{{Short description|Provision of water by public utilities, commercial organisations or others}} {{Redirect|Waterworks}} [[File:Africa Watsan 7 (10665637964).jpg|thumb|upright|A girl collects clean water from a communal water supply in [[Kawempe]], [[Uganda]].]]
'''Water supply''' is the provision of [[water]] by [[public utility|public utilities]], commercial organisations, community endeavors or by individuals, usually via a system of pumps and [[Water pipe|pipes]]. Public water supply systems are crucial to properly functioning societies. These systems are what supply drinking water to populations around the globe.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Public Supply Water Use|url=https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/public-supply-water-use?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects|access-date=2021-10-03|website=www.usgs.gov|language=en}}</ref> Aspects of service quality include continuity of supply, [[water quality]] and water pressure. The institutional responsibility for water supply is arranged differently in different countries and regions (urban versus rural). It usually includes issues surrounding policy and regulation, service provision and [[standardization]].
The cost of supplying water consists, to a very large extent, of fixed costs (capital costs and personnel costs) and only to a small extent of variable costs that depend on the amount of water consumed (mainly energy and chemicals). Almost all service providers in the world charge tariffs to recover part of their costs.
Water supply is a separate topic from [[irrigation]], the practice and systems of water supply on a larger scale, for a wider variety of purposes, primarily [[agriculture]].{{TOC level|3}}
== Technical overview == [[File:Engine room at water works; Toledo-O - DPLA - 03776e461315e063546dc401d72e022c (page 1).jpg|thumb|right|Engine room of municipal water works in Toledo, Ohio, 1908]]
Water supply systems get water from a variety of locations after appropriate treatment, including [[groundwater]] ([[aquifer]]s), [[surface water]] ([[lake]]s and [[river]]s), and the sea through [[desalination]]. The [[water treatment]] steps include, in most cases, [[Water purification|purification]], disinfection through [[Water chlorination|chlorination]] and sometimes [[fluoridation]]. Treated water then either flows by gravity or is pumped to [[reservoir (water)|reservoirs]], which can be elevated such as [[water tower]]s or on the ground (for indicators related to the efficiency of [[drinking water]] distribution see [[non-revenue water]]). Once water is used, [[wastewater]] is typically discharged in a [[sanitary sewer|sewer]] system and treated in a [[sewage treatment plant]] before being discharged into a river, lake, or the sea or reused for [[landscaping]] or [[irrigation]].{{cn|date=January 2024}}
===Supply network=== {{excerpt|Water supply network|templates=-Public Infrastructure}}
=== Use === {{Further|Water footprint}} In the [[United States]], the typical [[single family home]] uses about {{convert|138|USgal|L|order=flip|abbr=on}} of water per day (2016 estimate) or {{convert|58.6|USgal|L|order=flip|abbr=on}} per capita per day. This includes several common [[residential water use in the U.S. and Canada|residential end use purposes]] (in decreasing order) like [[water closet|toilet]] use, [[shower]]s, [[Tap water|tap]] (faucet) use, [[washing machine]] use, [[leak]]s, other (unidentified), [[bathtub|baths]], and [[dishwasher]] use.<ref>{{cite web|first1 = William B.|last1 = DeOreo|first2= Peter |last2=Mayer|first3= Benedykt |last3=Dziegielewski|first4= Jack|last4= Kiefer|date= 2016|title= Residential End Uses of Water, Version 2|website= [[Water Research Foundation]]|location= Denver, Colorado|url = https://www.waterrf.org/research/projects/residential-end-uses-water-version-2}}</ref>{{Better source needed|date=September 2012}} {| class="wikitable" |+Recommended basic water requirements for human needs (per person)<ref>{{cite web |last=Gleick |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Gleick |title=Basic Water Requirements for Human Activities |url=http://www.bvsde.paho.org/bvsacd/cd17/basic_wate.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130629113313/http://www.bvsde.paho.org/bvsacd/cd17/basic_wate.pdf |archive-date=29 June 2013 |access-date=17 March 2012 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> !Activity !Minimum, litres / day !Range / day |- |[[Drinking water|Drinking Water]] |5 |2–5 |- |[[Sanitation]] Services |20 |20–75 |- |Bathing |15 |5–70 |- |Cooking and Kitchen |10 |10–50 |}
During the beginning of the 21st Century, especially in areas of urban and suburban population centers, traditional centralized infrastructure have not been able to supply sufficient quantities of water to keep up with growing demand. Among several options that have been managed are the extensive use of desalination technology, this is especially prevalent in coastal areas and in "dry" countries like [[List of desalination plants in Australia|Australia]]. Decentralization of water infrastructure has grown extensively as a viable solution including [[rainwater harvesting]] and [[stormwater harvesting]] where policies are eventually tending towards a more rational use and sourcing of water incorporation concepts such as "Fit for Purpose".{{cn|date=January 2024}}
