{{Short description|Pre-Roman tribe, namesake ancestors of the Basques}} {{More citations needed|date=July 2019}}
[[Image:Vasconii.png|300px|thumb|right|Location of the tribe of the Vascones in red.]] [[Image:Barscunes transparent.png|thumb|A coin with BARSCUNES in [[Iberian script]]. It has been proposed that the word is related to Vascones.]] [[File:Coins of Arsaos in Navarre Spain 150BCE 100BCE Roman stylistic influence.jpg|thumb|Coins of Arsaos, Navarre, 150-100 BC, showing Roman stylistic influence. [[British Museum]].]]
The '''Vascones''' were a pre-[[Ancient Rome|Roman]] tribe who, on the arrival of the Romans in the 1st century, inhabited a territory that spanned between the upper course of the [[Ebro]] river and the southern basin of the western [[Pyrenees]], a region that coincides with present-day [[Navarre]], western [[Aragon]] and northeastern [[La Rioja (Spain)|La Rioja]], in the [[Iberian Peninsula]].<ref>Classical authors, such as [[Livy]], name cities as ''[[Calahorra|Calagurris]]'', ''[[Cascante|Cascantum]]'' and ''[[Alfaro, La Rioja|Graccurris]]'' as Vascon cities.</ref> The Vascones are often considered ancestors of the present-day [[Basques]] to whom they left their name.
== Territory ==
=== Roman period === [[File:Titus Livius.png|thumb|120px|Portrait of [[Livy]], the author of the first known document about the '''Vascones'''.]]
The description of the territory which the Vascones<ref>{{Harvnb|Canto|1997|p=3}}, includes map with cities and archeological remains ([https://www.tierravascona.info/aliciacanto/index.html see electronic edition] and also [https://www.celtiberia.net/articulo.asp?id=3095 "Ptolomeo y las ciudades vasconas. Ensayo de localización"], and map of the territory [https://www.celtiberia.net/verimg.asp?id=3542 "Ciudades vasconas_Propuestas de localización"]) (in Spanish).</ref> inhabited during [[Ancient history|ancient times]] appears in texts by classical authors, between the 1st century BC and the 2nd century AD, including [[Livy]], [[Strabo]], [[Pliny the Elder]] and [[Ptolemy]]. Although these texts have been studied{{sfn|Schulten|1927}}{{sfn|Blázquez Martínez|1966}}{{sfn|Canto|1997}}<ref>(Gómez Fraile 2001).</ref>{{Full citation needed|date=July 2019}} as reference sources, some authors have pointed out the apparent lack of uniformity and also the existence of contradictions within the texts, in particular with Strabo.<ref>(Arce, 1999),(Gómez Fraile 2001:28).</ref>
The oldest document{{sfn|Schulten|1927|p=226}}{{sfn|Blázquez Martínez|1966|p=179}} corresponds to [[Livy]] (59 BC – AD 17), who in a brief passage of his work about the 76 BC [[Sertorian War]] relates how after crossing the [[Ebro]] and the city of ''[[Calahorra|Calagurris Nasica]]'', they crossed the flatlands of the Vascones, or '''Vasconum agrum''' until reaching the border of their immediate neighbors, the [[Berones]].<ref>''...dimissis eis ipse profectus per Vasconum agrum ducto exercitu in confinio Beronum posuit castra,...'' ("...after taking his (Sertorius) army through the territory of the Vascones, he installed his camp on a border area of the Berones,..."). Text according to P. Jal, ''Tite-Live. Histoire Romaine XXXIII. Livre XLV et Fragments''. Paris, 1990 (1979), page 214-218</ref> Comparing other sections of this same document, it is deduced that this border was located to the west, while the southern neighbors of the Vascones were the [[Celtiberians]], with their city, ''Contrebia Leucade''.{{sfn|Blázquez Martínez|1966|pp=180-181}}
