{{Italic title}} '''''Voodoo''''' is an opera in three acts with music and libretto by Harry Lawrence Freeman. A product of the Harlem Renaissance, it was first performed with piano accompaniment as a radio broadcast on May 20, 1928. The first staged performance with orchestra took place on September 10, 1928, at the Palm Garden (a temporary name for the 52nd Street Theatre) in New York City.<ref name=first>Although ''Voodoo'' was billed as "the first American opera composed by an African American" (''New York Amsterdam News'' (September 5, 1928), p. 6), Scott Joplin's ''A Guest of Honor'' was written earlier and performed in 1903 (the score is lost). Although Freeman had written his first opera in 1891, the Joplin opera is thus far the earliest known opera by an African American composed ''and performed''.</ref>
== History == Freeman was a talented African-American musician, becoming assistant church organist at age 10. A seminal moment in his life was seeing Richard Wagner's opera ''Tannhäuser''. In 1891, at age 18, he completed his first opera. He continued to compose numerous operas during much of his life.<ref name=cul>[http://findingaids.cul.columbia.edu/ead/nnc-rb/ldpd_6381639/dsc/1 H. Lawrence Freeman Papers, 1870-1982, Series I: Musical scores, Rare Book and Manuscript Library Collections, Columbia University Libraries.]</ref>
In several articles concerning ''Voodoo'', the ''New York Amsterdam News'' varied its reportage of the time Freeman had spent composing the opera. Initially, the paper said "Although Professor Freeman has been prepared for years for the opportunity to present the negro in opera he has had to bide his time."<ref name=aug>"''Voodoo'' at 52nd Street Sept. 10," ''New York Amsterdam News'' (August 29, 1928), p. 7.</ref> After the opera had closed, the paper said that Freeman had been working on the opera for two years.<ref name=early>"Lawrence Freeman's Opera," ''New York Amsterdam News'' (September 19, 1928), p. 16.</ref> The paper corrected itself later when it reported that he had completed the opera in 1914.<ref>Dave Peyton, "The Musical Bunch—Freeman's Jazz Opera," ''Chicago Defender'' (September 29, 1928), p. 6.</ref> (The finding aid for Freeman's papers at Columbia University indicates a vocal score dated 1912.)<ref name=cul/>
== Synopsis == ''Voodoo'' is set in Louisiana during the Reconstruction Era. Cleota, a house servant, is in love with Mando, a plantation overseer on the plantation where they live. The voodoo queen, Lolo, is jealous and, seeing Cleota as a rival, tries to put her out of the way. A voodoo ceremony takes place during which Lolo and her associate, Fojo, distribute amulets and charms to participants, then retreat to a glen to invoke the snake-god. Cleota is about to be put to death but is rescued by Mando and Chloe (Lolo's mother). Another attempt by Lolo to subdue Cleota results in the queen being shot.<ref name=fdp>F.D.P., "Negro Grand Opera Company Pleases in First Performance," ''New York Herald Tribune'' (September 11, 1928), p. 18.</ref><ref name=naive>"''Voodoo'', a Naive Melange," ''New York Times'' (September 11, 1928), p. 20.</ref>
The ''New York Herald Tribune'' reported that the opera was to illustrate "typical Negro life in the days of slavery, while the music includes spirituals, chants, arias, tangoes and other dances, among these a ritualistic voodoo ceremony."<ref name=bur>"Operatic Notes," ''New York Herald Tribune'' (September 9, 1928), p. F7.</ref>
== Productions == The opera was first presented as a radio broadcast with piano accompaniment (played by Freeman) on May 20, 1928, over station WGBS.<ref name=radio>M.T., "''Voodoo'', Negro Opera, Has Premier On Radio," ''New York Herald Tribune'' (May 21, 1928), p. 11.</ref> The cast included Doris Trotman, soprano; Carlotta Freeman, soprano; Ray Yates, tenor; Otto Bohanan, baritone.<ref>Richard L. Baltimore Jr., "Broadcasts Negro Grand Opera" ''New York Amsterdam News'' (May 23, 1928), p. 8.</ref>
A month later, Valdo Freeman, the composer's son and a baritone, sang excerpts from ''Voodoo'' as well as another of his father's operas, ''Plantation,'' during a radio recital also broadcast on WGBS on June 25, 1928.<ref>"Valdo Freeman, Negro Barytone, In Father's Compositions," ''New York Herald Tribune'' (June 24, 1928), p. G6.</ref>