== Service quality == Water supply [[service quality]] has many dimensions: continuity, [[water quality]], pressure, and the degree of responsiveness of service providers to customer complaints. Many people in [[Developing country|developing countries]] receive a poor or very poor quality of service.<ref name="JMP2017">WHO and UNICEF (2017) [https://washdata.org/reports Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: 2017 Update and SDG Baselines]. Geneva: World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), 2017</ref>
=== Continuity of supply === Continuity of water supply is taken for granted in most developed countries but is a severe problem in many developing countries, where sometimes water is only provided for a few hours every day or a few days a week; that is, it is [[Intermittent water supply|intermittent]]. This is especially problematic for [[Shanty town|informal settlements]], which are often poorly connected to the [[water supply network]] and have no means of procuring alternative sources such as private [[borehole]]s. It is estimated that about half of the population of developing countries receives water on an intermittent basis.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Dagdeviren|first1=Hulya|last2=Robertson|first2=Simon A.|date=2011-06-02|title=Access to Water in the Slums of Sub-Saharan Africa|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7679.2011.00543.x|journal=Development Policy Review|volume=29|issue=4|pages=485–505|doi=10.1111/j.1467-7679.2011.00543.x|s2cid=153624406|issn=0950-6764|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
=== Water quality === {{main|Water quality}} {{Further|Drinking water#Quality|Water treatment}}
Drinking [[water quality]] has a micro-biological and a physico-chemical dimension. There are thousands of parameters of water quality. In public water supply systems water should, at a minimum, be disinfected—most commonly through the use of [[Water chlorination|chlorination]] or the use of [[ultraviolet]] light—or it may need to undergo treatment, especially in the case of [[surface water]]. Water quality is also dependent of the quality and level of [[Water pollution|pollution]] of the water source.{{cn|date=January 2024}}
=== Water pressure === [[File:Model of pumping engine 023.jpg|thumb|left|1880s model of pumping engine, in [[Herne Bay Museum and Gallery|Herne Bay Museum]]]] Water pressures vary in different locations of a distribution system. Water mains below the street may operate at higher pressures, with a [[Pressure regulator|pressure reducer]] located at each point where the water enters a building or a house. In poorly managed systems, water pressure can be so low as to result only in a trickle of water or so high that it leads to damage to plumbing fixtures and waste of water. Pressure in an urban water system is typically maintained either by a pressurised water tank serving an urban area, by pumping the water up into a [[water tower]] and relying on gravity to maintain a constant pressure in the system or solely by pumps at the [[water treatment]] plant and repeater pumping stations.{{cn|date=January 2024}}
Typical UK pressures are {{convert|4|to|5|bar|psi|sigfig=1|link=on}} for an urban supply.{{Citation needed|date=June 2011}} However, some people can get over {{convert|8|bar|psi}} or below {{convert|1|bar|psi}}. A single iron main pipe may cross a deep valley, it will have the same nominal pressure, however each consumer will get a bit more or less because of the [[hydrostatic pressure]] (about 1 bar per 10 m height). So people at the bottom of a {{convert|100|ft|m|adj=on|order=flip}} hill will get about {{cvt|3|bar|psi}} more than those at the top.{{cn|date=January 2024}}
The effective pressure also varies because of the pressure loss due to supply resistance, even for the same static pressure. An urban consumer may have {{convert|5|m|ft}} of {{cvt|15|mm|in}} pipe running from the iron main, so the kitchen tap flow will be fairly unrestricted. A rural consumer may have a kilometre of rusted and [[limescale|limed]] {{cvt|22|mm|in}} iron pipe, so their kitchen tap flow will be small.{{cn|date=January 2024}}
For this reason, the UK domestic water system has traditionally (prior to 1989) employed a "cistern feed" system, where the incoming supply is connected to the kitchen sink and also a header/storage tank in the [[attic]]. Water can dribble into this tank through a {{cvt|12|mm|in}} pipe, plus ball valve, and then supply the house on {{cvt|22|or|28|mm|in}} pipes. Gravity water has a small pressure (approximately {{convert|0.25|bar|psi}} in the bathroom) so needs wide pipes to allow for higher flows. This is fine for baths and toilets but is frequently inadequate for showers. A [[booster pump]] or a [[Hydrophore (system)|hydrophore]] is installed to increase and maintain pressure. For this reason urban houses are increasingly using mains pressure boilers ("combies") which take a long time to fill a bath but suit the high back pressure of a shower.