[[Pliny the Elder]], in his work ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]'', mentioned a text prior to 50 BC that located the Vascones at the western end of the [[Pyrenees]], neighbors of the [[Varduli]] and extended to the mountains of ''[[Oiartzun|Oiarso]]'' and into the coasts of the [[Bay of Biscay]], in an area he called '''Vasconum saltus'''.<ref>''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]'', 4,110-111: ''Proxima ora citerioris est eiusdemque Tarraconensis situus a Pyrenaeo per oceanum Vasconum saltus, Oiarso, Vardulorum oppida, Morogi, Menosca, Vesperies, Amanum portus, ubi nunc Flauiobrica colonia 8. Ciuitatium VIIII regio Cantabrorum, flumen Sauga, portus Victoriae Iuliobricensium. ac eo loco fontes Hiberi XM passuum portus Blendium, Orgonomesci e Cantabri. portus eorum Vereasueca, regio Asturum, Noega oppidum, in poeninsula Paesici, et deinde conuentus Lucensis, a flumine Nauialbione Gibarci, Egiuarri cognomine Namarini, Iadoui, Arroni, Arrotrebae, pronunturium Celticum, amnes Florius Nelo. Celtici cognomine Neri et super Tamarici 9 quorum in paeninsula tres arae Sestianae [-182→183-] Augusto dicatae, Copori, oppidum Noeta...''</ref> The Greek geographer [[Strabo]], in the times of [[Augustus]] (63 BC – AD 14) refers to the Vascones (in [[Ancient Greek]]: ''Ούασκώνων'') placing their main city, or ''polis'', in ''[[Pamplona|Pompaelo]]''<ref>Str. III, 4, 10:''...Ύπέρκειται δε τής Ίακκητανιίας πρός άρκτον τό τών Ούασκώνων έθνος, έν ώ πόλις Πομπέλων, ώς άν Πομπηιόπολις.'' (...after, above the Lacetani, on north direction, is located the nation of the Vascones, who have for main city Pompelon, the "city of Pómpeios".). Text according to F. Lasserre, ''Strabon, Géographie II. Livres III et IV. Les Belles Lettres''. Paris 1966.</ref> and as well ''Callagurris''.
{{blockquote|Both cities, Kalágouris, one of the main cities of the '''ouáskones''',... This same region is crossed by the road that comes from Terrakon and goes to the '''ouáskones''', in the border of the Ocean, to Pompélon and Oiáson, city built above the very same Ocean.|Strabo}}
[[File:Ptolemy 16century.jpg|thumb|120px|[[Ptolemy]], who listed the main cities of the Vascones.]]
This information is found again in the works of [[Ptolemy]], who lived during the 1st and 2nd Century AD. In his book, ''Geōgraphikḕ Hyphḗgēsis'', chapter 6, he relates the names of 15 cities inside the territory of the Vascones, besides [[Oiartzun|Oiarso]]:{{sfn|Schulten|1927|pp=230-232}}{{sfn|Canto|1997}} ''Iturissa'', ''[[Pamplona|Pompaelo]]'', ''Bituris'', ''Andelos'', ''Nemanturissa'', ''[[Los Arcos|Curnonium]]'', ''[[Jaca|Iacca]]'', ''[[Alfaro, La Rioja|Graccurris]]'', ''[[Calahorra|Calagurris]]'', ''[[Cascante|Cascantum]]'', ''Ercavica'', ''Tarraga'', ''Muscaria'', ''[[Ejea de los Caballeros|Seguia]]'' and ''[[Alagón, Zaragoza|Alavona]]''.
