{{Short description|Process of converting a vehicle to use electric propulsion}} {{Use dmy dates|date=January 2022}} [[File:FiatEV.jpg|thumb|right|150px|This [[Fiat 600]] employs batteries that can be mounted in any position.]]
In [[automobile engineering]], '''electric vehicle conversion''' is the replacement of a car's combustion engine and connected components with an [[electric motor]] and batteries, to create a [[battery electric vehicle]] (BEV).
There are two main aims for converting an [[internal combustion engine]] vehicle (aka combustion vehicle) to run as a battery-electric vehicle. The first is to eliminate [[tailpipe emissions]] of vehicles that are already on the road, as [[electric vehicles]] do not produce any direct emissions.
The second is to reduce the vast amount of waste created when cars reach the end of their life cycle – as older cars or those written off after a road traffic accident are typically scrapped. This creates a considerable amount of metal, plastic and fabric waste, and uses a large amount of energy to recycle discarded parts into useful materials.
Price is another key catalyst for the growing electric car conversion market. The cost of electric car batteries and motors has fallen in recent years, and the cost of conversion is dependent in many factors, including range and batteries used for conversion. Not all conversion companies are equal.{{citation needed|date=June 2021}}
{{Electric vehicle}}
== Elements of a conversion == {{More citations needed|section|date=August 2021}} {{how-to|date=August 2024}}
Almost any vehicle can be converted to electric. Many people prefer to pick a vehicle that is light and aerodynamic in order to maximize distance traveled per battery charge. There must also be adequate room and load capacity for batteries.
The [[battery pack]], which provides a source of electrical power. The most commonly available and affordable batteries are [[lead-acid battery|lead-acid]] flooded type. Next are the [[Absorbent glass mat|AGM (absorption glass mat)]] sealed maintenance-free batteries, a little more powerful and expensive. Then there are the more exotic batteries like [[Nickel-metal hydride battery|Ni-MH]] and [[Lithium-ion battery|Li-ion]]; more difficult to find but light and longer-lasting, maintenance-free, and much more expensive. The new lithium batteries are showing some promise for EVs in the near future.{{As of?|date=August 2021}}{{citation needed|date=August 2024}}
The charger which restores energy to the batteries (which may be mounted within the vehicle or at a special charging station at some fixed location). The [[motor controller|power controller]], which regulates the flow of energy between the [[battery (electricity)|battery]] and the [[electric motor]](s), controlled by an [[electronic throttle]]. One or more electric motors and their mechanical attachment to the [[driveline]]. [[Electrical cable|Power conductor]]s connecting the battery, controller, and motor(s). Accessory equipment to power auxiliary equipment such as power brakes and heating system. Control circuitry and equipment to allow control and interlocking of the various components. Instrumentation specific to the operation and maintenance of the conversion.
An EV conversion typically involves 10 main components: the battery pack, the battery management system (BMS), the motor controller, the electric motor, the onboard charger, the DC-DC converter, the contactor and high-voltage junction box, the Hall-effect throttle, the thermal management system, and the wiring harness with high-voltage cabling.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The 10 Components That Make an EV Conversion Actually Work |url=https://www.fuel2electric.com/the-10-components-that-make-an-ev-conversion-actually-work |access-date=2026-05-25 |website=Fuel2Electric |location=US}}</ref>
== Electric car conversion industry == Electric car conversion has gone from being exclusively conducted by hobbyists and enthusiasts, to a rapidly growing industry.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.autoexpress.co.uk/news/352597/ev-classic-car-conversions-see-boom-popularity|title=Classic electric car conversions boom in popularity |website= [[Auto Express]] | date= 24 June 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.irishtimes.com/business/transport-and-tourism/irish-start-up-converting-classics-into-electric-supercars-1.3856975|title=Irish start-up converting classics into electric supercars |newspaper=[[The Irish Times]] | date= 11 April 2019}}</ref> [[U.S. Electricar]] was one of the first commercial electric car conversion companies, founded in the 1970s to sell converted versions of conventional cars in the United States using lead-acid battery storage systems.