== Institutional responsibility and governance == A great variety of [[institutions]] have responsibilities in water supply. A basic distinction is between institutions responsible for policy and regulation on the one hand; and institutions in charge of providing services on the other hand.{{cn|date=May 2024}}
=== Policy and regulation === [[File:Water Crisis.jpg|thumb|180px|[[Cape Town water crisis]] warning, July 2018]] Water supply policies and regulation are usually defined by one or several ministries, in consultation with the legislative branch. In the [[Water supply and sanitation in the United States|United States]] the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]], whose administrator reports directly to the President, is responsible for water and sanitation policy and standard setting within the executive branch. In other countries responsibility for sector policy is entrusted to a Ministry of Environment (such as in [[Water supply and sanitation in Mexico|Mexico]] and [[Water supply and sanitation in Colombia|Colombia]]), to a Ministry of Health (such as in [[Water supply and sanitation in Panama|Panama]], [[Water supply and sanitation in Honduras|Honduras]] and [[Water supply and sanitation in Uruguay|Uruguay]]), a Ministry of Public Works (such as in [[Water supply and sanitation in Ecuador|Ecuador]] and [[Haiti]]), a Ministry of Economy (such as in German states) or a Ministry of Energy (such as in [[Water supply and sanitation in Iran|Iran]]). A few countries, such as [[Jordan]] and [[Water supply and sanitation in Bolivia|Bolivia]], even have a Ministry of Water. Often several ministries share responsibilities for water supply.{{citation needed|date=February 2019}}
In the European Union, important policy functions have been entrusted to the [[Supranational union|supranational]] level. Policy and regulatory functions include the setting of tariff rules and the approval of tariff increases; setting, monitoring and enforcing norms for quality of service and environmental protection; [[benchmarking]] the performance of service providers; and reforms in the structure of institutions responsible for service provision. The distinction between policy functions and regulatory functions is not always clear-cut. In some countries they are both entrusted to ministries, but in others regulatory functions are entrusted to agencies that are separate from ministries.{{Citation needed|date=June 2011}}
==== Regulatory agencies ==== {{more citations needed|section|date=February 2019}} Dozens of countries around the world have established regulatory agencies for infrastructure services, including often water supply and sanitation, in order to better protect consumers and to improve efficiency. Regulatory agencies can be entrusted with a variety of responsibilities, including in particular the approval of tariff increases and the management of sector information systems, including [[benchmarking]] systems. Sometimes they also have a mandate to settle complaints by consumers that have not been dealt with satisfactorily by service providers. These specialized entities are expected to be more competent and objective in regulating service providers than departments of government Ministries. Regulatory agencies are supposed to be autonomous from the executive branch of government, but in many countries have often not been able to exercise a great degree of autonomy.
In the [[Water supply and sanitation in the United States|United States]] regulatory agencies for utilities have existed for almost a century at the level of states, and in [[Canada]] at the level of provinces. In both countries they cover several infrastructure sectors. In many US states they are called [[Public Utility Commission]]s. For England and Wales, a regulatory agency for water ([[OFWAT]]) was created as part of the privatization of the [[water industry]] in 1989. In many developing countries, water regulatory agencies were created during the 1990s in parallel with efforts at increasing private sector participation. (for more details on regulatory agencies in Latin America, for example, please see [[Water and sanitation in Latin America]] and the regional association of water regulatory agencies ADERASA.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aderasa.org |title = Aderasa {{!}} Asociacion de Entes Reguladores de Agua y Saneamiento de las Americas}}</ref>)
Many countries do not have regulatory agencies for water. In these countries service providers are regulated directly by local government, or the national government. This is, for example, the case in the countries of continental Europe, in China and India.{{Dubious|date=June 2011}}
=== Service provision === Water supply service providers, which are often [[utilities]], differ from each other in terms of their geographical coverage relative to administrative boundaries; their sectoral coverage; their ownership structure; and their governance arrangements.