The territory of the Vascones during the Roman republic and Roman empire corresponded with present-day [[Navarre]], the northeast extreme of [[Gipuzkoa]], and parts of [[La Rioja (Spain)|La Rioja]], [[province of Zaragoza|Zaragoza]] and [[province of Huesca|Huesca]],{{sfn|Blázquez Martínez|1966|p=191}} including the city of ''Calagurris''.<ref>(Gómez Fraile 2001:58)</ref>
=== 3rd and 4th centuries === ==== Late Basquisation ====
{{main|Late Basquisation}} During this period, after the time of Ptolemy and contemporary to the times of instability caused by the [[Migration Period|Germanic invasions]], the documents about the Vascones and other tribes of the northern [[Iberian Peninsula]] are scarce, and as a result there is little information about the Vascones during this time. [[File:Iberia 560.svg|thumb|250px|left|The [[Visigothic Kingdom]] circa 560. The Vascones and [[Varduli]] in the north.]] The chronicler [[John of Biclaro]] (c. 540 – after 621) mentions the Vascones in a story about the foundation of the city of ''[[Vitoria-Gasteiz|Victoriacum]]'' by the [[Visigoths|Visigoth]] king [[Liuvigild]]<ref>John of Biclaro (Chron. Min. II, 216):''Leovigildus rex partem Vasconiae occupat et civitatem quae Victoriacum...'' {{harvnb|Schulten|1927|p=234}}</ref> and [[Gregory of Tours]] (538–594) mentions the incursions of ''Wascones'' in [[Aquitaine]] during the year 587.<ref>Grégoire de Tours, ''Histoire des Francs'': ''Les Gascons descendirent de leurs montagnes dans la plaine, dévastèrent les villes, les champs... le duc Austrovald marcha souvent contre eux, mais ne parvint guères à en tirer vengeance'', editor J.-L.-L. Brière, Paris 1823. Volume II, Book IX, ''De l'année 587 à l'année 589. Gontran, Childebert II et Clotaire II, Rois'' page 8. Available on November 16h, 2006 in [http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/CadresFenetre?O=NUMM-94598&M=tdm bnf.fr] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070328001020/http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/CadresFenetre?O=NUMM-94598&M=tdm |date=2007-03-28 }}</ref> From these extracts and being the neighboring tribes absent in the historiography, [[Adolf Schulten]] (1870–1960) proposed the theory according to which, at some point between the mid-2nd century and late 4th century, an enlargement of the territory of the Vascones took place, first in the west, occupying the lands of the [[Caristii]], [[Varduli]] and [[Autrigones]],{{sfn|Schulten|1927|p=234}} and later in the north in [[Aquitaine]].{{sfn|Schulten|1927|p=235}} Schulten considers this to be the reason for the adoption of the name ''[[Gascony]]'', which derives from ''Gascon'', which comes from ''Vascon'', and used to denominate a region that includes the present-day [[Northern Basque Country]].
[[Claudio Sánchez-Albornoz y Menduiña|Claudio Sánchez Albornoz]], [[Spaniards|Spanish]] historian (1893–1984), on his work ''"Los vascones vasconizan la depresión vasca"'' (''The Vascones "basquize" the Basque depression'') published in 1972 expanded upon this hypothesis, relying on linguistic analysis: when invading the territories of what today is [[Biscay]], [[Gipuzkoa]] and [[Álava]] displaced to [[Castile (historical region)|Castile]] part of the [[Caristii]], [[Varduli]] and [[Autrigones]], who took refuge in the mountains; the ones who had not been displaced were ''"[[Late Basquisation|Basquized]]"'',<ref>España un enigma histórico. Barcelona 1973. 451-452</ref> while perhaps the Caristii, Varduli and Autrigones already spoke [[Aquitanian language|languages similar or related]] to the [[Basque language]].
However, research during recent decades has called into question the possibility of an expansion northwards (J. J. Larrea). The inroad of the Vascones onto the plains of Aquitaine in 587 seems to be short-lived—they make their way back to the mountains—and archaeological findings in Eauze or Auch do not reveal instability or destruction during the alleged expanding period up to the mid-7th century. Another theory suggests a contemporary identification made by the Goths and the Franks of the Vascones (the most dynamic tribe) with all Basque-speaking, Basque-related, or non-Romanized tribes.