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19780011045/downloads/19780011045.pdf#page=254 |title=State-of-the-art assessment of electric and hybrid vehicles |id=NASA TM-73756 |date=September 1977 |author=National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Lewis Research Center |publisher=Energy Research and Development Administration, Division of Transportation Energy Conservation |access-date=24 February 2023}}</ref>{{rp|247–250}}<ref name="WaPo-78">{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/business/1978/10/12/from-newspaper-owner-to-new-car-salesman/b166e5f0-c2d1-4f22-aa2e-096d0f2f36fb/ |title=From Newspaper Owner To New Car Salesman |author=Knight, Jerry |date=October 12, 1978 |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=24 February 2023}}</ref> [[Solectria]] was another notable early converter, offering the [[Solectria Force|Force]], which was equipped with lead-acid batteries alongside premium variants with longer range using nickel metal-hydride batteries.<ref name="Sherman98">{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/chargingahead00sher |title=Charging Ahead |date=1998 |last=Sherman |first=Joe |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-509479-4 |url-access=registration}}</ref>{{rp|70}}
Spurred on by the climate crisis, electric vehicle conversions address the shortfall in new EV availability and also offer a more affordable route for many, as new electric vehicles remain more expensive than their internal combustion engine counterparts. This has also seen the EV conversion industry diverge away from only converting classic and high-end cars.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://cleantechnica.com/2021/01/21/electric-car-conversion-classic-volvo-240-gl/|title=Electric Car Conversion: Classic Volvo 240 GL |publisher=[[CleanTechnica]] | date= 21 January 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.euronews.com/living/2020/12/02/how-to-future-proof-your-petrol-car-with-an-electric-conversion-kit|title=How To 'Future Proof' Your Petrol Car With An Electric Conversion Kit | publisher= [[Euronews]] | date= 3 December 2020}}</ref>
As of early 2021, it is now possible to convert a petrol, diesel or hybrid vehicle to run as a battery electric car for around £6,000 ($8,300).<ref name="Autocar-2020">{{cite web |url=https://www.autocar.co.uk/car-news/used-cars/how-put-electric-car-your-driveway-little-%C2%A3900|title=How To Put An Electric Car on Your Driveway For As Little As £900 |website=[[Autocar (magazine)|Autocar]] | date= 1 December 2020}}</ref>
The industry has worked closely with regulators across a number of countries to establish safety protocols and to ensure that annual vehicle inspection tests on electric conversions are conducted in the same way that any other electric vehicle would be.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.irishevs.com/how-electric-car-conversion-works|title=How Electric Car Conversion Works | publisher=[[IrishEVs]] | date= 12 February 2021}}</ref>
The biggest barrier to the widespread success of the EV conversion industry is the availability of batteries and motors, as vehicle manufacturers are not eager to sell their technology for this purpose. However, an open source community has grown alongside the electric vehicle conversion industry to enable batteries and motors from different manufacturers to work in unison in order to lower costs and overcome availability issues.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kaleg |first1=Sunarto |last2=Hapid |first2=Abdul |last3=Kurnia |first3=M. Redho |title=Electric Vehicle Conversion Based on Distance, Speed and Cost Requirements |journal=[[Energy Procedia]] | date=April 2015 |volume=68 |pages=446–454 |doi=10.1016/j.egypro.2015.03.276 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2015EnPro..68..446K }}</ref>
To meet the growing demand for trained mechanics who can carry out electric vehicle conversion, organizations such as New Electric Ireland have developed training programmes to educate mechanics and hobbyists in how to carry out conversions.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.irishevs.com/incentivising-ev-conversion |title=Incentivising EV Conversion | publisher= IrishEVs |date= 12 February 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://cleantechnica.com/2021/02/15/arke-technologies-opens-up-an-ev-conversion-school-workshop-in-ghana/|title=Arke Technologies Opens Up An EV Conversion School & Workshop in Ghana |publisher=CleanTechnica|date= 15 February 2021}}</ref>
== Hobbyist conversions == {{See also|Electromod}}
[[File:Eliica.jpg|thumb|[[Eliica]] prototype]] [[File:URE05e.jpg|thumb|right| The full electric [[Formula Student]] car of the [[Eindhoven University of Technology]]]]
Hobbyists often build their own EVs by converting existing production cars to run solely on electricity. There is a [[cottage industry]] supporting the conversion and construction of BEVs by hobbyists.<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Franz|first=Paul|title=Turning Old Gas Guzzlers into Electric Vehicles|url=http://www.time.com/time/video/player/0,32068,990054967001_2077261,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110616111950/http://www.time.com/time/video/player/0,32068,990054967001_2077261,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=16 June 2011|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] | access-date=17 June 2011}}</ref> Universities such as the [[University of California, Irvine]] even build their own custom electric or hybrid-electric cars from scratch.