==== Geographical coverage ==== [[File:Tennessee Valley Authority, Tenessee Housing, Fentress Co., Wilder, Tennessee, "The sole water supply of this section... - NARA - 195812.tif|thumb|right|The sole water supply of this section of Wilder, Tennessee, 1942]] Many water utilities provide services in a single city, town or [[municipality]]. However, in many countries municipalities have associated in regional or inter-municipal or multi-jurisdictional utilities to benefit from [[economies of scale]]. In the United States these can take the form of [[special-purpose district]]s which may have independent taxing authority. An example of a multi-jurisdictional water utility in the United States is [[District of Columbia Water and Sewer Authority|WASA]], a utility serving [[Washington, DC]] and various localities in the state of [[Maryland]]. Multi-jurisdictional utilities are also common in Germany, where they are known as "Zweckverbaende", in France and in Italy.
In some federal countries, there are water service providers covering most or all cities and towns in an entire state, such as in all states of [[Brazil]] and some states in [[Mexico]] (see [[Water supply and sanitation in Mexico]]). In [[England]] and [[Wales]], water supply and sewerage is supplied almost entirely through ten regional companies. Some smaller countries, especially developed countries, have established service providers that cover the entire country or at least most of its cities and major towns. Such national service providers are especially prevalent in West Africa and Central America, but also exist, for example, in [[Tunisia]], [[Jordan]] and [[Uruguay]] (see also [[water supply and sanitation in Uruguay]]). In rural areas, where about half the world population lives, water services are often not provided by utilities, but by community-based organizations which usually cover one or sometimes several villages.
==== Sector coverage ==== Some water utilities provide only water supply services, while [[sewage|sewerage]] is under the responsibility of a different entity. This is for example the case in [[Tunisia]]. However, in most cases water utilities also provide [[sanitary sewer|sewer]] and [[sewage treatment]] services. In some cities or countries utilities also distribute electricity. In a few cases such multi-utilities also collect solid waste and provide local telephone services. An example of such an integrated utility can be found in the Colombian city of [[Medellín]]. Utilities that provide water, sanitation and electricity can be found in [[Frankfurt]], [[Germany]] (Mainova), in [[Casablanca]], [[Morocco]] and in [[Gabon]] in West Africa. Multi-utilities provide certain benefits such as common billing and the option to cross-subsidize water services with revenues from electricity sales, if permitted by law.
==== Ownership and governance arrangements ==== Water supply providers can be either public, private, [[public-private partnership|mixed]] or cooperative. Most urban water supply services around the world are provided by public entities. As Willem-Alexander, Prince of Orange (2002) stated, "The water crisis that is affecting so many people is mainly a crisis of governance—not of [[water scarcity]]." The introduction of cost-reflective tariffs together with [[cross-subsidization]] between richer and poorer consumers is an essential governance reform in order to reduce the high levels of [[Non-revenue water|unaccounted-for water (UAW)]] and to provide the finance needed to extend the network to those poorest households who remain unconnected. Partnership arrangements between the public and private sector can play an important role in order to achieve this objective.<ref>Nickson, Andrew & Francey, Richard, Tapping the Market: The Challenge of Institutional Reform in the Urban Water Sector, 2003</ref>
===== Private sector participation ===== An estimated 10 percent of urban water supply is provided by [[Water privatization|private]] or mixed public-private companies, usually under [[concession (contract)|concessions]], [[lease]]s or [[management contract]]s. Under these [[water service contract]] arrangements the public entity that is legally responsible for service provision delegates certain or all aspects of service provision to the private service provider for a period typically ranging from 4 to 30 years. The public entity continues to own the assets. These arrangements are common in [[France]] and in [[Spain]]. Only in few parts of the world water supply systems have been completely sold to the private sector ([[privatization]]), such as in [[England]] and [[Wales]] as well as in [[Chile]]. The largest private water companies in the world are [[Suez (company, 2015)|Suez]] and [[Veolia Environnement]] from France; ''Aguas de Barcelona'' from Spain; and [[Thames Water]] from the UK, all of which are engaged internationally (see links to website of these companies below). In recent years, a number of cities have reverted to the public sector in a process called "[[remunicipalization]]".<ref>{{cite book |title=www.tni.org/tnibook/remunicipalisation |url=http://www.tni.org/tnibook/remunicipalisation |publisher=Transnational Institute/Municipal Services Project/Corporate European Observatory |year=2012}}</ref>
===== Public water service provision ===== 90 percent of urban water supply and sanitation services are currently in the public sector. They are owned by the state or local authorities, or also by collectives or cooperatives. They run without an aim for profit but are based on the ethos of providing a common good considered to be of public interest. In most middle and low-income countries, these publicly owned and managed water providers can be inefficient as a result of political interference, leading to over-staffing and low labor productivity. {{Citation needed|date=June 2021}}
Ironically, the main losers from this institutional arrangement are the urban poor in these countries. Because they are not connected to the [[water supply network]], they end up paying far more per liter of water than do more well-off households connected to the network who benefit from the implicit subsidies that they receive from loss-making utilities.