Notices prior to the production's staged premiere mentioned a "company of over fifty people."<ref>"The Negro Invades The Grand Opera Field," ''New York Amsterdam News'' (August 22, 1928), p. 6.</ref><ref>"Negro Jazz Opera," ''Variety'' (September 5, 1928), p. 56.</ref> Advertisements also indicated the company was to include fifty people,<ref name=aug/> although this figure was reduced to thirty in later notices.<ref name=fdp/><ref name=bur/><ref>"Music Notes," ''New York Times'' (September 5, 1928), p. 35.</ref>
The "Negro jazz grand opera" (as it was called by the ''New York Amsterdam News''<ref name=aug/>) had its first staged performance at the "Palm Garden" (apparently a temporary name for the 52nd Street Theatre) on September 10, 1928. Freeman conducted an orchestra of twenty-one musicians.<ref name=fdp/> The review in the ''New York Herald Tribune'' said the presentation was "offered" by his son Valdo Freeman.<ref name=fdp/> One review referred to the producing company as the "Negro Opera Company Inc."<ref name=frankenstein>Alfred Frankenstein, "New York Hears First Negro Opera Company Sing "First Opera by Colored Composer"," ''Chicago Tribune'' (September 16, 1928), p. G4.</ref>
Costumes were supplied by Chrisdie & Carlotta, and F. Berner supplied the wigs.<ref>Barclay V. McCarty, "Costumers," ''Billboard'' (September 29, 1928), p. 41.</ref> The executive staff included Robert Eichenberg, Leon Williams, Esther Thompson, Octavia Smith, Philip Williams, William Thompson, Grace Abrams, and Walter Mattis.<ref>Barclay V. McCarty, "Negro Opera Is Produced," ''Billboard'' (September 22, 1928), p. 10.</ref>
''Voodoo'' was scheduled to run for a week with a matinée on Saturday.<ref name="fdp"/> Apparently it had to close early for lack of funding.<ref name=early/>
The score was never published. The manuscript resides in the Rare Book & Manuscript Library of Columbia University.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Columbia's Rare Book & Manuscript Library Acquires Papers of H. Lawrence Freeman, Musician and Composer {{!}} Columbia University Libraries |url=https://library.columbia.edu/about/news/libraries/2008/20080205_freeman.html |access-date=2024-10-16 |website=library.columbia.edu}}</ref>
The first production of ''Voodoo'' since 1928 took place June 26–27, 2015 at Miller Theatre by the Harlem Opera Theatre, Morningside Opera, and the Harlem Chamber Players. It was conducted by Gregory Hopkins.<ref>[http://artsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com/2015/05/01/long-unheard-harlem-renaissance-opera-coming-in-june/?_r=0 Michael Cooper, "Long-Unheard Harlem Renaissance Opera Coming in June," ''New York Times'' (May 1, 2015), p. C3.]</ref>
== Casts == {| class="wikitable" !Role !!Voice type !!First performance (on radio), May 20, 1928<br />Accompanist: Harry Lawrence Freeman !!Premiere stage performance cast, September 10, 1928<br />Conductor: Harry Lawrence Freeman |- |Cleota ||soprano ||Doris Trotman ||Doris Trotman |- |Lolo ||soprano || Carlotta Freeman || Carlotta Freeman |- |Mando ||tenor || Ray Yates || Ray Yates |- | ||baritone ||Otto Bohanan ||Valdo Freeman |- | ||baritone || || Thomas R. Hall |- | || || || Marie Woodby |- | ||bass || || William H. Holland |- | || || || Joseph Northern |- | || || || Rosetta Jones |- |dancer || || || Ollie Burgoyne |- |}
The alternate cast for the staged presentation included Rosetta Jones, Cordelia Paterson, Luther Lamont, Blanche Smith, John H. Eckles, Leo C. Evans, and Harold Bryant. Named participants also included the dancer Ollie Burgoyne, who had recently performed at the Folies Bergère in Paris.<ref name=bur/>
== Response == Calling it (incorrectly) the first opera composed, produced, and sung by African Americans,<ref name="first" /> the ''New York Herald Tribune's'' detailed review heralded the production, calling it "another step toward establishing a distinct negro culture in this country."<ref name="fdp" /> The review went on to note production limitations brought about due to lack of sufficient funding. The composer's style came in for harder criticism, with the reviewer calling his music "not original" since it was too dependent on external influences such as spirituals and Tin Pan Alley songs. But the same reviewer said the opening dance of the second act was most effective, and called the third act the most original, showing off the composer's "inspired creative powers" with "effectively barbaric moments the music accompanying the voodoo ceremony" and "various elements making a conglomerate rather than a homogeneous, well-fused score." Nevertheless, the combination of nineteenth-century Italian-French style arias with Freeman's modernistic trends created an odd juxtaposition.
