise camptowns}} {{in lang|ko}} * {{cite web|url=http://www.koreabang.com/2013/stories/10000-korean-children-born-to-filipina-prostitutes.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20141024131856/http://www.koreabang.com/2013/stories/10000-korean-children-born-to-filipina-prostitutes.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=October 24, 2014|title=10,000 Korean Children Born to Filipina Prostitutes|first=Harald|last=Olsen|date=June 25, 2013|publisher=Korea Bang}} * Cho, Grace M, [https://www.feministpress.org/books-n-z/tastes-like-war ''Tastes of War: A Korean American daughter's exploration of food and family history, in order to understand her mother's schizophrenia.''], The Feminist Press, May 18, 2021. {{ISBN|978-1952177941}}.

[[Category:Allied occupation of Korea]] [[Category:Anti-American sentiment in South Korea]] [[Category:Civilians in war]] [[Category:Forced prostitution]] [[Category:Human trafficking in South Korea]] [[Category:Korean-American history]] [[Category:United States war crimes in the Korean War]] [[Category:Military brothels]] [[Category:Philippines–South Korea relations]] [[Category:Philippines–United States relations]] [[Category:Prostitution in South Korea]] [[Category:Russia–South Korea relations]] [[Category:Immigration to South Korea]] [[Category:Sexual assault in the United States military]] [[Category:Sexual slavery during wars]] [[Category:South Korea–United States relations]] [[Category:United States in the Korean War]] [[Category:United States military scandals in South Korea]] [[Category:Wartime sexual violence in Asia]] [[Category:Women in war in Korea]] [[Category:Women in war 1945–1999]]