The fact that we are still so far from achieving universal access to clean water and sanitation shows that public water authorities, in their current state, are not working well enough. Yet some are being very successful and are modelling the best forms of public management. As [[Ryutaro Hashimoto]], former Japanese Prime Minister, notes: "Public water services currently provide more than 90 percent of water supply in the world. Modest improvement in public water operators will have immense impact on global provision of services."<ref>[http://www.tni.org/primer/reforming-public-water-services Reforming public water services, A beginner's guide] by the Water Justice Project on Transnational Institute</ref>
===== Governance arrangements ===== Governance arrangements for both public and private utilities can take many forms.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Kurian |editor-first1=Mathew |editor-last2=McCarney |editor-first2=Patricia |title=Peri-urban Water and Sanitation Services: Policy, Planning and Method |year=2010 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-90-481-9424-7 |pages=300 |url=https://www.springer.com/law/environmental/book/978-90-481-9424-7}}</ref> Governance arrangements define the relationship between the service provider, its owners, its customers and regulatory entities. They determine the financial autonomy of the service provider and thus its ability to maintain its assets, expand services, attract and retain qualified staff, and ultimately to provide high-quality services. Key aspects of governance arrangements are the extent to which the entity in charge of providing services is insulated from arbitrary political intervention; and whether there is an explicit mandate and political will to allow the service provider to recover all or at least most of its costs through tariffs and retain these revenues. If water supply is the responsibility of a department that is integrated in the administration of a city, town or municipality, there is a risk that tariff revenues are diverted for other purposes. In some cases, there is also a risk that staff are appointed mainly on political grounds rather than based on their professional credentials.
=== Standardization === International standards for water supply system are covered by International Classification of Standards (ICS) 91.140.60.<ref name="91wss">{{cite web |last=International Organization for Standardization |author-link=International Organization for Standardization |title=91.140.60: Water supply systems |url=http://www.iso.org/iso/catalogue_ics_browse?ICS1=91&ICS2=140&ICS3=60&&published=on |access-date=1 March 2008}}</ref>
=== Comparing the performance of water and sanitation service providers === Comparing the performance of water and sanitation service providers ([[utilities]]) is needed, because the sector offers limited scope for direct competition ([[natural monopoly]]). Firms operating in competitive markets are under constant pressure to out perform each other. Water utilities are often sheltered from this pressure, and it frequently shows: some utilities are on a sustained improvement track, but many others keep falling further behind best practice. [[Benchmarking]] the performance of utilities allows the stimulation of competition, establish realistic targets for improvement and create pressure to catch up with better utilities. Information on benchmarks for water and sanitation utilities is provided by the International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities.<ref>[http://www.ib-net.org/ IBNET]</ref>
== Financial aspects ==
=== Costs and financing === The cost of supplying water consists, to a very large extent, of fixed costs (capital costs and personnel costs) and only to a small extent of variable costs that depend on the amount of water consumed (mainly energy and chemicals). The full cost of supplying water in urban areas in developed countries is about US$1–2 per cubic meter depending on local costs and local [[water consumption]] levels. The cost of sanitation (sewerage and [[wastewater treatment]]) is another US$1–2 per cubic meter. These costs are somewhat lower in developing countries. Throughout the world, only part of these costs is usually billed to consumers, the remainder being financed through direct or indirect [[subsidies]] from local, regional or national governments (see section on tariffs).{{cn|date=January 2024}}
Besides subsidies water supply investments are financed through internally generated revenues as well as through debt. Debt financing can take the form of credits from commercial Banks, credits from international financial institutions such as the [[World Bank]] and regional development banks (in the case of developing countries), and [[Bond (finance)|bond]]s (in the case of some developed countries and some upper middle-income countries).{{cn|date=January 2024}}