==== 7th century ====
Starting in the 7th century, historians differentiate between ''Spagnovasconia'', located southwestern of the [[Pyrenees]], inside the [[Iberian Peninsula]] and ''Guasconia'', northwestern of the Pyrenees, in [[Aquitaine]]. Schulten interprets that by this time the Vascones had already retreated from their territories in [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] times and started occupying lands in the north which in the future would make the [[Basque Country (autonomous community)|Southern Basque Country]] and northern [[Navarre]].{{sfn|Schulten|1927|p=240}} Schulten also quotes the chronicle from [[Einhard]], ''Vita Karoli Magni'', dated in 810, where for the first time is used the term ''navarrese'' to define the people living in the former territories of the Vascones near the [[Ebro]].{{sfn|Schulten|1927|p=238}}
== History ==
===Roman period=== {{Further|History of the Basque people|Gallia Aquitania|Novempopulania}} Unlike the [[Aquitani]]ans or [[Cantabri]]ans, the Vascones seemed to have negotiated their status in the [[Roman Empire]].{{Sfn|Collins|1990|pp=53–56}} In the [[Sertorian War]], [[Pompey]] established his headquarters in their territory, founding [[Pamplona|Pompaelo]]. Romanization was rather intense in the area known as ''Ager Vasconum'' (the Ebro valley) but limited in the mountainous ''Saltus'', where evidence of Roman civilization appears only in mining places, harbours, roads, and milestones, e.g. [[Oiasso]]. The territory was also important for Romans as a communication knot between northern [[Hispania]] and southwestern [[Gaul|Gallia]], who took good care to station detachments in different spots of the main communication lines.{{Sfnp|Collins|1990|p=51}}
The Vasconian area presents indications of upheaval (burnt villas, an abundance of mints to pay the garrisons) during the 4th and 5th centuries that have been linked by many historians to the [[Bagaudae]] rebellions against [[Feudalism|feudalization]], but also to the depredations of migrating Germanic and Asian tribes—Vandals, Alans, Sueves, Visigoths, possibly Heruls—into Hispania.{{Sfnp|Collins|1990|pp=75-76}}
===Late Antiquity and Early Middle Ages=== {{Further|Duchy of Gascony|Kingdom of Navarre}} In AD 407 Vascon troops fought on the orders of Roman commanders [[Didimus]] and [[Verinianus]], repelling an attack by [[Vandals]], [[Alans]] and [[Suebi]]. In 409, the passage of the [[Germanic peoples]] and [[Sarmatians]] toward Hispania went unhindered. The Roman reaction to this invasion and unrest related to the [[Bagaudae]] was to give [[Gallia Aquitania]] and [[Hispania Tarraconensis]] to the [[Visigoths]] in return for their services as allies by treaty (''foederati''). The Visigoths soon managed to expel the Vandals to Africa.
After chronicler Hydatius´s death in 469, no contemporary source exists reporting on the social and political situation in ''the Vasconias'', as put by himself. At the beginning of the fourth century, Calagurris is still cited as a Vascon town. During the fifth and sixth centuries, the gap between town and the rural milieu widened, with the former falling much in decay. Between 581-7, chronicles start to mention the Vascones again, this time hailing from the wilderness, as opposed to the towns, which remained attached to Roman culture or were under Germanic influence.<ref>{{cite book | author = Caro Baroja, Julio | year = 1985 | title = ''Los vascones y sus vecinos'' | publisher = Editorial Txertoa | location = San Sebastian | isbn = 84-7148-136-7 | page = 89}}</ref> By the seventh to eighth centuries, Vascones were not confined to their ancient boundaries, but covered a much larger territory, from Álava in the west to the [[Loire]] in the north. The island of [[Oléron]], along with the [[Île de Ré]], formed the ''Vacetae Insulae'' "Vacetian Islands" according to the ''[[Aethicus Ister|Cosmographia]]'',{{Sfnp|Collins|1992|p=214}} where '''Vaceti''' are Vascones by another name. The concept underlying the medieval name points to a much wider reality than Strabo's former tribal definition, this time encompassing all [[Basque language|Basque-speaking]] tribes.