Short-range battery electric vehicles can offer the hobbyist comfort, utility, and quickness, sacrificing only range. Short-range EVs may be built using high-performance lead–acid batteries, using about half the mass needed for a {{convert|100-130|km|round=5|abbr=in}} range. The result is a vehicle with about a {{convert|50|km|round=5|abbr=in}} range, which, when designed with appropriate weight distribution (40/60 front to rear), does not require [[power steering]], offers exceptional acceleration in the lower end of its operating range, and is freeway capable and legal. But their EVs are expensive due to the higher cost for these higher-performance batteries. By including a [[manual transmission]], short-range EVs can obtain both better performance and greater efficiency than the single-speed EVs developed by major manufacturers. Unlike the converted golf carts used for [[neighborhood electric vehicle]]s, short-range EVs may be operated on typical suburban throughways (where {{convert|60-80|km/h|mph|abbr=on|round=5|disp=comma}} speed limits are typical) and can keep up with traffic typical on such roads and the short "slow-lane" on-and-off segments of freeways common in suburban areas.
Faced with chronic fuel shortage on the [[Gaza Strip]], Palestinian electrical engineer Waseem Othman al-Khozendar invented in 2008 a way to convert his car to run on 32 electric batteries. According to al-Khozendar, the batteries can be charged with {{USD|2}} worth of electricity to drive from {{convert|180-240|km|abbr=on}}. After a seven-hour charge, the car should also be able to run up to a speed of {{convert|100|km/h|abbr=on|-1}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?c=Article_C&cid=1209358045722&pagename=Zone-English-News/NWELayout |title=Gaza Cars From Cooking Oil to Batteries |first=Motasem |last=Dalloul |access-date=27 April 2009 |date=29 May 2008 |publisher=[[IslamOnline]] | url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081207063330/http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?c=Article_C&cid=1209358045722&pagename=Zone-English-News%2FNWELayout |archive-date=7 December 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.infolive.tv/en/infolive.tv-22806-israelnews-gaza-engineers-offer-alternative-gaza-fuel-crisis |title=Gaza Engineers Offer Alternative To Gaza Fuel Crisis |date=21 August 2008 |editor-last=Stephanov |editor-first=Rostik |access-date=27 April 2009 |publisher=infolive.tv |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090429042753/http://www.infolive.tv/en/infolive.tv-22806-israelnews-gaza-engineers-offer-alternative-gaza-fuel-crisis |archive-date=29 April 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
In 2008, several Chinese manufacturers began marketing [[lithium iron phosphate battery|lithium iron phosphate ({{chem|LiFePO|4}}) batteries]] directly to hobbyists and vehicle conversion shops. These batteries offered much better [[power-to-weight ratio]]s allowing vehicle conversions to typically achieve {{convert|75-150|mi|sigfig=2|abbr=on|order=flip}} per charge. Prices gradually declined to approximately {{USD|350}} per kW·h by mid-2009. As the {{chem|LiFePO|4}} cells feature life ratings of 3,000 cycles, compared to typical lead acid battery ratings of 300 cycles, the life expectancy of {{chem|LiFePO|4}} cells is around 10 years. {{chem|LiFePO|4}} cells require more expensive battery management and charging systems than lead acid batteries.{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}}
== Solar power == {{Main|Solar vehicle}} On-board solar cells can be used to power an electric vehicle.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.solarelectricalvehicles.com/ |title=Solar Electrical Vehicles |publisher=Solar Electrical Vehicles |access-date=27 November 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110126042211/http://www.solarelectricalvehicles.com/ |archive-date=26 January 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.treehugger.com/files/2007/05/solar_hybrid_ca.php |title=Using Solar Roofs To Power Hybrids |publisher=TreeHugger |access-date=27 November 2010 |archive-date=12 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712120809/http://www.treehugger.com/files/2007/05/solar_hybrid_ca.php |url-status=dead }}</ref> The small power generated by solar cells mounted on a vehicle means that the other components in the system must be special to compensate for this.