=== Tariffs === Almost all service providers in the world charge tariffs to recover part of their costs. According to estimates by the World Bank the average ([[mean]]) global water tariff is US$0.53 per cubic meter. In developed countries the average tariff is US$1.04, while it is only U$0.11 in the poorest developing countries. The lowest tariffs in developing countries are found in South Asia (mean of US$0.09 per cubic meter), while the highest are found in Latin America (US$0.41 per cubic meter).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/water-electricity-and-poor-who-benefits-utility-subsidies |title=Water, Electricity and the Poor: Who Benefits from Utility Subsidies? |publisher=The World Bank |access-date=30 October 2011 |page=21 |year=2006}}</ref> Data for 132 cities were assessed. The tariff is estimate for a consumption level of 15 cubic meters per month. Few utilities do recover all their costs. According to the same World Bank study only 30 percent of utilities globally, and only 50 percent of utilities in developed countries, generate sufficient revenue to cover operation, maintenance and partial capital costs.{{cn|date=January 2024}}
According to another study undertaken in 2006 by NUS Consulting, the average water and sewerage tariff in 14 mainly [[OECD]] countries excluding [[VAT]] varied between US$0.66 per cubic meter in the United States and the equivalent of US$2.25 per cubic meter in Denmark.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nusconsulting.com/downloads/2006WaterSurvey.pdf |title=NUS Consulting 2005-2006 International Water Report & Cost Survey |access-date=17 December 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061206184217/http://www.nusconsulting.com/downloads/2006WaterSurvey.pdf |archive-date=6 December 2006 }} The study covered Denmark, Germany, the UK, Belgium, France, The Netherlands, Italy, Finland, Australia, Spain, South Africa, Sweden, Canada and the US. The methodology for assessing tariffs may be different from the methodology of the World Bank study cited above. The report means by "costs" average tariffs and not the costs of the utility, which can be lower or higher than average tariffs</ref> However, water consumption is much higher in the US than in Europe. Therefore, residential water bills may be very similar, even if the tariff per unit of consumption tends to be higher in Europe than in the US.{{cn|date=May 2024}}
A typical family on the US east coast paid between US$30 and US$70 per month for water and sewer services in 2005.<ref>quoted from a comparison of 24 utilities on the US East Coast in the 2005 Annual Report of DC WASA, p. 38 [http://www.dcwasa.com/news/publications/2005_AnnualReport.pdf] The comparison refers to a consumption level of 25 cubic feet per quarter</ref>
In developing countries, tariffs are usually much further from covering costs. Residential water bills for a typical consumption of 15 cubic meters per month vary between less than US$1 and US$12 per month.<ref>World Bank, op.cit., calculated from Table 2.3 on p. 21</ref>
Water and sanitation tariffs, which are almost always billed together, can take many different forms. Where meters are installed, tariffs are typically volumetric (per usage), sometimes combined with a small monthly fixed charge. In the absence of meters, flat or fixed rates—which are independent of actual consumption—are being charged. In developed countries, tariffs are usually the same for different categories of users and for different levels of consumption.
In developing countries, the situation is often characterized by cross-subsidies with the intent to make water more affordable for residential low-volume users that are assumed to be poor. For example, industrial and commercial users are often charged higher tariffs than public or residential users. Also, metered users are often charged higher tariffs for higher levels of consumption (increasing-block tariffs). However, cross-subsidies between residential users do not always reach their objective. Given the overall low level of water tariffs in developing countries even at higher levels of consumption, most consumption subsidies benefit the wealthier segments of society.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/water-electricity-and-poor-who-benefits-utility-subsidies |title=Water, Electricity and the Poor: Who Benefits from Utility Subsidies? |publisher=The World Bank |access-date=30 October 2011}}</ref> Also, high industrial and commercial tariffs can provide an incentive for these users to supply water from other sources than the utility (own wells, water tankers) and thus actually erode the utility's revenue base.