The independent Vascones stabilised their first polity under the Merovingian Franks: the [[Duchy of Gascony|Duchy of Vasconia]], whose borders to the south remained unclear. This duchy would eventually become [[Gascony]]. During the reincorporation of Vasconia into [[Francia]] after 769, [[Charlemagne]] destroyed the walls of [[Pamplona]] after a failed attempt to conquer Zaragoza, the Vascones annihilated his rearguard in the [[Battle of Roncevaux Pass]] in 778—referred as "''wasconicam perfidiam''" by Frankish chroniclers. Pamplona was later captured by the Cordovan emir [['Abd al-Rahman I]] (781), but taken over by the Franks in 806, who assigned its government to a pro-Frankish local Belasko ("al-Galashki"), probably a Basque hailing from present-day Gascony.{{Sfnp|Collins|1990|p=124-126}} Some decades later, in 824, [[Battle of Roncevaux Pass (824)|a second battle of Roncevaux]] took place that led to the establishment of the [[Kingdom of Navarre|Kingdom of Pamplona]], founded with Eneko Arista as head of the new polity, presented by Arab sources as leader of the Vascones (''al-Baskunisi'').<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.euskomedia.org/aunamendi/52052 |title= Iñigo Iñiguez Arista |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |website= Auñamendi Entziklopedia |publisher= EuskoMedia Fundazioa |access-date=15 August 2013}}</ref> However, the 824 Carolingian expedition itself included two different columns made up of Frankish and Vascones (Gascons).{{Sfnp|Collins|1990|p=139}}
After the 9th century, the Vascones (''Wascones'', ''Guascones'') come to be more closely identified in the records with the current territory of Gascony, at the time still a Basque-speaking territory but progressively being replaced by the new rising Romance language, [[Gascon language|Gascon]].{{Sfnp|Collins|1990|p=179}}
== Culture ==
=== Language and writing ===
Several authors point out<ref>(Gil Zubillaga 2006),(Fatás Cabeza 1972), (Knörr 2004), (Gorrochategui 1999), J. Caro Baroja sourced in {{harvnb|Blázquez Martínez|1966|pp=190–191}}</ref>{{Full citation needed|date=July 2019}} that prior to the Roman arrival and alike other peoples that inhabited the near region, the Vascones spoke a language that linguists<ref>[[Koldo Mitxelena]], [[Koldo Zuazo]]</ref>{{citation needed|date=July 2019}} identify as the precursor of the modern [[Basque language]], sometimes referred to as [[Proto-Basque language]] or [[Aquitanian language]].
However, as pointed out by Henrike Knörr (1947-2008) [[Origin of the Basques|the origin and kinship of the Basque language]] is still a mystery<ref>(Knörr 2004)</ref>{{Full citation needed|date=July 2019}} and an object of research. There are several theories about its origin; the Basque linguistic [[Koldo Mitxelena]] argues that an "in-situ" origin is the most likely,<ref>''Nueva Síntesis de la Historia del País Vasco: Desde la Prehistoria hasta el gobierno de Garaikoetxea'', Ed. TTartalo, San Sebastián, 2004. {{ISBN|84-8091-902-7}}.</ref> and thus explains the current dialectal classification<ref>[http://www.hiru.com/euskara/euskara_00650.html Koldo Zuazo and the Basque dialects] on Hiru.com</ref> while other theories advocate for a proposed kinship between the Basque language and other language families, like the [[languages of the Caucasus]] or a relation between Basque and the extinct [[Iberian language]]. So far, possible connections between Basque and other languages have remained unproven.<ref>''Towards a History of the Basque Language''. p. 190. José Ignacio Hualde, Joseba Andoni Lakarra, Robert Lawrence Trask, Koldo Mitxelena, etc. John Benjamins publishing company. Amsterdam/Philadelphia. 1997</ref>
Another problem that arises in the study of the language of the Vascones is the lack of direct classic records regarding the language spoken by this people,<ref name="Gorrocha">Joaquín Gorrochategui, ''La romanización del País Vasco: Aspectos lingüísticos.'', Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea - Filología. Artículo en Guipuzkoakultura.net [http://www.gipuzkoakultura.net/ediciones/antiqua/gorroch.htm Ed. digital] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081202132306/http://www.gipuzkoakultura.net/ediciones/antiqua/gorroch.htm |date=2008-12-02 }}</ref> with the exception of a vague description by [[Strabo]] and [[Pomponius Mela]], or the description made by [[Julius Caesar]] on the language of the Aquitanians in his work ''[[Commentarii de Bello Gallico]]''.