== Conversion process == The conversion process starts with the selection of a donor car, which can be powered by fuel (petrol, diesel or hybrid). The engine, fuel tank and gearbox are then removed and replaced with an electric motor, batteries and an inverter.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://irishtechnews.ie/a-new-electric-ireland-2-0-breathing-new-life-into-old-cars/|title=A New Electric Ireland 2.0? Breathing new life into old cars|website= www.irishtechnews.com| publisher= Irish Tech News|date= 23 September 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://fullycharged.show/episodes/ev-west/|title=EV West|website= www.fullycharged.show| publisher= Fully Charged Show|date= 29 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2021/jun/03/david-beckham-buys-stakes-in-vehicle-electrification-firm |title=David Beckham buys stake in vehicle electrification firm|website= [[The Guardian]] | date= 3 June 2021}}</ref>
If the donor vehicle is a hybrid, the driveshaft can be retained also, as it has already been designed to work with electric car batteries and power delivery systems. It is common for the batteries used in electric car conversions to be recycled from new electric vehicles which have been involved in a traffic accident.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.irishevs.com/why-ev-battery-recycling-is-set-to-take-off |title=Why EV battery recycling is set to take off|publisher=IrishEVs|date= 1 May 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.autocar.co.uk/car-news/industry-news-technology/london-firm-electric-mini-conversion |title= London firm electrifies classic Mini with Nissan Leaf powertrain|website=Autocar |date= 10 June 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.autoexpress.co.uk/mini/355232/lec-launches-affordable-ev-conversion-classic-mini|title= LEC launches affordable EV conversion for classic Mini|website= www.autoexpress.co.uk| publisher= Auto Express|date= 10 June 2021}}</ref> In Europe, the curb weight of the donor car will need to be retained once it is converted.
Once the car has been converted, it will need to be assessed by a vehicle safety engineer before it can be used on the road.
In some countries, the user can choose to buy a converted vehicle of any model in the [[Car dealership|automaker dealerships]] only paying the cost of the batteries and motor, with no installation costs (it is called pre-conversion or previous conversion).<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-06-10/david-beckham-invests-in-lunaz-electric-car-conversion-for-garbage-trucks|title= With electric car investment, David Beckham did it for the trucks|website= www.bloomberg.com| publisher= Bloomberg|date= 10 June 2021}}</ref>
== Industry == {{See also|List of production battery electric vehicles}}
The electric vehicle conversion industry has grown to include conversion car [[Garage (house)|garages]],<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.ev-blue.com |title=EV-Blue.com, Electric Vehicle Questions and Answers, EV-Blue.com, EV Blue, Electric Blue, evblue, evblue.com |publisher=Ev-blue |access-date=27 November 2010}}</ref> [[aftermarket kit]]s<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.electroauto.com |title=Electro Automotive: Electric Car Conversion kits, Electric Vehicle Parts, & EV Components |publisher=Electroauto.com |access-date=27 November 2010}}</ref> and vehicle components.<ref>{{cite news |first=Ryan |last=Bohm |url=http://www.evsource.com |title=The Complete Electric Vehicle Resource |publisher=EVSource.com |date=16 March 2010 |access-date=27 November 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/canadianpress/article/ALeqM5hlhwjBoL40l46onAO3SB79gCtq5Q |title=Business up for electric car conversions |work=The Canadian Press |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081203172254/https://www.google.com/hostednews/canadianpress/article/ALeqM5hlhwjBoL40l46onAO3SB79gCtq5Q |date=30 November 2008 |archive-date=3 December 2008}}</ref> Some companies focus specifically on certain [[classic car]]s (i.e. [[Volkswagen Beetle#Retrofit program|VW Beetle]], Rolls-Royce, Jaguar, [[Citroën H Van]], etc.)<ref>[https://www.euronews.com/living/2020/09/06/classic-cars-are-getting-an-eco-makeover Buyers won't have to choose between classic cars and the environment]</ref><ref>[https://eveurope.eu/en/projects/citroen-hy/ Citroën HY conversion]</ref>
The work of these companies has been highlighted by publications including ''[[Autocar (magazine)|Autocar]]''<ref name="Autocar-2020" /> [[Fully Charged]],<ref>{{cite news |url=https://insideevs.com/news/352037/fully-charged-ev-west-conversions/|title= Fully Charged visits EV West to see amazing conversions: video |publisher=[[Fully Charged]] | date=1 January 2019}}</ref> and ''[[Auto Express]]''<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.autoexpress.co.uk/news/356551/electric-classic-cars-top-conversions-kits-and-uk-companies |title=Electric classic cars: top conversions, kits and UK companies |work=[[Autoexpress]] | date= 12 November 2021}}</ref> as prices have fallen and demand has increased for affordable conversions alongside high-end options.