=== Investments needed in developing countries ===
Water supply and [[sanitation]] require a huge amount of capital [[Fixed investment|investment]] in infrastructure such as pipe networks, pumping stations and [[Water treatment|water treatment works]]. It is estimated that in developing countries investments of at least US$200 billion have to be made per year to replace aging water infrastructure to guarantee supply, reduce leakage rates and protect water quality.<ref>{{cite web |date=2004-06-22 |title=The cost of meeting the Johannesburg targets for drinking water |url=http://www.water-academy.org/article.php3?id_article=27 |access-date=2009-03-12 |publisher=Water-academy.org }}{{Dead link|date=April 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
International attention has focused upon the needs of [[Developing country|developing countries]]. To meet the [[Millennium Development Goals]] targets of halving the proportion of the population lacking access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation by 2015, current annual investment on the order of US$10 to US$15 billion would need to be roughly doubled. This does not include investments required for the maintenance of existing infrastructure.<ref>{{cite book |author=Winpenny, James |url=http://www.financingwaterforall.org/fileadmin/wwc/Library/Publications_and_reports/CamdessusSummary.pdf |title=Financing Water for All |date=March 2003 |publisher=World Water Council |isbn=92-95017-01-3 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090319213609/http://www.financingwaterforall.org/fileadmin/wwc/Library/Publications_and_reports/CamdessusSummary.pdf |archive-date=2009-03-19 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
Once infrastructure is in place, operating water supply and sanitation systems entails significant ongoing costs to cover personnel, energy, chemicals, maintenance and other expenses. The sources of money to meet these capital and operational costs are essentially either user fees, public funds or some combination of the two.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bishop |first1=Joshua |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mwR49PpJMDUC&pg=PA91 |title=Selling Forest Environmental Services: Market-based Mechanisms for Conservation and Development |date=2002 |isbn=9781849772501 |page=91|publisher=Earthscan }}</ref> It is also important to consider is the flexibility of the water supply system.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fawcett |first1=William |last2=Hughes |first2=Martin |last3=Krieg |first3=Hannes |last4=Albrecht |first4=Stefan |last5=Vennström |first5=Anders |date=2012 |title=Flexible strategies for long-term sustainability under uncertainty |journal=Building Research |volume=40 |issue=5 |pages=545–557 |doi=10.1080/09613218.2012.702565 |bibcode=2012BuRI...40..545F |s2cid=110278133}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Zhang |first=S.X. |author2=V. Babovic |date=2012 |title=A real options approach to the design and architecture of water supply systems using innovative water technologies under uncertainty |journal=Journal of Hydroinformatics |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=13–29 |doi=10.2166/hydro.2011.078 |ssrn=2491961 |doi-access=free |s2cid=54548372}}</ref>
== Metering == {{Main|Water metering}} [[File:Water meter 2006.jpg|right|thumb|A typical residential water meter]] Metering of water supply is usually motivated by one or several of four objectives. First, it provides an incentive to conserve water which protects [[water resources]] (environmental objective). Second, it can postpone costly system expansion and saves energy and chemical costs (economic objective). Third, it allows a utility to better locate distribution losses (technical objective). Fourth, it allows suppliers to charge for water based on use, which is perceived by many as the fairest way to allocate the costs of water supply to users. Metering is considered good practice in water supply and is widespread in developed countries, except for the [[United Kingdom]]. In developing countries it is estimated that half of all urban water supply systems are metered and the tendency is increasing.{{cn|date=May 2024}}
[[Water meters]] are read by one of several methods: * the water customer writes down the meter reading and mails in a postcard with this info to the water department; * the water customer writes down the meter reading and uses a phone dial-in system to transfer this info to the water department; * the water customer logs into the [[website]] of the water supply company, enters the address, meter ID and meter readings * a meter reader comes to the premises and enters the meter reading into a handheld computer; * the meter reading is echoed on a display unit mounted to the outside of the premises, where a meter reader records them; * a small radio is hooked up to the meter to automatically transmit readings to corresponding receivers in handheld computers, utility vehicles or distributed collectors * a small computer is hooked up to the meter that can either dial out or receive automated phone calls that give the reading to a central computer system.