The study of epigraphic documents has been of greater interest, as some of them date the introduction of writing among the Vascones in the 2nd century.<ref>(Gil Zubillaga 2006)</ref> Among them, the oldest are the numismatic evidence coming from both Vasconic [[Mint (coin)|mints]] and others located nearby. A great importance is given to a funerary stele found in the Hermitage of Santa Bárbara in [[Lerga]],<ref>The inscription in the funerary stele of Lerga has been studied since the 19th Century by Achille Luchaire, Koldo Mitxelena and Joaquín Gorrochategui as a part of different researches about the Aquitanian language, as it includes the Aquitanian anthroponym of ''Vmmesahar'' (from ''ume'', young child, and ''zahar'', old); "umme sahar" =ume zahar = oldest son: ''Um.me, Sa.har(i) fi(lius), / Nar.hun.ge.si Abi- / sun.ha.ri fi.lio, / ann(orum) XXV. T(itulum) p(osuit) s(umptu) s(uo).''.</ref> which was considered to be the oldest known written testimony of the [[Proto-Basque language]]<ref>Koldo Mitxelena,''Los nombres indígenas de la inscripción hispanoromana de Lerga (Navarra)'', ''Príncipe de Viana'' magazine, XXII, 82-83, pp 65-74, (1961)</ref> until the discovery of an inscription from the 1st century BC was announced in 2022.<ref>[https://www.aranzadi.eus/la-mano-de-irulegi La mano de Irulegi]</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Hand of Irulegi: ancient bronze artefact could help trace origins of Basque language |date=2022-11-15 |website=[[The Guardian]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230621012229/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/nov/15/hand-of-irulegi-ancient-spanish-artefact-rewrites-history-of-basque-language |archive-date=2023-06-21 |url-status=live |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/nov/15/hand-of-irulegi-ancient-spanish-artefact-rewrites-history-of-basque-language}}</ref> It is also believed that the Iberian language has left some traces on the Basque language, as with the Iberian term ''ili'', adopted in Basque as ''hiri'' with the meaning of town or city, and present in the Vasconic name for the city of ''Pompaelo'': "Iruña", as well as in other names of cities and towns.<ref>Irun (Gipuzkoa), Iruña (Alava)</ref>
=== Religion ===
The epigraphic and archaeological testimonies have allowed experts to determine some of the religious practices that were present among the Vascones since the Roman arrival and the introduction of writing. According to research done on this topic,<ref>Juan José Sayas Abengoechea, ''Algunas consideraciones sobre la cristianización de los Vascones'', ''Príncipe de Viana'' magazine, XLVI, 174, pp 35-56, 1985</ref> religious [[syncretism]] lasted until the 1st Century; from that moment onwards and until the adoption of [[Christianity]] between the 4th and 5th centuries, [[Roman mythology]] was predominant.<ref name="Jimeno">Roldán Jimeno, ''Orígenes del Cristianismo en la tierra de los vascones'', Ed. Pamiela, Pamplona, 2003.{{ISBN|84-7681-380-5}}</ref>