== Vehicle types == === Electric bicycle === [[File:Electricbike1raleigh.JPG|thumb|A bicycle with an aftermarket hub-motor in the front wheel]] An [[electric bicycle]] is a conventional bicycle that has been fitted with an electric motor. Most often electric bicycles or e-bikes are powered by rechargeable batteries however some experimental electric bicycles run directly on or recharge their batteries via solar panels, fuel cells, gas generators or other alternative energy sources. Using an on-board generator may impact the legal jurisdictional definition of an electric bicycle. A few types of electric bicycles are able to re-capture a small amount of energy from braking and can re-charge the batteries while braking or traveling down hills (regenerative braking).
Some electric bikes have features where the motor can move the bicycle by itself (immediate start) if the rider chooses not to pedal with a button or throttle controller, while others require the rider to pedal at all times (pedal assist). This latter type may in some jurisdictions allow the vehicle to be used on bicycle trails that otherwise prohibit motorized vehicles of any kind (see [[motorized bicycle]]).
Many battery technologies are available for powering electric bikes. The most common and least expensive battery technology is sealed lead acid but [[Lithium iron phosphate battery|LiFePO<sub>4</sub>]] is fast becoming the battery of choice for the e-bike.
Converting one's bike to electric with a conversion kit is an easy and affordable solution for most people interested in learning more about electric vehicle conversion.
<gallery> Image:Trotmcar.JPG|Electric scooter Image:EVMotorCycleFrankendragon.jpg|Custom drag bike
Image:Solarbikemiturl.jpg|Solar cruiser </gallery>
== Registration of converted and newly constructed vehicles == {{Main|Vehicle registration}}
=== United States === The ease of registration will vary by state. Some states require safety inspections, usually to ensure body integrity in areas subject to severe corrosion from winter road de-icing materials. In any case, for general registration all functional safety equipment should be operating – turn signals, brake lights, headlights, horn, etc. The windshield should have no running cracks (small stone chips and "stars" may be acceptable if not in the driver's principal line of vision). If the vehicle has been reconstructed from a salvage vehicle (a vehicle whose registration has been forfeited) inspection may be more severe to ensure compliance and the legitimacy of sources of salvage components by presentation of proper purchase receipts.
Registration procedures will vary by state and will usually be more difficult in states with strict emissions requirements.
On the other hand, changing the registration allows a conversion to qualify for tax incentives available in some states, such as Oregon, for either the vehicle, the charging system, or both.
==== California (US) conversion registration and taxation ==== The State of California makes provisions to inspect electric vehicle conversions. Electric vehicles are exempted from emissions control inspections. A vehicle may either a substantially new build, or a conversion of an existing vehicle.
=== Spain === In Spain, the conversion (called transformation) is regulated by ''[[Royal Decree|Real Decreto]] 866/2010, de 2 de julio, por el que se regula la tramitación de las reformas de vehículos''.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.boe.es/buscar/doc.php?id=BOE-A-2010-11154 |title=Real Decreto 866/2010, de 2 de julio, por el que se regula la tramitación de las reformas de vehículos |trans-title=Royal Decree 866/2010, of 2 July, which regulates the processing of the reforms of vehicles |publisher=[[Agencia Estatal Boletín Oficial del Estado]] | date=14 July 2010 |pages=61860–61869 |access-date=5 February 2017}}</ref>
== See also == * [[Aftermarket (automotive)]] * [[CalCars]] * [[Sleeper (car)#Owner-modified cars|Conversion to sleeper car]] * [[Electric car]] * [[Electromod]] * [[Engine swap]] * [[Environmental impact-minimizing vehicle tuning|Green tuning]] * [[Kit car]] * [[Maker culture]] * [[Plug-in hybrid]] (PHEV) * [[Vehicle glider]]
== References == {{Reflist|33em}}
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