Most cities are increasingly installing [[automatic meter reading]] (AMR) systems to prevent fraud, to lower ever-increasing labor and liability costs and to improve customer service and satisfaction.
== Global access == [[File:WaterTruckCropped.JPG|thumb|Water supplied by a truck in [[Kolhapur]], Maharashtra, India]] [[File:Shipot.jpg|thumb|Shipot, a common source of drinking water in [[Dzyhivka]], [[Ukraine]]]] {{Further|WASH}}
{{excerpt|Drinking water#Global access|paragraphs=1-2|file=no}}
== History == {{Main|History of water supply and sanitation}} [[File:Wismarer Wasserkunst.jpg|thumb|''Wasserkunst'' and fountain from 1602 in [[Wismar]], Germany. It's an example of pre-industrialization waterworks and fountain.]] Throughout history, people have devised systems to make getting and using water more convenient. Living in semi-arid regions, ancient [[Persian people|Persians]] in the 1st millennium BC used [[qanat]] system to gain access to water in the mountains. Early [[Roman Empire|Rome]] had indoor plumbing, meaning a system of [[Roman aqueduct|aqueducts]] and pipes that terminated in homes and at public wells and fountains for people to use.
Until the [[Enlightenment era]], little progress was made in water supply and sanitation and the engineering skills of the Romans were largely neglected throughout Europe. It was in the 18th century that a rapidly growing population fueled a boom in the establishment of private [[water supply network]]s in [[London water supply infrastructure|London]].<ref name="ph.ucla.edu">{{Cite web|title= Brief History During the Snow Era|url=http://www.ph.ucla.edu/epi/snow/1859map/lambeth_waterworks_a2.html|access-date=2021-02-26|website=www.ph.ucla.edu}}</ref> [[London water supply infrastructure]] developed over many centuries from early mediaeval conduits, through major 19th-century treatment works built in response to [[cholera]] threats, to modern, large-scale reservoirs. The first screw-down [[Tap (valve)|water tap]] was patented in 1845 by Guest and Chrimes, a brass foundry in [[Rotherham]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://plumber.whangarei.biz/a-little-about-tap-history/ |title=A Little About Tap History |access-date=17 December 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140109195319/http://plumber.whangarei.biz/a-little-about-tap-history/ |archive-date=9 January 2014 }}</ref>
The first documented use of [[sand filter]]s to purify the water supply dates to 1804, when the owner of a bleachery in [[Paisley, Scotland]], John Gibb, installed an experimental filter, selling his unwanted surplus to the public. The first treated public water supply in the world was installed by engineer [[James Simpson (engineer)|James Simpson]] for the [[Chelsea Waterworks Company]] in London in 1829.<ref name="History of the Chelsea Waterworks">[http://www.ph.ucla.edu/epi/snow/1859map/chelsea_waterworks_a2.html History of the Chelsea Waterworks]</ref> The practice of water treatment soon became mainstream, and the virtues of the system were made starkly apparent after the investigations of the physician [[John Snow (physician)|John Snow]] during the [[1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak]] demonstrated the role of the water supply in spreading the cholera epidemic.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=t1exE1cfKXIC&dq=%22institut+de+france%22+and+%22john+snow%22&pg=PA87 ''Concepts and practice of humanitarian medicine'' (2008) Par S. William Gunn, M. Masellis] {{ISBN|0-387-72263-7}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=NSHXLkgFBBQC&dq=%22institut+de+france%22+and+snow&pg=PA290]</ref>
==By country== {{world topic|Water supply and sanitation in|title=Water supply and sanitation by country|noredlinks=yes|state=expand}}
== See also == * [[Human right to water and sanitation]] * [[Nonresidential water use in the U.S.|Nonresidential water use in the US]] * [[Residential water use in the U.S. and Canada|Residential water use in the US and Canada]] * [[Water efficiency]] * [[Water resources]] * [[Water scarcity]] * [[Water security]] * [[Water supply terrorism]]
== References == {{Reflist|30em}}
== External links == {{Commons category|Water supply}} * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/water-electricity-and-poor-who-benefits-utility-subsidies/ The World Bank on water utility subsidies] * [https://www.who.int/topics/water/en/ The WHO's site on water] * [http://www.oecd.org/water The OECD's site on water]
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply}} [[Category:Water supply| ]] [[Category:Water management]]