In general, the reviewer found the plot complex but believable, while the libretto was generally good but at times "a trifle lavish." Of the singers, the review noted Doris Trotman's "rich soprano" while Carlotta Freeman was good but with "weak high notes." While calling Valdo Freeman and Thomas R. Hall "the best voices of the evening," the review opined that "the performance was earnest rather than polished."<ref name="fdp" />
Writing in the ''Hartford Courant,'' Pierre Key reported that the production was "feeble" and "amateurish." But his estimation of the score was more positive: "A degree of rhythmic invention and facility for instrumental color are excellences this composer has."<ref>Pierre Key, "Sharps and Flats," ''Hartford Courant'' (September 23, 1928), p. D1.</ref> The ''New York Times'' also felt that the "production [was] amateur in spirit." The unnamed reviewer noted, "The composer utilizes themes from spirituals, Southern melodies, and jazz rhythms which, combined with traditional Italian operatic forms, produce a curiously naive mélange of varied styles."<ref name="naive" />
Writing for the ''Chicago Tribune'', Alfred Frankenstein found the book formless (which he admitted was true of many operas) with most of the action taking place in the opera's final act, making the first two acts seem inconsequential. He criticized the use of language among the characters, the leads singing in proper English while subsidiary characters sang in "Negro dialect." He particularly condemned archaic-sounding language, such as the line "Ah, could I to thy for [my] life but restore." Frankenstein then continued his review by describing the stresses carried by African-Americans who must navigate a combination of racial inferiority and racial pride. He contended that these opposing forces can be heard in ''Voodoo'' as one hears the influences of Edward MacDowell, Richard Wagner, and Harry Burleigh as well as spirituals, although Freeman's musical expression was hampered by the poor libretto. Frankenstein concludes on a condescending note recommending that Freeman read the music history of various nationalities as a means of raising African-Americans' position within musical art.<ref name="frankenstein" />
The African-American press had more understanding words to say about the opera. The ''New York Amsterdam News'' highlighted how Freeman had to pay for the production with his own funding and questioned why the African-American community wasn't more supportive.<ref name="early" /> A letter from a reader also questioned why more African-Americans did not attend the opera.<ref>Lydia Bass, "Freeman's Opera," ''New York Amsterdam News'' (October 3, 1928), p. 9.</ref>
Echoing the uneven musical style in other reviews, the ''Baltimore Afro-American'' noted that "the opera is not perfect." Its dependence on familiar styles resulted in the "impression of lacking a genuine authenticity and that it depends too much on outside influences to be completely Negro."<ref>"''Voodoo'', Race Opera, Closes After Short N.Y. Run," ''Baltimore Afro-American'' (September 29, 1928), p. 9.</ref>
The appearance of ''Voodoo'' inspired other African-American operas to surface. Just a month after the opera's premiere, ''Billboard'' announced a presentation of ''Deep Harlem'', "another negro opera," to be produced by actor/director Earl Dancer.<ref>"Another Negro Opera Planned For Broadway," ''Billboard'' (October 6, 1928), p. 8.</ref>
== References == {{reflist|2}}
== External links == *[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/archival/collections/ldpd_6381639/ H. Lawrence Freeman papers 1870-1982 1890-1954] at the [http://library.columbia.edu/locations/rbml.html Rare Book and Manuscript Library] of Columbia University. * * * * * * *
Category:1928 operas Category:African-American music Category:English-language operas Category:Harlem Renaissance Category:Operas Category:Operas by Harry Lawrence Freeman Category:Operas set in the United States