Vasconic theonyms have been found on tombstones and altars, which further proves the syncretism between the pre-Christian Roman systems of beliefs and the Vasconic religions.<ref>[http://klasikoak.armiarma.com/testuak/testuakEpigrafikoak033.htm Epigraphic catalog] (in Basque)</ref> Two altars have been found in [[Ujué]], one dedicated to ''Lacubegi'',<ref>''Lacubegis'': ''Coelii Te- / sphoros / et Festa / et Telesi- / nus, '''Lacu- / begi'''. Ex voto.'' - Tesphoros, Festa and Tesesinus Coeli-</ref> identified as the ''God of the lower world''<ref>[https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=26239 "Peremustae" teonimoaren inguruan]</ref> and another one dedicated to [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]], although it has not been possible to date them. In Lerate and [[Barbarin, Navarre|Barbarin]] two tombstones have been found, both dedicated to ''Stelaitse'' and dated in the 1st century.<ref>The altars read: ''Semprini- / us Betunus, '''Se- / latse.''' V(otum) s(olvit) l(ibens) m(erito)''</ref>
==See also== *[[Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula]]
==Notes== {{reflist}}
==References== {{refbegin|30em}} * {{Cite book|last=Blázquez Martínez|first=José María|chapter=Los vascos y sus vecinos en las fuentes literarias griegas y romanas de la Antigüedad|editor-first=Juan|editor-last=Maluquer de Motes|title=Problemas de la Prehistoria y de la Etnografía Vascas. IV Sympo- sium de Prehistoria Peninsular|location=Pamplona|year=1966|pages=177–205|url=https://www.cervantesvirtual.com/obra/los-vascos-y-sus-vecinos-en-las-fuentes-literarias-griegas-y-romanas-de-la-antigedad-0/}} * {{Cite journal|last=Canto|first=Alicia M.|title=La tierra del toro. Ensayo de identificación de ciudades vasconas|journal=Archivo español de arqueología|volume=70|year=1997|issue=175–176 |pages=31–70|doi=10.3989/aespa.1997.v70.256 |doi-access=free}} *Collins, Roger. "The ''Vaccaei'', the ''Vaceti'', and the rise of ''Vasconia''." ''Studia Historica VI''. Salamanca, 1988. Reprinted in Roger Collins, ''Law, Culture and Regionalism in Early Medieval Spain''. Variorum, 1992. {{ISBN|0-86078-308-1}}. *{{cite book | author = Collins, Roger| year = 1990 | title = The Basques | publisher = Basil Blackwell | edition=2nd|location=Oxford, UK | isbn = 0-631-17565-2}} * {{Cite journal|author-link=Adolf Schulten|last=Schulten|first=Adolf|title=Las referencias sobre los vascones hasta el año 810 después de J.C.|journal=Revista Internacional de los Estudios Vascos|volume=18|year=1927|pages=225–240}} {{refend}}
== Further reading == * Ángel Montenegro ''et alii'', ''Historia de España 2 - colonizaciones y formación de los pueblos prerromanos (1200-218 a.C)'', Editorial Gredos, Madrid (1989) {{ISBN|84-249-1386-8}} * Klär, Timo (2017). ''Die Vasconen und das Römische Reich. Der Romanisierungsprozess im Norden der Iberischen Halbinsel'' [The Vascones and the Roman Empire. The Romanisation process in the north of the Iberian Peninsula]. Potsdamer Altertumswissenschaftliche Beiträge, vol. 59. Stuttgart: Steiner, {{ISBN|978-3-515-11739-5}}. * Sorauren, Mikel. ''Historia de Navarra, el Estado Vasco''. Pamiela Ed., 1998. {{ISBN|84-7681-299-X}}.
==External links== *[http://www.euskomedia.org/aunamendi/130014?op=4&primR=261®s=10&idi=en&EIKVOGEN=vascones&pos=270 Vascones] in the Auñamendi Encyclopedia, by Bernardo Estornés Lasa.
{{Pre-Roman peoples in Iberia}}
[[Category:Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula]] [[Category:Ancient history of the Basques]] [[Category:Vascones| ]]